Being Black & Bleeding Blue: A Quantitative look at the ...



Being Black & Bleeding Blue: A Quantitative look at the Experience of African American Alumni at a Predominantly White Institutions.

Amanda Shropshire

Undergraduate

Saint Mary’s College

Ashrop01@saintmarys.edu

December 11, 2006

Faculty Advisor: Susan Alexander

e-mail address: salexand@saintmarys.edu

ABSTRACT

This paper focuses on the social and academic experiences of African American Alumnae who attended predominantly White higher education institutions Saint Mary’s College. A survey was administered to alumnae from these institutions to assess the quality of their educational experience based on academic outcome, social interactions; and their quality of life after graduation. There was a similarity among their experiences pertaining to race across all variables. However most respondents reported that while they had many negative experiences due to their race, they felt comfortable at their academic institution. Overall, most respondents stated that regardless of their experience, they would still recommend their institution to another minority student.

Being Black & Bleeding Blue: A Quantitative look at the Experience of African American Alumni at a Predominantly White Institution.

The racial make-up of a person’s surroundings can impact one’s experience with regards to their comfort level in that environment. As a discipline, sociology addresses such concerns through research on “assimilation” and “dominant culture”. Sociologists describe the affect of a person’s racial surroundings on aspects of their life, especially the educational system.

In institutions of higher education, people may judge their experience by their academic success, social involvement, and their preparation for post-graduate work. However, those factors also depend heavily on a person’s surroundings. A central component of a student’s educational surroundings is the racial make-up of the academic institution in terms of the ratio between minorities and the dominant culture.

African Americans at predominantly White institutions, will assess their overall time in college experiences positive or negative by referencing their experience as a minority student and their own comfort level. Racialzed surroundings have been a factor in American education for hundreds of years at times producing segregation and at other times colleges for Blacks. Today, the influence of racial surroundings in higher education has become less visible on a structural level, but the effects for individual students may be just as extreme.

Administration at various colleges and universities have tried to improve the comfort levels of minority students at predominantly White institutions by implementing diversity programs, extending the curriculum, allowing ethnic organization, and hiring minority faculty. However, African Americans in predominantly White institutions still may experience negative affects that shape a student’s overall college experience. This study will examine the experience and comfort level of African American alumnae of Saint Mary’s College through a racial lens in order to assess their academic success, postgraduate achievements, and advocacy of the institution.

Literature Review

In recent years, scholars have produced research on African Americans in predominantly White institutions. As a result, efforts toward increasing diversity and benefits for African American minorities in colleges and universities have been an influential factor in increasing minority attendance at selective colleges and universities. Much of this research also includes a joint assessment of predominantly White institutions (PWI’s) and historically Black colleges and universities (HBCU’s), comparing the experiences of African Americans in both settings. (See: Kim and Conrad 2006; Chavous and Harris 2004; Kim 2002; Allen, Haniff and Epps 1991; Fleming 1984.)

There has been an observed link between the perception of campus climate and student’s academic achievement. Hurtado (1992) argues that campus racial conflicts are connected to elements in institutions’ racial climate that sustain the relationship between African-American students and their White peers, faculty and administration. The assumed affects of the campuses racial climate have prompted scholars to compare predominantly White institutions and historically Black colleges and universities to assess the affects of these interactions on academic achievement, social mobility, development, psychological factors, and student persistence.

HBCU’s vs. PWI’s: Factors affecting academic, social and psychological well-being.

Kim (2002) and Kim and Conrad (2006) analyze the effectiveness of HBCU’s and PWI’s in developing African American student’s academic and cognitive abilities. Although the two types of institutions differ dramatically in terms of resources, both studies conclude, that there is no difference between HBCU’s and PWI’s in terms of the students’ academic ability nor does it interfere with degree completion. These modern studies may show development beyond the initial studies that indicated a strong relationship between campus racial climate factors and the academics and social achievement of African American students. In previous research, Allen, Epps and Haniff (1991) and Fleming (1984) both argue that while individual characteristics play a role in achievement, the quality of life weighs heavily upon psychosocial well-being.

