1 COUNTABILITY OF ENGLISH NOUNS



ABSTRACT

BARIČIAKOVÁ, Petronela: English Noncount Nouns and Their Slovak Equivalents. The University of Žilina, Faculty of Science, Department of English Language and Literature. Counsellor: PhDr. Zuzana Ondráčková. Žilina, FPV ŽU, 2009. 35 pages.

The main issues the work deals with are countability and uncountable nouns in the English and Slovak languages. The work is a comparative analysis of these two morphological systems in terms of countability and the category of number, which is closely connected with this problem. The work analyses the notions of countability and uncountable nouns, points out differences in the number systems of the Slovak and English languages, analyses the situations in which countability can be changed and the grammatical phenomenon which are influenced by countability. It focuses on nouns with dual membership (which can be countable or uncountable), countable/uncountable pairs, reclassification, partitive constructions and aspects like articles, determinatives and number of nouns in relation to countability of nouns. The Slovak translation is present where possible and relevant with respect to the peculiarities of the Slovak language. Moreover, it explains why some Slovak countable nouns are uncountable in English and vice versa with respect to the category of number and alerts to typical difficulties for students which should be avoided by elimination of the interference of the native language into English. In this work, we want to clarify countability and the use of uncountable nouns for the needs of the Slovak students of the English language. It helps students to understand the basic tendencies or rules for the use of uncountable nouns according to the situational context.

Key words: countability, count noun, noncount noun, partitive construction, category of number, singular, plural

ABSTRAKT

BARIČIAKOVÁ, Petronela: Nepočítateľné podstatné mená a ich slovenské ekvivalenty. Žilinská univerzita, Fakulta prírodných vied, Katedra anglického jazyka a literatúry. Konzultantka: PhDr. Zuzana Ondráčková. Žilina, FPV ŽU, 2009. 35 strán.

Hlavnou problematikou tejto práce je počítateľnosť a nepočítateľné podstatné mená v slovenskom a anglickom jazyku. Práca je komparatívnou analýzou týchto dvoch morfologických systémov, v zmysle počítateľnosti a kategórie čísla, ktorá s touto problematikou úzko súvisí. Analyzuje pojmy počítateľnosť a nepočítateľné podstatné mená, poukazuje na rozdiely v kategórií čísla medzi slovenčinou a angličtinou, analyzuje situácie v ktorých sa počítateľnosť podstatných mien môže meniť a gramatické javy, ktoré počítateľnosť ovplyvňuje. Zaoberá sa podstatnými menami s duálnou príslušnosťou (ktoré môžu byť počítateľné alebo nepočítateľné), nepočítateľnými podstatnými menami s počítateľným ekvivalentom, reklasifikáciou, partitívnymi konštrukciami a aspektmi ako sú členy, determinátory a číslo podstatných mien vo vzťahu k počítateľnosti podstatných mien. Tam, kde je to možné, uvádzame slovenský preklad, s ohľadom na zvláštnosti slovenského jazyka. Práca, vzhľadom na kategóriu čísla, tiež vysvetľuje, prečo niektoré slovenské počítateľné podstatné mená sú v angličtine nepočítateľné a naopak, upozorňuje na typické problémy študentov, ktorým by sa mali vyhnúť elimináciou zasahovania ich rodného jazyka do angličtiny. Touto prácou sa snažíme objasniť problematiku počítateľnosti a nepočítateľných podstatných mien pre potreby slovenských študentov angličtiny. Môže byť študentom nápomocná pre pochopenie základných tendencií či pravidiel použitia nepočítateľných podstatných mien v rôznych situačných kontextoch.

Kľúčové slová: počítateľnosť, počítateľné podstatné meno, nepočítateľné podstatné meno, partitívna konštrukcia, kategória čísla, číslo, singulár, plurál

TABLE OF CONTENTS

0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................6

1. COUNTABILITY OF ENGLISH NOUNS...............................................................7

1.1 Characteristics of nouns ...........................................................................................7

1.2 Noun classes.............................................................................................................7

1.3 Countability..............................................................................................................8

2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NONCOUNT NOUNS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE...............................................................................................10

2.1 Nouns with dual membership...............................................................................11

2.2 Countable/uncountable pairs................................................................................13

2.3 Reclassification.....................................................................................................14

2.4 Uncountable compound nouns.............................................................................15

2.5 Reference and the articles in respect of noncount nouns.....................................15

2.5.1 Specific reference.........................................................................................16

2.5.2 Generic reference..........................................................................................16

2.6 Noncount nouns and determinatives.....................................................................17

3. PARTITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS...........................................................................18

3.1 Quality partition....................................................................................................19

3.2 Quantity partition of noncount nouns...................................................................20

3.2.1 General partitives..........................................................................................20

3.2.2 Typical partitives..........................................................................................21

3.2.3 Measure partitive nouns................................................................................22

3.2.4 Unit nouns and quantifying nouns................................................................23

4. NUMBER...................................................................................................................25

5. THE CATEGORY OF NUMBER IN THE SLOVAK LANGUAGE..................30

5.1 Singular number only – uncountable nouns in Slovak.........................................30

5.1.1 Collective nouns...........................................................................................30

5.1.2 Material nouns and abstract nouns...............................................................32

5.2 Plural number.......................................................................................................33

6. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COUNTABILITY IN THE ENGLISH AND SLOVAK LANGUAGES..............................................................................................37

7. COUNCLUSIONS.....................................................................................................40

RESOURCES.................................................................................................................41

APPENDIX.....................................................................................................................44

INTRODUCTION

We have decided to analyse the issue of English uncountable nouns and their Slovak equivalents as it causes problems to Slovak students. If it was enough to use the basic characteristic of uncountable nouns (as nouns denoting liquids, materials, substances, abstract qualities and states) to distinguish them, there would be no space for discussion. However, there are so many factors which influence countability of nouns that it is necessary to study this topic from all possible aspects. There are many differences between Slovak and English in respect to countability and to the category of number which is closely connected to it.

Countability is analysed much more for the needs of the English language than for the needs of Slovak. ‘Morphology of the Slovak language’ (1966) and ‘The Contemporary Slovak language. Morphology’ (1988) are two Slovak sources on which this paper is based on, because all latter publications just quote them. On the other hand, English authors have modified their views on countability over years (especially Quirk et al.) and there are many publications from the last ten years.

The basic aim of this paper is to analyse the notion of countability and uncountable nouns from the point of view of the English and Slovak languages and to point out the differences and similarities in the number systems of these languages. We deal with the influence of countability on another grammatical phenomenon in English such as the use of articles, quantifier and number of nouns. The situations in which countability can be changed in both languages (reclassification and partitive constructions) are also discussed here. The issue of nouns which can be countable and uncountable in different situation (nouns with dual membership) and countable nouns which can be expressed also by their uncountable equivalent is another part of this paper. The most controversial question we consider to be the countability of plural-only nouns. We also try to analyse why countability is so confusing for the Slovak students, and through the comparison of the Slovak and English morphological systems we want to make the issue of countability more comprehensible for them. An appendix of this paper is concentrated on the practical use of this study in the form of exercises for practising the use of countable and uncountable nouns in various contexts.

1. COUNTABILITY OF ENGLISH NOUNS

1.1 Characteristics of nouns

There are several characteristics of nouns (Biber et al., 2000):

Morphological characteristic – nouns are inflected for number (one book, two books) and case (Sarah's book). However, uncountable nouns do not inflect for number (e.g. steel, information). Nouns often have a complex morphological structure (compound and derived nouns).

Syntactic characteristics – nouns can occur as the head of noun phrases. Nouns phrases have a wide range of syntactic roles: subject, direct object, indirect object, etc.

Semantic characteristics – nouns commonly refer to concrete entities, such as people and things in the external world (e.g. book, girl), but they may also denote qualities and states (e.g. freedom, friendship).

Parrot (2003: 7) used the popular definition of noun: “it describes person, place or thing” but he adds that nouns are used to “express a range of additional meanings such as concepts, qualities, organisations, communities, sensations and events, and they convey a substantial proportion of the information in most texts”.

1.2 Noun classes

Nouns can be grouped into subclasses which differ in meaning and grammatical behaviour. Two main groups are proper nouns and common nouns.

Proper nouns are used for a particular person, place, thing or idea which is, or is imagined to be unique. They do not have the full range of determiners, they lack article contrast – contrast in definiteness, and they also lack contrast in number: (e.g. Sue, but not normally Sues, a Sue, the Sue) (Biber et al., 2000).