Fleming (1984) assesses Black student’s “psychosocial adaptation” and “intellectual performance” as essential for college success. In this study, gender proves to be a factor in psychosocial studies of African Americans at PWI’s and HBCU’s indicating that Black females adapt more positively to a predominantly White institution than do Black males. Fleming (1984) also notes that both Black and White women are more academically and socially successful in a women’s college. Chavous, Harris, Rivas, Helaire and Green (2004) reference both Allen, Fleming and Davis in their assessment of racial stereotypes and gender in both HBCU’s and PWI’s. Results show that women achieve higher education at better rates than men attributing to racial climate barriers that affect men and women differently. (Chavous, Harris, Rivas, Helaire and Green (2004) In a study of 143 undergraduate students at a large Midwestern, public PWI they find that while racial climate and discrimination affect the college experiences of women, being female and an ethnic minority may cause more subtle forms of discrimination than men, allowing them to tolerate their environment. (Chavous, Harris, Rivas, Helaire and Green (2004))

While the literature suggest a relationship between racial climate and academic achievement, it also suggests a relationship between racial climate and non-cognitive factors such as; race-related experiences, social support, perceived environment, and involvement on comfort and social success (MacKay and Kuh 1994, Sedlacek 1999, Smith and Baruch 1981, and Hurtado 1992) Gloria (1999) and Hurtado argue that factors such as social support, university comfort and self-beliefs are all important factors for a student having a negative or positive collegial experience. Davis and Bowie (2004) and Lewis, Chesler and Forman (2000) argue that non-cognitive factors indicatory of a tense racial climate such as discrimination, colorblindness, and stereotypes negatively affect an African American student on a predominantly White campus. However tolerance of these factors can be directly related to a student’s background, thus, affecting how they adjust to these experiences on campus.

Massey, Charles, Lundy and Fischer (2003) argue that school quality; socio-economic background and racial composition of a student’s high school can directly affect how they adjust to life on a predominantly White college campus. In their book, Source of the River, researchers assessed the psychological vulnerabilities to racially negative experiences such as stereotyping and discrimination, of African Americans. Background variables indicating strong infrastructure of high school in terms of teachers and resources as well as a high amount of contact with other White students, African Americans attending predominantly White colleges were not as vulnerable to campus racial tensions as those from predominantly Black high schools with less resources.

The literature suggests that while there has been a strong correlation between academic success and racial campus climate experiences, the dynamics are changing, therefore administrators, faculty, staff and students should be aware of possible negative influences on African American students’ comfort level while attending a predominantly White college or university. This study hopes to raise awareness about the specific factors impacting African American women at Saint Mary’s College.

Theory of “Double Consciousness” and PWI’s

When assessing the effect of predominantly white institutions on the Black student experience today, one cannot ignore the history and evolution of African American education. Over the past 150 years, higher education for African Americans has been an evolving concept, impacting each generation of Black students differently. Today, African Americans have an equal opportunity to attend all colleges and universities. However, at many elite colleges and universities the ethnic population still remains predominantly White, and the transition into these institutions for African American students can be very difficult.

In W.E.B Dubois’ “Souls of Black Folk,” (1903) he introduced the now well-known concept of “double-consciousness” when referring to the African American inner conflict from living in a Western dominated culture. Dubois argues that African Americans must maintain a sense of pride in African and Black culture and simultaneously include positive representations of the dominant culture in their lives.

“After the Egyptian and Indian, the Greek and Roman, the Teuton and Mongolian, the Negro is a sort of seventh son, born with a veil, and gifted with second-sight in this American world, a world which yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see himself through the revelation of the other world. It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One never feels his two-ness, an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two un-reconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder. The history of the American Negro is the history of this strife, this longing to attain self-conscious manhood, to merge his double self into a better and truer self.”(Dubois, 1903)

The theory suggests that due to this double consciousness, African Americans define themselves by the opinion of the dominant culture leaving them with no true self-identity. Dubois attributed this way of thought to hundreds of years of oppression, slavery and institutionalized racism having a heavy impact on the African American mind (Aldridge, 1999, p. 188) While Dubois’ theory of double-consciousness pertains to African Americans in society overall, it can also relate to the internal conflict of African Americans attending predominantly White institutions. Aldridge (1999, p. 188) suggests, “W.E.B Dubois left the most comprehensive set of writings and views from which educators and policymakers can obtain a textualized, historical and African American based perspective on education.” Dubois attributes this theory to the way Blacks perceive certain aspects of mainstream society such as the importance of formal education vs. gaining knowledge of their own culture. According to Aldridge (1999, p. 189) Dubois would advocate that only those students with a strong economic, cultural and community-based background would be able transcend double consciousness.

Slavery generally prohibited education for African Americans as a whole. The legacy of slavery may have prompted the development of Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCU’s), and then future of educational opportunities. Following Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954, Blacks and Whites went through a painful transition of integrated education on all levels. While Dubois believed that new legislative decisions were positive, he urged African Americans of the time to take well-planned steps into integration. His theory was that unless African American children had a firm grasp on their own ethnic values and culturally satisfied politically, economically and socially, integration would not be positive. Aldridge (1999, p. 190) states that the Marx based theory of “economic determinism” included in Dubois’ opinions on integration was to take advantage of segregated communities and create African enclaves. By doing so, Blacks would be able to build strong communities of consumers and entrepreneurs, making African American students competitive on levels of class, educational standards, and mental strength. To some, this may serve as an explanation for the challenges African Americans faced during the early phases of educational integration.