Common nouns can be countable or uncountable. Countable nouns refer to entities which can be counted, they have both singular and plural forms. Both in the singular and the plural there is a contrast between definite and indefinite forms (a cow v. the cow, cows v. the cows). They denote individual countable entities (separable objects).

The most obvious grammatical feature of countable nouns is the variation in number. Countability is also reflected in co-occurrence patterns with determiners (Biber et al., 2000). Uncountable nouns refer to entities which can not be counted and denote undifferentiated mass. They are characterised in detail in the next chapter.

There is also a semantic division of nouns into concrete and abstract. Concrete nouns are accessible to the senses, observable and measurable. Abstract nouns are typically nonobservable and nonmeasurable. Both count and noncount nouns can be either concrete or abstract (Quirk et al., 1985). There occurs a certain tendency for concrete nouns to be count and for abstract nouns to be noncount (Quirk et al., 1984).

In Collins (2004) six main types of nouns are differentiated: count nouns, uncount nouns, singular and plural nouns, collective nouns, proper nouns.

1.3 Countability

„The distinction between countable and uncountable nouns is fundamental in English, for only by distinguishing between the two can we understand when to use singular or plural forms and when to use the indefinite, definite and zero articles, or the appropriate quantifier” (Alexander, 2005: 38).

Grammatical countability is motivated by the semantic distinction between object and substance reference (also known as bounded/non-bounded or individuated/non-individuated). It is a subject of dispute among linguists as to how far grammatical countability is semantically motivated and how much it is arbitrary (Baldin, Bond; 2003 according to Wierzbicka, 1988).

“The study of countability is complicated by the fact that most nouns can have their countability changed: either converted by a lexical rule or embedded in another noun phrase” (Baldwin, Bond; 2003: 2). An example of conversion is a rule which takes an uncountable noun with an interpretation as a substance, and returns a countable noun interpreted as a portion of the substance: I would like two beers. The term reclassification is used in the meaning of conversion by Quirk et al. (1985). As an example of embedding is e.g. uncountable nouns can be embedded in countable nouns as complements of classifiers: one piece of equipment (Baldwin, Bond; 2003). Partitive constructions deal more closely with this issue.

We cannot always rely on common sense to tell us whether a noun is countable or uncountable. Many uncountable nouns can be used as countables in certain context. Strict classifications of nouns as countable or uncountable are unreliable (Alexander, 2005).

Bond et al. (1994) suggested a division of countability into five major types. Fully countable, uncountable and plural only are nouns which rarely undergo conversion. Fully countable nouns have both singular and plural forms, and cannot be used with determiners such as much, little, a little, less and overmuch. Uncountable nouns, such as furniture, have no plural form, and can be used with much. Plural only nouns never have a singular noun phrase: goods, scissors.

Strongly countable and weakly countable are nouns that are readily converted. Countable nouns that can be converted to uncountable, such as cake are strongly countable. Uncountable nouns that are readily convertible to countable, such as beer are weakly countable.

Different languages encode the countability of the same referent in different ways, so whereas noun information is uncountable in English it is countable in Slovak (sg. informácia, pl. informácie). Nouns uncount in English but countable in other languages: advice, baggage, furniture, hair, homework, information, knowledge, luggage, machinery, money, news, progress, research, spaghetti, traffic (Collins, 2004); applause, anger, chaos, chess, conduct, courage, dancing, education, harm, hospitality, leisure, melancholy, moonlight, parking, photography, poetry, publicity, resistance, safety, shopping, smoking, violence, weather, etc. (Quirk et al., 1984). Even within the same language, the same referent can be encoded countably or uncountably: things /stuff, jobs /work.

“The distinction between count nouns and noncount nouns is not fully explainable as necessarily inherent in ‘real world’ denotata. This is clear when we compare the words of languages closely related to English. Rather, the justification for the count/noncount distinction is based on the grammatical characteristics of the English noun” (Quirk et al., 1985: 248). In other words, although the distinction between countable and uncountable is based on the reality of what the nouns describe, the distinction is grammatical one rather than a real one (Parrot, 2003).

2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NONCOUNT NOUNS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Uncountable nouns denote undifferentiated mass or continuum (Quirk et al., 1985), (liquids, materials, substances and abstract qualities, states). They refer to entities which cannot be counted and do not vary for number. “Though they do not combine with the indefinite article, they allow a contrast between an indefinite and a definite form (milk/ the milk)” (Biber et al., 2000: 241). Grammatically, uncountable nouns are marked by the lack of number variation (music is/*are) and they do not combine with determiners that presuppose a notion of countability. The most typical uncountable nouns are singular, but we also find plural uncountables – morphologically plural nouns which do not vary for number and do not combine with numerals (clothes, trousers, scissors, thanks) (Biber et al., 2000).

“As the term ‘mass’ implies, the notion of countability (of ‘one’ as opposed to ‘more than one’) does not apply to noncount nouns. Count nouns, which can be counted, show the speaker as able to distinguish these items as separable entities. Noncount nouns, on the other hand, are seen as continuous entities and show the speaker as regarding these substances or concepts as having no natural bounds. They are subject to division only by means of certain ‘gradability expressions’” (Quirk et al., 1984: 130).

Count nouns are by some grammarians called ‘countable’ nouns; similarly, noncount nouns correspond to ‘mass’ nouns or ‘uncountable’ nouns. The only exception occurs in Collins (2004) who distinguishes between uncount nouns and mass nouns. There is the term ‘mass’ nouns used for nouns which are reclassificated from uncount to count nouns (e.g. three coffees, low-alcohol beers). They are also referring to different types of a substance in technical context. For example steel is nearly always an uncount noun, but in contexts where it is important to distinguish between different kinds of steel it can be a mass noun.

imports of European steel

the use of small amounts of nitrogen in making certain steels.

“Apart from a tendency for concrete nouns to be count and abstract nouns to be noncount, there is no obvious logical reason for the assignment of various English nouns to the count or noncount noun class" (Quirk et al., 1984: 130).

NOTE: *wrong grammatical form

2.1 Nouns with dual membership

The language makes it possible to look upon some objects from the point of view of both count and noncount, as in the case of cake (Quirk et al., 1984):

I’d like a cake, two cakes, several cakes…

I’d like some cake, another piece of cake…

There are many such nouns and they have often considerable difference in meaning in the two classes.

Sometimes is the same noun use as countable for single items or objects – when we refer to e.g. a thing which is made of the material or which we think of as being made of the material, and as uncountable for something viewed as substance or material (Alexander, 2005).

• chicken

Countable: The rattling carriage was full of rucksacks and hikers, and Greek ladies

with chickens.

Chicken as a countable noun is a large bird that is kept for its eggs or meat.

Uncountable: Would you like some chicken for a dinner?

Some chicken is used in the meaning of a piece of meat from a chicken.

Also in Slovak chicken/ kurča (sliepka) can be used as both countable and uncountable:

Moja stará mama kúpila 10 sliepok (kurčiat). (C)

Včera som mal na obed kurča s ryžou. (U)

• egg

Countable: I had a boiled egg for breakfast.

Mal som na raňajky jedno varené vajce.

We know exactly how many eggs did she/he have – one boiled egg.

Uncountable: There is egg on your face.

Máš na tvári vajce.

Egg in this sentence represents a substance.

• glass

Countable: I broke a glass this morning.

A glass here is used in the meaning of a container made of glass used for drinking out of or a mirror.

Uncountable: Glass is made from sand.

Glass in this context means a transparent substance/material.

In Slovak, glass is expressed by two different lexical items pohár (C) and sklo (U).

• iron

Countable: I've got a new iron.

Iron here means a tool with a flat metal base that can be heated and used to make clothes smooth.

Uncountable: Steel is an alloy of iron.

Iron is also a type of metal, a chemical element.

Again, in Slovak, iron is expressed by two lexical items žehlička (C) and železo (U).

When nouns like e.g. an education/education, a light/light, a noise/noise refer to something specific, they are countables (Alexander, 2005):

He has had a good education. I need a light by my bed.

When the reference is general they are uncountables (Alexander, 2005):

Standards of education are falling. Light travels faster than sound.

Nouns ending in ‘-ing’ refer to activities in a general way so they are usually uncountable, but a few can refer to a specific thing or event (Alexander, 2005), or to the result of an action, process or an individual instance of it. Sometimes their meaning is not closely related to that of the verb (beginning, being, building, drawing, feeling, finding, hearing, meaning, meeting, offering, painting, saying, setting, showing, sitting, suffering, turning, warning) (Collins, 2004).

Countable Uncountable

Are these drawings by Goya? I'm no good at drawing.

She gave a reading of her poems. Reading is taught early.

Abstract nouns, which tend to be basically uncountable, also have countable uses. The uncountable use refers to the general phenomenon, while the countable use refers to individual instances or types (Biber et al., 2000):

I don’t think her parents gave her much – very much freedom. (Uncountable)

These are tiny freedoms, and if a woman enjoys being part of a couple, they should count for nothing. (Countable)

Nouns which describe feelings are usually uncountable (e.g. fear, hope), but some can be countable, especially for feelings about something specific (Eastwood, 1994), e.g.: a fear of dogs, hopes for the future…

2.2 Countable/uncountable pairs

On the other hand, there are countable/uncountable (C/U) pairs realized by different lexical items in English:

a garment – clothing

C: This garment must be dry-cleaned only. (a piece of clothing)

U: It is obligatory for all employees to wear protective clothing.

a laugh – laughter

C: She gave a short derisive laugh.

U: Laughter is the best medicine.

a permit – permission

C: Getting a work permit in the UK is not always a simple proposition.

U: She took the car without permission.

a job – work

C: A woman of her ability will easily find a job.

U: It is difficult to find work in the present economic climate.

a machine – machinery

C: Machines have replaced human labour in many industries.

U: Machinery was often unprotected and accidents were frequent.

(Some of these pairs have also their Slovak equivalents.)

a weapon – arms

C: The police still have not found the murder weapon. /Polícia stále nenašla

vražednú zbraň.

U: Foreign governments supplied arms to the rebels. / Zahraničné štáty dodali

rebelom výzbroj.

a suitcase – luggage

C: My suitcase was full of books. / Môj kufor bol plný kníh.

U: We check in our luggage and went through to the departure lounge. /

Zaregistrovali sme našu batožinu a prešli sme k odletovej hale.

a poem – poetry

C: He recited the whole poem in one breath. /Zarecitoval celú báseň jedným

dychom.

U: Poetry always looses something in translation. /Poézia v preklade vždy niečo

stráca.

a pig – pork

C: Pigs were grunting and squealing in the yard. /Prasce na dvore krochkali

a kvíkali.

U: Muslims consider the eating of pork to be forbidden. / Moslimovia považujú

jedenie bravčového za zakázané.

a calf – veal

C: The calf lapped up the bucket of milk. / Teľa s pôžitkom vypilo vedro mlieka.

U: She likes escalopes of veal. / Má rada teľacie rezne.

a sheep – mutton

C: The sheep bunched together as soon as they saw the dog. / Ovce sa zbehli len čo

zbadali psa.

U: I have never eaten mutton. / Nikdy som nejedol baraninu.

(Nouns for animals are countable, nouns for meat are uncountable: a cow/beef, a deer/venison.)

In Slovak, usually collective nouns, which are considered to be uncountable have their countable pairs (they are semantically connected with plural of count nouns) (Dvonč et al., 1966): chlapstvo – chlapi, ľudstvo – ľudia, vtáctvo – vtáky, lístie – listy, divina – divé zvieratá.

2.3 Reclassification

Noncount nouns can change into count nouns in some cases. To name this phenomenon the term reclassification is used. It means that “nouns may be shifted from one class to another by means of conversion. Thus a noncount noun like cheese can be ‘reclassified’ as a count noun involving a semantic shift so as to denote quality partition ‘kind/type/form of’, e. g.” (Quirk et al., 1985: 248):

A: What cheeses have you got today?

B: Well, we have Cheddar, Gorgonzola, and Danish Blue.

Normally noncount noun can be reclassified this way as a count noun to mean an ‘appropriate unit of’ (a) or a ‘kind/sort/brand of’ (b) (Quirk et al., 1985):

a) Two teas and four coffees, please.

b) I like Brazilian coffees best.

Alexander (2005) did not use the term reclassification, but he dealt with normally uncountable nouns as countables in different situations, what basically corresponds to reclassification. Normally uncountable nouns can be used as countables if we refer to particular varieties. Nouns are often preceded by an adjective (a) in these cases, or there is some kind of specification (b).

a) This region produces an excellent wine. (a kind of wine which…)

b) Kalamata produces some of the best olive oil in the world; it is an oil of very high

quality. (a kind of oil which…)

Normally uncountable nouns used exceptionally as countables can also occur in plural (Alexander, 2005):

This region produces some awful wines as well as good ones.

I go out in all weathers.

We can use a/an to mean e.g. a glass of or numbers in front of words for drinks, or we can make them plural, for example when we are ordering in a restaurant (Alexander, 2005):

A (or One) beer, please. Two teas and four coffees, please.

2.4 Uncountable compound nouns

Some common uncountable compound nouns:

air conditioning, birth control, blood pressure, capital punishment, central heating, chewing gum, common sense, cotton wool, data processing, do-it-yourself, dry-cleaning, family planning, fancy dress, fast-food, first aid, food poisoning, further education, general knowledge, hay fever, heart failure, higher education, hire purchase, income tax, junk food, law and order, lost property, mail order, make-up, mineral water, nail varnish, natural history, old age, pocket money, remote control, science fiction, show business, show jumping, sign language, social security, social work, soda water, stainless steel, table tennis, talcum powder, toilet paper, turn-over, tracing paper, unemployment benefit, value added tax, washing powder, washing-up liquid, water-skiing, writing paper (Collins, 2004).

2.5 Reference and the articles in respect of noncount nouns

The reference is specific when we have in mind specific part of the class and generic when we are thinking of the class without special reference to specific part of it (Quirk et al., 1984).

2. 5. 1 Specific reference

With definite specific reference, the definite article is used for all noun classes – singular, plural count nouns and noncount nouns (Quirk et al., 1984):

Where is the pen I bought?

Where are the pens I bought?

Where is the ink I bought?

The is used to mark the phrase it introduces as definite i. e. as referring to something which can be identified uniquely in the contextual or general knowledge shared by speaker and hearer.

With indefinite specific reference, noncount nouns take zero article or the ‘light quantitative article’ some (and any in non-assertive contexts), as well as plural count nouns, but singular count nouns take the indefinite article a/an. E.g. I want a pen/ some pens/ some ink (Quirk et al., 1984).

The indefinite article refers to something that is not uniquely identifiable in the shared knowledge of speaker and hearer. With noncount nouns and plural count nouns the indefinite article does not occur.

2.5.2 Generic reference

“When they have generic reference, both concrete and abstract noncount nouns, and usually also plural count nouns, are used with the zero article”:

He likes wine/music/games.

“Prepositional postmodification by an of-phrase usually requires the definite article with a head noun which thus has limited generic reference” (Quirk et al., 1984: 71):

He likes the wine(s)/ the music/ the lakes of France.

He likes the wines of this shop. (This is limited generic reference, since that it does not refer to any particular wines at any one time.)

The zero article is also used when the noncount abstract noun is premodified but we use the definite article when this noun is postmodified by an of-phrase (Quirk et al., 1985):

E.g.: She is studying European history.

She is studying the history of Europe.

It appears that the cataphoric the is added in examples like ‘the history of Europe’ because the effect of the of-phrase is to single out a particular subclass of the phenomenon denoted by the noun, and thereby to a change a generic meaning into a specific or partitive one. ‘The history of Europe’ implies that she is studying the history of Europe as a whole, ‘European history’ allows the interpretation that she is studying only some aspects of European history or a particular college course (Quirk et al., 1985).

The indefinite article is used with nouns which are normally noncount when they refer to a quality or other abstraction which is attributed to a person; or when the noun is premodified and/or postmodified (the grater the amount of modification, the greater the acceptability of a/an) (Quirk et al., 1985):

E. g. Mavis had a good education.

My son suffers from a strange dislike of mathematics.

2.6 Noncount nouns and determinatives

According Quirk et al. (1984) noncount nouns can be used with these determiers:

Central determiners:

- the (the furniture)

- possessive - my, our, your, his, her, its, their (my luggage)

- no (no music)

- whose, which (ever), what (ever); (which information)

- assertive some, non-assertive any (I want some bread. Have we got any bread?)

- zero article

- enough (enough music)

- this, that (this music)

Predeterminers:

- half (the, my,…, this, that) e.g.: half (of) the cost/ half of it

- all (the, my,…, this, that, zero article) e.g.: all (of) the meat/ all of it

All and half have of-constructions, which are optional with nouns and obligatory with personal pronouns.