“The object of that plan is two-fold: first to make it possible for the Negro group to await its ultimate emancipation with reasoned patience, with equitable temper and with every possible effort to raise the social status and increase the efficiency of the group. And secondly and just as important, the ultimate object of the plan is to obtain admission of the colored group to cooperation and incorporation into the White group on the best possible terms.” (Dubois, 1940/1984, p.200)

In 2006, some 50 years after integration into elite colleges and universities population in these schools still remain predominantly White. Dubois’ framework of the African American experience of “double-consciousness” in a predominantly White setting has become a key to understanding the Black experience at Predominantly White Institutions. The relationship between challenges such as social acceptance, academic success, post-college ambitions, and the experience of African Americans can connect directly with feelings of maintaining a “double-consciousness” at these institutions. At Saint Mary’s College, the African American population remains small in comparison to other minority groups on campus or at other higher educational institutions. While institutional efforts to increase diversity are present, Dubois’ theory of double consciousness indicates that the retention and success of a student may rest upon Black cultural concepts that are absent from the framework of a predominantly White institution. If the percentage of Black students were to rise, examining their experiences are necessary in order to facilitate a smoother transition for each generation.

Methods

The data for this study came from a survey/questionnaire administered to African American alumnae at Saint Mary’s College during October and November of 2006. This predominantly white institution is located in South Bend,. An email was sent to 32 African American alumnae asking them to participate in a thirty-question survey which was administered through the website . The sample was identified by a list of all African American alumnae provided by the Saint Mary’s College Alumnae Office. The alumnae with available email addresses were chosen from the list.

This research assesses the experiences of a non-random purposive sample of 32 alumnae total, ranging in the ages between 23-75 years. There was a 47% response rate, a total of 14 alumnae from the list of 32 participants. All participants were female alumnae from Saint Mary’s College ranging in graduation years from 1972 to 2004.

This study had weaknesses due to the sampling method, lack of qualitative data, and time constraint due to problems with the original study. Originally this study was to administer a survey to alumni from both the University of Notre Dame and Saint Mary’s College. However, due to the problem of “gatekeepers” denying access to the list of Black alumni from the University of Notre Dame, the research including those subjects could not be completed. Unfortunately, the reasons for not completing the research at the University were not specified until very late in the research process and alternative-sampling methods could not be done.

The weakness of this purposive methodology using only Saint Mary’s alumnae was a small response rate. Although the responses rate was high in terms of the population, it is not a representative sample for all predominantly White institutions. Another weakness of this survey/questionnaire method was limited information that points to areas for further research. In future research, both interviews and surveys should be administered. A strength of this research includes the individual response to survey questions. This research will serve as an exploratory study for further research of African American alumnae at Saint Mary’s College.

Findings

The survey was constructed so the respondent was asked questions pertaining to their background, experiences in college and their post college status. The respondents were also asked general questions indicating their “Comfort Level” with five levels of measurement, and this comfort level was compared to groups of questions that collectively asked about background, college experience and post college status. The respondents chose “Very Comfortable”, “Comfortable”, “Somewhat Comfortable”, “Uncomfortable” and “Very Uncomfortable”. This was a self-assessment of comfort level and the perception of comfort for each respondent may vary. Table 1: African American College Comfort Level Vs. College Experience shows the results for how comfortable respondents were in comparison to their experiences with the campus racial climate. The questions are broken down by those “Comfortable” and “Uncomfortable” and some of their experiences asked in matrix question number 29 of the survey, in addition to showing overall response percentage

Table 1: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. College Experience with Racial Climate

|Table. 1 | | | |

|  |Comfortable |Uncomfortable |TOTAL |

|Ans. "yes" to experienced racial |10/14 |0/2 |62.50% |

|discrimination. | | | |

|Ans. "yes" to being stereotyped by a |12/14 |1/2 |81.25% |

|White student. | | | |

|Ans. "yes" to negatively affected by |6/14 |1/2 |43.75% |

|African American population. | | | |

|Ans. "yes" to being dissatisfied with |12/14 |1/2 |81.25% |

|ethnic diversity on campus. | | | |

|Ans. "yes" to being dissatisfied with |8/14 |1/2 |56.25% |

|religious diversity on campus. | | | |

|Found outreach by multicultural office |5/14 |0/2 |31.25% |

|"Not Satisfactory". | | | |

|Expressed feeling social alienation by |6/14 |1/2 |43.75% |

|White students. | | | |

Most respondents indicated feeling comfortable at Saint Mary’s College overall than feeling uncomfortable, this is shown by 14 out of the total 16 respondents indicating feeling either very comfortable, comfortable or somewhat comfortable in the survey. Despite the high level of comfort at Saint Mary’s indicated by the respondents, the data shows that most respondents experienced instances of discrimination, stereotyping or alienation in addition to negative attitudes toward the college’s lack of diversity and outreach by the Office of Multicultural Affairs.