They can occur before the articles (all the time), possessive determiners (all my time), demonstrative determiners (all this time). Since they are themselves quantifiers, all and half do not occur with the quantitative determiners some, any, no and enough.

- double, twice, three/four…times (twice his strength, three times this amount)

Postdeterminers:

Closed-class quantifiers: MUCH (comparative – more, superlative – most), (A) LITTLE (comparative – less, superlative –least).

e. g. She has not got much money. She has little (not much) money. She has a little (some) money.

A little (a little music) cannot be analysed as consisting of the indefinite article a plus the quantifier little, since the indefinite article does not occur with noncount nouns (*a music). There is semantic difference: little is negative (not much), a little (some) positive (or at least neutral) term.

Open-class quantifiers:

- plenty of

- a lot of furniture

- lots of

- a great/good deal of

- large/small quantity of money

- large/small amount of

The open-class quantifiers that occur with noncount nouns have both structural and semantic relations with the partitives (general, typical and measures).

3. PARTITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

Both count and noncount nouns can enter partitive constructions, i. e. constructions denoting a part of a whole (Quirk et al., 1985). By means of partitives we can refer to a single item (a loaf of bread), a part of a whole (a slice of bread) or a collection of items (a packet of biscuits). We use them when we want to refer to specific pieces of an uncountable substance, or to a limited number of countable items. They can be singular (a piece of paper) or plural (two pieces of paper) and are followed by of when used before a noun (Alexander, 2005).

Such constructions express both quality partition (e.g. a kind of paper) and quantity partition (e.g. a piece of paper). Respecting quantity partition, Quirk et al. (1984) distinguished three types of partitives which are used to express quantity of noncount nouns: measures, typical partitives, and general partitives.

3.1 Quality partition

Partition in respect of quality is expressed by a partitive count noun like kind/druh, sort/trieda, or type/typ followed by an of-phrase (Quirk et al., 1985):

Singular partitives Plural partitives

a) a delicious sort of bread delicious sorts of bread

b) another type of research other types of research

c) a new kind of computer new kinds of computers

These partitives are used with noncount nouns (a, b) as well as with count nouns (c).

Biber et al. (2000) classified these partitives as species nouns. They refer to the type of entity or mass expressed by a following of-phrase and behave grammatically like ordinary countable nouns. Common species nouns are: class, kind, make, sort, species and type.

Limestones, one class of sedimentary rock, are made up of calcium carbonate.

Under these conditions certain species of bacteria break down the waste to form

methane gas.

As mentioned earlier, these nouns combine with countable as well as uncountable nouns. “With countable nouns there tends to be agreement in number between the species noun and the following noun (that kind of thing/all kinds of things). But we also find singular species nouns combining with a following plural noun (What sort of things are effects? I do not know what kind of dinosaurs they all are.) and plural species nouns combining with a following singular noun (these kinds of question)” (Biber et al., 2000: 255).

Species nouns are more common in academic prose than in other registers, with the exceptions of sort(s) and kind, because the classification is an important aspect of academic discourse (Biber et al., 2000).

Quality partition of noncount nouns may thus be expressed either by a partitive construction or by reclassification:

a nice kind of coffee – a nice coffee

English types of cheese – English cheeses

With both count and noncount nouns, we can express the quality partition in the form ‘a + adjective + noun’: e. g. We are importing a new Italian shirt. It may mean either ‘a new type of’ (more likely) or ‘a new item’ (Quirk et al., 1985).

3.2 Quantity partition of noncount nouns

3.2.1 General partitives

Noncount nouns denote an undifferentiated mass, however, the expression of quantity and thus countability may be achieved by means of certain general partitive nouns, in particular piece/kus, kúsok, bit/trochu, item/?, followed by an of-phrase (Quirk et al., 1985):

Singular partitives Plural partitives

a piece of cake two pieces of cake

a bit of chalk some bits of chalk

an item of news several items of news

Quantity of noncount nouns may thus often be expressed either by partitive nouns or by reclassification: two lumps of sugar = two sugars /dve kocky cukru = dva cukry.

Quirk et al. (1985) analysed the usage of these partitives as follows:

The most widely used partitive expression is a piece of, which can be combined with both concrete and abstract nouns, e. g.:

NOTE: We use ‘?’ where there the translation is impossible or where we are not sure about the translation.

Concrete: a piece of bacon/chalk/coal/land/paper

Abstract: a piece of advice/information/news/research/work

Bit generally implies a small quantity: a bit of rice/news/fun/research. With abstract nouns, item is used (besides piece):

an item of business/information/news

Item is not generally used with concrete nouns: *an item of oil/cake (BUT an item of clothing).

3.2.2 Typical partitives

In addition to the general partitives there are some more restricted and descriptive typical partitives which form expressions with specific concrete noncount nouns, such as following (Quirk et al., 1985)/with equivalents used in Slovak:

an atom/grain of truth – zrnko pravdy

a bar of chocolate/soap/gold/iron – tabuľka čokolády

a blade of grass – steblo trávy

a block of ice – kryha ľadu

a cut of lamb/meat; a joint of meat (BrE) – kus mäsa

a drop of water/oil/whisky – kvapka vody

a grain of corn/rice/sand/salt – zrnko ryže/piesku

a loaf of bread – bochník chleba

a lump of coal/lead/sugar – kocka cukru

a sheet of paper/metal/ice – list papiera

a slice of bacon/bread/cake/meat – plátok slaniny/ krajec chleba

a speck of dust/dirt – smietka prachu

a stick of chalk/dynamite/celery/rock (a sweet)/candy (AmE) – ?

a strip of cloth/land/paper – prúžok papiera

a suit of clothing/clothes/armour – kus odevu

Alexander (2005) divided typical partitives (using a term specific partitives) into these groups:

Single items or amounts e.g.: a cube of ice / kocka ľadu, a peal of thunder /?, a flash of lightning /?, a ball of string / klbko povrazu, a block of cement /?, a cloud of dust / oblak prachu, a head of hair /?, a jet of water / prúd vody, a pile of earth / kopa hliny, a portion of food / porcia jedla, a roll of paper /kotúč papiera. A few of these can be re-expressed as compounds: a sugar lump, ice cubes.

Containers used as partitives e. g.: a bag of flour / vrecko múky, a jar of jam / pohár džemu, a pot of tea / kanvica čaju, a cup of coffee / šálka kávy , a tube of toothpaste / tuba zubnej pasty, a barrel of beer / sud piva, a basket of fruit / košík ovocia, a bottle of milk / fľaša mlieka, a can of beer / plechovka piva, a flask of tea / termoska čaju, a glass of water / pohár vody, a jug of water / džbán vody, a mug of cocoa / hrnček kakaa. Most of these can be re-expressed as compounds: e.g. a jam-jar /?, a teapot / čajová kanvica, to describe the container itself. Thus a teapot describes the container (which may be full or empty), while a pot of tea describes a pot with tea in it.

Small quantities e.g.: a drop of water / kvapka vody, a pinch of salt / štipka soli, a blade of grass / steblo trávy, a breath of air / dúšok vzduchu, a crust of bread / kôrka chleba, a dash of soda / kvapka sódy, a grain of rice / zrnko ryže, a lock of hair / pramienok vlasov, a pat of butter / hrudka masla, a scrap of paper / útržok papiera.

‘A game of’: a game of football, billiards, bridge, cards, chess, cricket, darts, squash, table-tennis, tennis, volleyball.

Abstract concepts e.g.: a period of calm / obdobie ticha, a spell of work /?, a bit of advice /?, a branch of knowledge / odbor vedomostí, a fit of anger / nával hnevu, a piece of research /?, a spot of trouble /?, a word of abuse /?, an amount of interest / množstvo záujmu, a piece of evidence /?, an attack of fever /?, a fit of passion / záchvat vášne.

‘A pair of’/ pár: a pair of gloves/ jeans/ boots/ braces /glasses/ knickers/ pants/ pliers/ pyjamas/ scissors/ shears/ shoes/ shorts/ skates/ skis/ slippers/ socks/ stockings/ tights/ tongs/ trousers. In Slovak, numerals like jedny, dvoje, troje are also used (jedny nohavice / a pair of trousers, dvoje pančuchy / two pairs of stockings).

In Alexander (2005) measure partitives are included between typical partitives, while they are specified as the individual type of partitives by Quirk et al. (1984).

3.2.3 Measure partitive nouns

The measure partitives relate to precise quantities denoting length, area, volume, and weight. ‘Of’’ is compulsory with these partitives (Quirk, 2005).

Length: a foot of copper wire

a metre (BrE)/ a meter (AmE)/ a yard of cloth

a mile of cable

Area: an acre/a hectare of land

Volume: a litre (BrE)/ a liter (AmE) of wine

a pint /a quart of milk

a gallon of petrol

Weight: an ounce of tobacco a pound of butter

a kilo of apples a ton of coal

Measure partitives can be either singular or plural:

a/ one gallon of water

two/ several gallons of water

If count, the second noun must be plural:

one kilo of apples/ *apple

two kilo of apples/ *apple

These measures are used also in Slovak e.g. kilo, liter, meter, míľa, aker, hektár, galón, unca, libra, tona.

3.2.4 Unit nouns and quantifying nouns

Biber et al., (2000) distinguished between unit nouns and quantifying nouns.

Unit nouns “make it possible to split up an undifferentiated mass and refer to separate instances of a phenomenon” (Biber, 2000: 250). They create the contrast to collective nouns which provide a collective reference for separate entities. Unit nouns provide alternative ways of viewing and referring with respect to uncountable nouns (while collective nouns provide this with respect to countable nouns).

Unit nouns are general in meaning (bit, piece, slice, etc.) and they are followed by an of-phrase specifying the type of phenomenon referred to. Grammatically, they behave like ordinary countable nouns (Biber et al., 2000). Actually, unit nouns are general and typical partitives mentioned above.

Examples not mentioned earlier among general and typical partitives:

act of adultery/aggression/courage/kindness – ?

chip of glass/ice/paint/stone – úlomok skla

chunk of chocolate/meat/gold/rock/data/time – kus čokolády

rasher of bacon – plátok slaniny

sliver of glass/light – črepina skla

sprinkling of sugar/sunshine – poprašok cukru

trace of blood/poison/anxiety – stopy krvi

whit of concern – štipka záujmu

Rasher, sliver, whit and loaf have a precise meaning and a very narrow field of use.

A few unit nouns are used only or very frequently in negative contexts (Biber et al., 2000): not a speck of, no trace of, not a whit of.

Many uncountable nouns can combine with a variety of unit nouns. For example, paper can combine with: ball / guľôčka, bit / kúsok, flake / útržok, fragment / kúsok, heap / hŕba, length / pruh, mound / hromada, pad / kotúč, piece, pile / hromada, reel / rolka, roll / kotúč, zvitok, scrap / útržok, sheaf / zväzok, sheet / hárok, slip / prúžok, strip / pruh, wad / zväzok.

By the choice of unit noun, it is possible to bring out different aspects of the entity (size, shape, etc.).

“Quantifying nouns are used to refer to quantities of both masses and entities, which are specified in a following of-phrase by uncountable nouns and plural countables” (Biber et al., 2000: 252). They vary in number like ordinary countable nouns. Biber et al. (2000) divided them into:

a) Nouns denoting type of container: crate of champagne, keg of beer.

b) Nouns denoting shape: heap of rubble, pile of wood/rubbish, stick of celery/incense, wedge of bronze/ice.

c) Standardized measure terms: inch of cloth, gram of heroin.

d) Plural numerals – not used with uncountable nouns.

e) Nouns denoting large quantities: a load(s) of money/rubbish, a mass of blood/stuff, masses of homework/money/people. Mass is used primarily in the written registers, load/loads is much common in conversation.

f) Nouns ending in -ful. The suffix -ful can be added to almost any noun denoting some kind of container to form a quantifying noun (basketful, earful, forkful, houseful, pocketful, teaspoonful, etc.). Handful of is the most common of these nouns (handful of salt/sand/people). It stands out by appearing in the majority of cases where the reference is to a small amount rather than literally to what can be contained in a hand. Other nouns ending in -ful are regularly used in a literal meaning (armful of grass, fistful of money/cash, mouthful of coffee/food, spoonful of cream/sugar/tea).

4. NUMBER

When analysing the category of number there can be found other types of noncount nouns. The English number system comprises singular, which denotes one, and plural, which denotes more than one.

Number is marked not only by inflection, but also by concord between subject and verb (singular subject requires a singular verb, plural subject requires a plural verb) (Biber et al., 2000).

The basic distinction is between invariable and variable nouns. “Invariables cannot change their number but are either singular or plural” (Quirk et al., 1984: 165). Quirk et al. (1985) included between singular invariables: noncount nouns (gold, music), most proper nouns (Henry), abstract adjectival heads (the unreal) and some nouns ending in -s (news). Plural invariables includes summation plurals (scissors), pluralia tantum in -s (thanks), unmarked plural nouns (cattle), personal adjectival heads (the rich) and proper nouns (the Alps). Variable nouns are nouns with regular and irregular plural.

There is some confusion over invariable plural as described in Quirk et al. (1984 and 1985) and Quirk, Greenbaum (1975). Count nouns are variable, occurring with either singular or plural number, or have invariable plural (Quirk, Greenbaum; 1975). In Quirk et al. (1984 and 1985) it is not mentioned that count nouns have invariable plural. However, there is mentioned how countability can be imposed with summation plurals (which have invariable plural) in all these three works, so we can consider these basically uncountable. It was Biber et al. (2000) who mentioned that most plural-only nouns (plural invariables according Quirk) are uncountable and do not combine with numerals and take plural concord. However, Biber (2000) did not deal with plural proper nouns and personal adjectival heads which are included in plural invariables according Quirk et al. (1984 and 1985). Concerning the topic of this paper the category of invariables will be discussed further.

Classification according Quirk et al. (1985) (proper nouns, abstract adjectival heads and personal adjectival heads are omitted):

Singular invariable nouns

Noncount nouns (concrete and abstract)

Exceptions in which these nouns can be plural as described in Quirk et al. (1985):

• reclassification with the meaning of kind/glass

• noncount nouns denoting natural phenomena, may be pluralized: walking through the woods, raise his hopes

• some plurals express intensity, great quantity or extent, and have a literary flavour: the snows of Kilimanjaro, the sands of the desert, sailing on the great waters

Invariable nouns ending in -s correspond to e) according Biber:

• news

• nouns ending in -ics denoting subjects, sciences (acoustics, athletics, classics, economics, ethics, gymnastics, linguistics, phonetics, physics)

• some diseases (measles, mumps, rickets, shingles)

• some games (billiards, checkers, bowls, darts, dominoes, draughts, fives, ninepins)

Plural invariable nouns

Summation plurals correspond to Biber a) – tools, instruments and articles of dress consisting of two equal parts which are joined together.

“Although nouns that are summation plurals require plural concord, they differ from ordinary plural nouns in that they are not generally thought of as denoting plural number” (Quirk et al., 1985: 300).

Examples: bellows, Bermudas, braces, briefs, binoculars, clippers, compasses, cords, corduroys, culottes, dividers, dungarees, flannels, flares, galoshes, jeans, jodhpurs, knickers, leggings, nutcrackers, overalls, pincers, pliers, pants, pyjamas, scales, scissors, slacks, specs, shorts, shears, suspenders, tongs, tights, trunks, tweezers, glasses, trousers, spectacles, underpants.

When we want to refer to a single piece of clothing or a single tool, we can use ‘some’ or ‘a pair of’ in front of the noun (Collins, 2004).

I got some scissors out of the kitchen drawer.

I was sent out to buy a pair of scissors.

“When we use ‘a pair of’ with a noun in the plural form, the verb is singular if it is in the same clause (1). If the verb is in a following relative clause, it is usually plural” (2) (Collins, 2004: 16).

(1) It is likely that a new pair of shoes brings more happiness to a child than a new car brings to a grown-up.

(2) He put on a pair of brown shoes, which were waiting there for him.

We use a plural pronoun after ‘a pair of’: He brought out a pair of dark glasses and handed them to Walker.

Pluralia tantum ending in -s correspond to b) and d) according Biber.

These nouns have plural concord. Sometimes, pluralia tantum ending in -s also have singular forms, which however can be dissociated in meaning form the plural (e.g.: That damage (=loss, harm) was repaired long ago. Damages as pluralia tantum in -s mean ‘compensation in money imposed by law for causing loss or injury’. E.g.: These damages have not yet been paid, have they?)

Examples: accommodations, archives, arms, ashes, clothes, communications, congratulations, customs, dues, earnings, funds, goods, manners, minutes, outskirts, premises, regards, relations, remains, savings, step, stairs, thanks, writings.

Unmarked plural nouns (these are also pluralia tantum) correspond to c) according Biber (people, police, also collective nouns like clergy, staff). They have no plural marking but are used as plurals.

Classification according Biber et al. (2000) comprises singular and plural invariable nouns:

Plural – only nouns and nouns in -s

“Plural-only nouns do not have a singular – plural contrast (e.g. scissors but not *scissor), except premodifying another noun where a bare form is regular (e.g. scissor kick). Alternatively, there may be a corresponding singular form, but with a different meaning” (Biber et al., 2000: 289). (Custom is a regular countable noun, with the regular plural customs, in the sense of ‘customary behaviour’. Customs in the sense of ‘duties paid on goods’ has no corresponding singular form and is best treated as a plural-only noun.)

“Most plural-only nouns are uncountable and do not combine with numerals” (Biber, 2000: 289) (except c) and they take plural concord (except e).

a) Words denoting things consisting of two matching parts – they refer to tools and articles of clothing (scissors, pants, pyjamas, shorts, trousers, binoculars). Countability can be achieved by the use of the word ‘pair’ (a pair of shorts, two pairs of trousers).

b) Steps and stairs – they denote an entire installation incorporating a set of matching individual parts.

The singular step and stair refer to the individual parts making up the steps/stairs. Countable reference for the whole unit is achieved by the unit noun ‘flight’ (a huge flight of stairs, steep flight of steps).

c) Cattle, clergy, people, police, staff

Though not visibly plural in form, these take plural concord (Police are appealing for help from anyone who witnessed the incident).

‘Cattle’ combines with numerals (e.g. a group of 25 cattle). Countable reference can also be achieved by the use of a collective noun (a herd of cattle), a unit noun (every head of cattle), or by using a corresponding singular noun (a cow/ bull/ bullock).

‘People’ combines with quantifiers with plural reference (many/ten people), but for singular reference it is necessary to resort to related nouns (a man/ woman/ person). However, people can also be treated as a regular countable noun in the sense of ‘nation, tribe, race’.

‘Police’ is like people and cattle in combining with quantifiers with plural reference (50 police) although policemen and police officers are preferred in this case. Police combines with a singular verb when the reference is collective (The Royal Canadian Mounted Police was searching the airliner). For a singular reference, it is necessary to use a related word (a policeman/ policewoman/ police officer/ cop).

‘Staff’ can also combine with quantifier with plural reference (e.g. most staff), while singular reference requires an expression such as a staff member. Staff is treated as a singular form when the reference is collective.

d) Other plural-only nouns – e.g. surroundings, goods, minutes, remains.

The surroundings were beautiful and the food delicious. Anyone bringing in more will be asked to confirm that their goods are not for reselling.

e) Forms with singular concord

Some nouns which end in ‘-s’ and look like plurals but actually behave like uncountable singular nouns. This means that when they are the subject of a verb, the verb is in the singular. These nouns refer to subjects of study (academic disciplines – mathematics, etc), activities, games (e.g. cards, billiards) and diseases (e.g. rabies, mumps, measles) (Collins, 2004). The nouns which refer to subjects of study and activities, e.g. aerobics, economics, linguistics, politics, statistics, are occasionally used as plural nouns, especially when you are talking about a particular person's work or activities (Are there any statistics for road accidents?). This group also includes the noun news.

5. THE CATEGORY OF NUMBER IN THE SLOVAK LANGUAGE

Nouns are the names of individual substances. These can occur individually or in a greater amount. Restrictions of number of some nouns change their meaning. The category of number is based on the contrast of singular and plural (unity and amount). Nouns can be divided into three groups (Oravec et al., 1988):

1) nouns which have both singular and plural forms (countable nouns)

2) nouns which have singular form only (uncountable nouns: collective, material, abstract nouns)

3) nouns which have plural form only (pluralia tantum)

5.1 Singular number only – uncountable nouns in the Slovak language

Uncountable nouns in Slovak are also called singularia tantum (Sokolová, 1995).

5.1.1 Collective nouns

Collective nouns refer to plurality as an integrated (compact) unity. The element of plurality which is in the background of collective nouns makes it impossible to use these nouns in plural form in the Slovak language (Dvonč et al., 1966).

Slovak collective nouns refer to (Oravec et al., 1988):

a) collectives of people: ľudstvo, mládež, junač, drobizg, aristokracia, inteligencia

b) collectives of animals: živočíšstvo, včelstvo, chrobač, zverina, zver

c) vegetation: rastlinstvo, bodľač, bučina, haluzina, zelenina, bodľačie, haluzie, ihličie, krovie, prútie, malinčie, raždie, tŕnie

d) collections of natural phenomena: horstvo, vodstvo, vrchovina

e) collections of things, equipments: náradie, riad, šatstvo, školstvo, batožina, zbroj

Collective nouns in Slovak correlate with the plural of countable nouns (for semantics and word formation), e. g.: včely – včelstvo, listy – lístie (Oravec et al., 1988).

They have singular number only (they are invariable) and they are always used with singular verb. There is a difference between Slovak and English as some English collective nouns such as audience, class, club, committee, company, congregation, council, crew, crowd, family, gang, government, group, jury, mob, staff, team, union can also have regular plural forms and can be used with singular or plural verbs (Alexander, 2005).

Governments in all countries are trying to control inflation.

The government, who are looking for a quick victory, are calling for a general

election soon.

However, these English collective nouns (class, club, committee, company, crew, crowd, family, gang, government, group, mob, team, union) and some others such as army, collective, ministry, nation, parliament, congress (or better their Slovak equivalents) are not included among collective nouns in Slovak as the Slovak language does not feel plural correlate here. Also names of formations and amount of individual units e.g. stádo, kŕdeľ, množstvo are not collectives in Slovak in contrast to their English equivalents herd, flock, amount which are English collectives (Dvonč et al., 1966).

There are also collective nouns which do not have regular plural but can be followed by a singular or plural verb in English (Alexander, 2005): the aristocracy, the gentry, the proletariat, the majority, the minority, the public, the youth of today.

The youth of today is/are better of than we used to be.

In English, some collective nouns must be followed by a plural verb but they do not have plural forms (Alexander, 2005): cattle, the clergy, the military, people, the police, swine, vermin. (They are mentioned above as unmarked plural nouns and are actually uncountables.)

The police/the military have surrounded the building.

Collective nouns are treated differently in English. They are considered to be uncountable in Slovak but they are not non-count nouns, but rather are a special subset of count nouns in English with the exception of unmarked plural nouns which are considered to be uncountable according Biber et al. (2000).

Collective nouns in English are analysed in the category of gender as in Quirk et al. (1985). They have only one form, but many collective nouns have other meanings in which they are count nouns with two forms in English. When you use a collective noun, you can use either a singular verb or a plural verb after it (Collins, 2004). Singular stresses the non-personal collectivity of the group (the group as the single unit) and the plural the personal individuality within the group (the group as a number of individuals) (Quirk, Greenbaum; 1975).

These nouns do not behave like the plural forms of count nouns. For example, we cannot use numbers before them.

*Three enemy were killed.

Three of the enemy were killed.

Some collective nouns are also partitives e.g. flock, herd (Collins, 2004).

5.1.2 Material nouns and abstract nouns

Material nouns refer to phenomena which occur in continual (not divided into units/pieces) or only insignificantly divided amount. Here are included (Dvonč, 1966):

liquids: čaj, káva, lieh, mlieko, pálenka, pivo, smotana, tekutina, víno, voda, benzín, nafta, olej, krv, miazga, moč, mok, pot

articles of food: bryndza, droždie, kaša, lekvár, maslo, masť, mäso, med, múka, pečivo, slanina, syr, šunka, tuk, tvaroh, bravčovina, teľacina, kuracina

crops: bôb, cibuľa, fazuľa, hrach, hrozno, jačmeň, kapusta, karfiol, kukurica, ľan, mak, mrkva, obilie, ovos, paprika, petržlen, pšenica, repa, ryža, seno, tráva, žito, osivo, semeno, slama, vňať, zrno

textiles: hodváb, krep, silon, súkno, taft, tyl, látka, plátno, tkanivo, zamat

household substances and material: farbivo, hnojivo, krmivo, murivo, palivo, rezivo, slonovina, trhavina, betón, cement, drôt, koža, krieda, lep, malta, mydlo, plech, sklo, smola, šrot, vlna, živica

natural substances and events: bahno, blato, čečina, drevo, hlina, hornina, íl, kal, kameň, láva, piesok, prach, prsť, ruda, štrk, vápenec, zem, žula, hmota, masa, energia, dym, hmla, ľad, para, povetrie, vlaha, vzduch

metals, minerals, compounds: kov, plyn, cín, meď, oceľ, olovo, striebro, zlato, železo, kyslík, sodík, vápnik, kyselina

Abstract nouns

Real abstract nouns have got similar character like the material nouns. False abstracts (the smaller part) are the abstract which were transformed into the objects such as: trest – tresty, úvaha – úvahy, zločin – zločiny.

These are names of (Dvonč et al., 1966):

• activities: kreslenie, myslenie, kosba, mlatba, svadba, oberačka, kúpačka, chôdza, práca, buchot, tlkot, krik, pád, let, plač, spánok, spev, tok

• states and feelings: opilstvo, šialenstvo, poddanstvo, hluchota, nemota, choroba, mdloba, staroba, únava, cit, láska, nenávisť, radosť, žiaľ, hlad, smäd, presvedčenie, sebavedomie

• qualities: lajdáctvo, lakomstvo, odrodilstvo, dobrota, ochota, prostota, múdrosť, skromnosť, slabosť, dĺžka, výška, sila

• mental capacity and senses: fantázia, pamäť, rozum, hmat, chuť, sluch, zrak

• others abstract phenomena: slovanstvo, vlastenectvo, červeň, zeleň, dobro, nekonečno, zlo, doba, čas, plocha, priestor, priestranstvo, možnosť, skutočnosť

The compactness of materials and abstracts is unbounded (indefinable), the size (measure) of it is possible to define only by indefinite numerals or quantitative nouns (trochu mlieka, veľa spevu, nemálo strachu, trochu hudby; liter vína, pohár vody, bochník chleba, hruda syra, rezeň slaniny, merica žita, snop slamy, voz kapusty, kopa sena, oblak dymu; kus šťastia, dva roky práce) (Dvonč et al., 1966).

They can also exist in pieces (jedno mydlo, vyhliadkové lety), but then the meaning is shifted and has a colloquial colouring (especially used in colloquial style). It is usually material noun which is used as a metonymic alternative for a noun expressing measure: dve polievky (dva taniere polievky), štyri kávy, dva čaje, dva syry, tri pivá, tri drevá, jedna krieda, dve sklá, jeden chlieb, dve šunky. This corresponds to the reclassification in English – plural forms are used in the meaning of “appropriate unit of”. Also plural used with material nouns refers to the kinds/sorts/types (syry – ementálsky, pažítkový, cibuľkový; minerálne vody, pivá, vína, hodváby, piesky, štrky etc.) (Dvonč et al., 1966).

The countability is more often expressed by idiomatic expressions (partitive constructions in the English language):

kvapka vody, kropaje potu, dve kocky cukru, hlt vody, smidka chleba, dve škvarky slaniny, štipka soli, chlp vlny, papek dreva, zdrap papiera…

Generally are used words: kus, kúsok, kúsoček, kúštik, kúštiček.

With the abstract nouns are used: kúsok dobra, strap otcovskej lásky, iskierka citu, nemá za mak rozumu.

5.2 Plural number

With respect to the category of number, Dvonč et al. (1966) distinguished:

• Nouns which occur predominantly in plural. These nouns refer to phenomena which exist more commonly in mass/quantity/amount than in one exemplar. These phenomena are not counted because their number is usually stable or their counting is impossible or useless for practical reasons. Their counting is marked (nemá na hlave ani tri vlasy). Indefinite numerals are used to express measure, not the number of these phenomena (mnoho malín, veľa vlasov).

parts of the body: ďasná, hlasivky, líca, nozdry, pery, uši, parohy, rohy, cievy, črevá, chlpy, kosti, mozole, nervy, stavce, obrvy, svaly, vrásky, zuby, žily

footwear and clothes: baganče, čižmy, črievice, ihličky, kapce, kopačky, krpce, lodičky, papuče, pančuchy, prezuvky, rukavice, tenisky, topánky, tretry

fruit and plants: bobuľky, klasy, korene, kvety, listy, čerešne, figy, hrušky, huby, oriešky, slivky, trnky, uhorky

foodstuffs: cigarety, cukríky, piškóty, sucháre, škvarky

things, equipments: kachličky, karty, klince, koľajnice, kolky, korčule, náboje, parkety, servítky, schody, súčiastky, šindle, tehly, zápalky, závory

abstracts: výdavky, dane, opatrenia, potreby, príznaky, možnosti, okolnosti, schopnosti, skúsenosti, starosti, zákonitosti

collectives of people: manželia, rodičia, príbuzní, súrodenci, hostia, obyvatelia, černosi, belosi, kresťania, Nóri

collectives of animals: bacily, baktérie, termity, včely

• Nouns which are very rarely used in singular. We can use singular form of these nouns only in particular limited conditions, e. g. in specialised practise, in the case of loss, destruction, construction and repair of thing or its accidental isolation (Dvonč et al., 1966).

parts of the body: bokombrady, fúzy, hryzadlá, kadere, pačesy, riasy, slabiny, vnútornosti, žiabre

parts of the footwear and clothes: dreváky, gamaše, palčiaky, plátenky, rukávce

foodstuff and plants: halušky, hrozienka, klinčeky (korenie), rezance, ríbezle, strapačky, sušienky, šúľance, trhance, údeniny, cereálie, naturálie

rubbish: hobliny, odpadky, odrobiny, omrviny, otruby, piliny, pozostatky, rárohy, smeti, stružliny, šupiny, výkaly, výlučky, výpary, zvyšky

others: behúle, cepy, devízy, chodúle, kopanice, lazy, peniaze, potreby pre domácnosť, trosky, úvodzovky, dáta, archiválie, financie, fosílie, chemikálie, machinácie, reálie

collectives of people: blíženci, bračekovci, detičky, deťúrence, detváky, dietky, ľudia, ľudkovia, Anjouovci, Avari, Huni

Some of these nouns have wider or more concrete sense in plural and are semantically different from singular form (Dvonč et al., 1966): baňa – bane, železnica – železnice, hra – hry, obrad – obrady, rozum – rozumy, slávnosť – slávnosti, voľba – voľby.

Nouns with normal (ordinary) plural can create homonyms with these nouns: klinček – klinčeky, pozostatok – pozostatky, rároh (vták) – rárohy (haraburdy), troska – trosky.

Some of these nouns which occur in fixed amounts, units which we can count (Dvonč et al., 1966): mám len jedny nervy, troje rukavíc, dvoje karát, jedny zápalky, dvoje cigariet, dvoje sardiniek, jedny klince.

• Pluralia tantum. These nouns have only one form for both singular and plural. However, plural has both numerical meanings (noviny, všetky noviny). When we want to express the number or amount we use a special numerals in Slovak called ‘group numerals’/skupinové číslovky (jedny nohavice).

Oravec et al. (1988) discussed the first category as fixed plural and the two following categories as pluralia tantum. Dvonč et al. (1966) included here:

parts of the body: kríže, pľúca, prsia, rodidlá, ústa

illnesses: kiahne, osýpky, potničky, suchoty

parts of clothes: gate, háby, spodky, šaty, tepláky, trenírky, nohavice

tools and equipment: bradlá, brány, dvere, hodinky, hrable, husle, jasle, kachle, kliešte, nožnice, okuliare, sane, váhy

papers and dues: aktíva, alimenty, diéty, pasíva, dejiny, memoáre, noviny, pamäti

social activities, events, festivals: dostihy, hody, narodeniny, raňajky, zásnuby, fašiangy, litánie

time periods: prázdniny, prvohory

other phenomena: hradby, končiny, kúpele, šachy, mravy, muky, rozpaky, spôsoby

Some of these nouns are homonymous with normal nouns which have both plural and singular form (Dvonč et al., 1966): bradlo (skala) – bradlá, kúpeľ – kúpele, novina – noviny, osud – osudy, pamäť – pamäti, peniaz – peniaze, spôsob – spôsoby, suchota – suchoty, šach – šachy.

Most plural-only nouns (pluralia tantum) in English is considered to be uncountable according Biber (2000), however, the countability of pluralia tantum is not discussed for the needs of the Slovak language.

As already mentioned on the beginning, the countability in English is very important since it influences not only the usage of articles and quantifiers, but basically the singular and plural form of nouns depends on it. When noun is countable there is no problem to use it in plural form but when it is uncountable it is necessary to be aware of restrictions on plural here.

There are many problems for Slovak learners in respect of noncount nouns. It is caused by differences in morphological treatment of countability within the system of the Slovak and the English languages.

6. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COUNTABILITY IN THE ENGLISH AND SLOVAK LANUGAGES

Firstly, countability is not analysed so widely for the needs of the Slovak language. This is the main reason why Slovak students have so many difficulties with the grammatical issue of countability as they do not deal with this subject so extensively in their native language. In Slovak, countability influences singular and plural forms of nouns and quantifiers.

Secondly, one cannot rely on common sense when distinguishing between countable and uncountable nouns. Students often consider this easy to guess with the help of their native language but they do not realise that this distinction between countable and uncountable nouns in English is rather grammatical than the real one. The Slovak language encodes the countability of some nouns differently e. g. advice, homework, information are uncountable in English, while their Slovak equivalents rada, domáca úloha, informácia are countable.

Moreover, countability is changing in dependence on situational context therefore all strict classifications are useless and can be used only for basic orientation at the first stages of learning of the English language. Division of countability according Bond et al. (1994) into five types (fully countable, uncountable, plural only, strongly countable and weakly countable) shows that classification of a noun as countable or uncountable is a little bit complicated sometimes. Similar problem is a tendency of abstract nouns to be uncountable. Students are often confused and make the rule from this tendency.

However, nouns with dual membership (which can be countable and also uncountable in different situation) exist in Slovak as well as in English. Sometimes they have countable and uncountable usage equivalent to the Slovak one (e. g. egg / vajce, chicken/ kurča), sometimes there is a noun expressed by one item which can be countable and uncountable in English, but is expressed by two different lexical items in Slovak e. g. iron / žehlička (C), železo (U). For students it is necessary to understand both uses (countable and uncountable) of these nouns in English and recognise their countability according to the context.

Also some English countable/uncountable pairs have their Slovak equivalents, especially nouns for animals are countable and nouns for meat are uncountable in both languages (e. g. a suitcase – luggage / kufor – batožina, a calf – pork / teľa – teľacina, a cow – a beef / krava - hovädzina). Slovak countable/uncountable pairs are created mostly by uncountable collective nouns which often have countable equivalents e. g. lístie – listy, divina – dive zvieratá.

Partitives are widely used by both languages. Besides quality partitives (kind/druh, sort/trieda, type/typ), measures and general partitives (kus/kúsok/kúštik/kúsoček – piece/bit) which are almost the same there are also some typical partitives, known as idiomatic expression in Slovak. Partitives are very often similar in the meaning and have English/Slovak equivalents (e. g. a drop of water / kvapka vody, a loaf of bread / bochník chleba). However, not all partitive constructions can be translated into Slovak as they are typical of English. In the first case these nouns have not got the same partitives, if any, but are also uncountable in Slovak (e. g. abuse – nadávanie, urážanie BUT a word of abuse / *slovo nadávania). We can express the meaning of these partitive constructions by countable nouns (e. g. a word of abuse / nadávka, urážka). Similarly, general partitive item can be translated as položka, but it is not usually used with uncountable nouns in Slovak (item of news/*položka správ BUT správa). In the second case, some typical partitives such as a peal of thunder or a flash of lightening cannot be translated because thunder / hrom and lightning / blesk are countable nouns in Slovak.

Another common feature shared by Slovak and English is reclassification.

When comparing English and Slovak morphological category of number we can find out many differences. The category of number in English and the same category in Slovak distinguish basically the same types of nouns: variable nouns which can be singular or plural (countable nouns), singular invariables (singular number only), plural invariables (plural number only). Slovak and English morphology treat these categories differently in respect of their content. Nouns with singular number only i. e. uncountable nouns include collective, material and abstract nouns. But collective nouns in English are not considered to be uncountable, with the exception of a few unmarked plural noun (or pluralia tantum) (e. g. clergy, staff) which are not plural in form but are followed by a plural verb and are considered to be uncountable. Some English collectives have regular plural forms and can be used with singular or plural verb and many of them are not considered to be collective nouns in Slovak understanding. Collectives in Slovak have singular number only and cannot be used with plural verb.

Material and abstract nouns are almost the same in both languages. They have also countable uses, often with semantic shift. Although morphology of the Slovak language does not deal literally with the countable usage of these nouns it is possible e. g. tiny freedoms/drobné slobody. Plural invariable in English include summation plural (e. g. scissors), pluralia tantum ending in -s and unmarked plural nouns – all these are considered to be uncountable. In Slovak, the noun which are considered to be summation plural are mostly included among Nouns which occur predominantly in plural (e. g. pančuchy, čižmy, topánky) and Pluralia tantum (e. g. trenírky, nohavice, nožnice). The category of pluralia tantum in -s does not exist in the Slovak language but some words from this category belong to Pluralia tantum in Slovak (e. g. spôsoby/manners). Unmarked plural nouns, as mentioned earlier, are collective and uncountable in both languages. But Slovak equivalent of the English collective noun people – ľudia is not collective but it is in the category of Nouns which are very rarely used in singular. There is a special category of nouns in -s in English which look like plural but are used with singular concord, which again does not exist in Slovak (e. g. mathematics, measles, cards) but diseases from this category (e. g. measles) are included in the Slovak category of Pluralia tantum.

Concerning the plural number, the countability is not discussed in the Slovak language at all. We can say that the categories of Nouns which occur predominantly in plural (e. g. pančuchy/tights, topánky/shoes) and Nouns which are very rarely used in singular (e. g. odpadky/rubbish, peniaze/money) are only slightly different. Some nouns from these two categories are uncountable in English, as well as some nouns from the category of Pluralia tantum (e. g. nohavice/trousers, osýpky/measles). As oppose to the Slovak, in the English language most plural only nouns are uncountable.

7. CONCLUSIONS

It was interesting to find out, that English grammarians do not have the same approach to the issue of countability as they deal with it differently in terms of range and aspects of analyses. Even with the same authors, their view on countability was modified in their latter works. The answer on the controversial point of countability of English plural-only nouns was given by Biber et al. (2000) who finally clearly stated that “most plural-only nouns are uncountable”. We have tried to compare even English grammarians between themselves and to sum up their views for more complex characteristics. More problematic was the analyses of Slovak countability because the Slovak grammar does not deal with countability so much.

The main problem in terms of countability in English for the Slovak students is definitely the interference of their native language, what is manifested by the fact, that students regard uncountable nouns in Slovak as uncountable in English. As a result they “logically” classify some English uncountable nouns as countables, because they are countable in the Slovak language, too (e. g. information). They sometimes use singular uncountable nouns as though they were countable (e. g. use indefinite article or inappropriate quantifier with them), or they use plural-only nouns as though they were singular and countable. We have reminded several times that the countability of English nouns in rather grammatical issue. Therefore, some Slovak countable nouns are uncountable in English and vice versa.

Even though not all English uncountable nouns are uncountable in Slovak, there are many examples which are presented in this paper, by the help of which students can grasp the basic tendencies for uncountable uses of English nouns. We have also dealt with grammatical phenomenon which are influenced by countability in English and pointed out the exceptions from this grammar rules. As we have analysed all differences respecting countability and uncountable nouns between these languages, specific features of English and Slovak number systems and explained the possibility of changing countability, we believed that this paper will help students to better understand the issue of countability. The exercises in the appendix should help students to practise the use of uncountable and countable nouns in various contextual situations and to remove the interference of their native language into English by realising the different treatment of countability in the English language.

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Baldwin, Timothy – Bond, Francis. Learning the Countability of English Nouns from Corpus Data. 2003. 10 Aug. 2008. .

Bond, Francis - Vatikiotis-Bateson, Caitlin: Using an Ontology To Determine English Countability. 2002. 10 Aug. 2008. .

Count and Noncount Nouns. Exercises. 6 Aug. 2009. .

Quantity terms with Count and Noncount Nouns: Exercises. 6 Aut. 2009. .

Count and Noncount Nouns (with Articles and Adjectives). 6 Aug. 2009. .

Count and Non-Count Nouns. 6 Aug. 2009. .

Count or Non-Count Noun? 6 Aug. 2009. .

Count or Non-Count Nouns 4. 6 Aug. 2009. .

Cloze Exercise: Using Quantifiers. 6 Aug. 2009. .

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