The majority of those respondents who were comfortable at Saint Mary’s indicated experiencing racial discrimination, stereotypes and being dissatisfied with the ethnic diversity on campus. 10 out of 14 of those comfortable respondents experienced discrimination on campus while zero of those with an uncomfortable attitude indicated experiencing discrimination. This leaves 62.5% of total respondents, all comfortable, experiencing discrimination while a student at Saint Mary’s College. In addition, 12 out of 14 comfortable respondents indicated being racially stereotyped and having a dissatisfied attitude toward the ethnic diversity on campus in comparison to one out of the two uncomfortable respondents indicated these experiences and attitudes.

Table 2: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. Background Experience

|Table. 2 |  |  |  |

|  |Comfortable |Uncomfortable |TOTAL |

|Attended Predominantly White High School. |8/14 |1/2 |56.25% |

|Attended Racially Mixed High School. |5/14 |1/2 |37.50% |

|Non-Catholic |10/14 |1/2 |68.75% |

|Considered Diversity in decision to attend |3/14 |0/2 |18.75% |

|the college. | | | |

In Table 2: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. Background Experience, the same groups of comfort are used. Those indicating variations of comfortable and uncomfortable in question number 31 on the survey were compared to the questions assessing the respondents’ background. The background areas are based on factors that may influence the respondents’ comfort level at the college in reference to their experiences with the campus racial climate. The questions assess the racial makeup of their high school, the emphasis of diversity in their decision to attend Saint Mary’s College, and their religious affiliation with respect to the college’s Catholic background.

A high number of respondents reported being non-Catholic, 10 out of 14 of those indicating feeling comfortable described their religious affiliation as something other than Catholic in comparison to one out of those uncomfortable respondents with the same response. 68.7% of the total respondents did not indicate their religious affiliation as Non-Catholic; however, some did choose some variation of Christianity.

Over half of those respondents with comfortable attitudes described the racial makeup of their high school as predominantly White and five out of 14 respondents described their high school as being racially mixed or diverse. One respondent from the uncomfortable group described their high school as being predominantly White and the other’s high school was described as racially mixed. Overall there is a low percentage of those respondents, comfortable and uncomfortable, that considered diversity in their decision to attend college, only 3 out of 14 said diversity was considered from those comfortable and zero of those uncomfortable indicated diversity as a consideration.

Table 3: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. Experience with Campus Participation, those respondents indicating their attitudes toward the college being comfortable and uncomfortable are shown. Their comfort levels are compared with their areas of college participation, a factor known to influence and African American student’s perception of their predominantly White environment. The areas of participation measured are campus clubs, athletics and religious services.

Table 3: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. Experience with Campus Participation

|Table. 3 |  |  |  |

|  |Comfortable |Uncomfortable |TOTAL |

|Member of Campus Clubs |10/14 |2/2 |75.00% |

|Attended On Campus Religious Service. |3/14 |1/2 |25.00% |

|Accompanied by 10 or more African |8/14 |1/2 |56.25% |

|Americans while attending the college. | | | |

|Student Athlete |1/14 |0/2 |6.25% |

Seventy-five percent of the total sixteen respondents indicated that they were members of campus clubs which indicates a high level of campus involvement overall. There was a 100% response that those with uncomfortable attitudes were members of campus clubs and organizations compared to the 10 out of 14 comfortable respondents involved with campus activities.

A high number of participants indicated that there were 10 or more African Americans attending Saint Mary’s at the same time they were. An extremely low number of participants classified themselves as a student athlete, showing only 6.25% of total respondents as athletes, with the one person belonging to the group that experienced high levels of comfort at the college.

Table 4: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. Post College Attitudes/Success

|Table. 4 | | | |

| |Comfortable |Uncomfortable |TOTAL |

|Grade Point Average above 3.0. |4/14 |1/2 |31.25% |

|Marital Status |3/14 |1/2 |25.00% |

|Earnings of 50,000 and above. |10/14 |2/2 |75.00% |

|Would recommend the college to |10/14 |1/2 |68.75% |

|another African American student. | | | |

In Table 4: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. Post College Attitudes/Success, respondents’ comfort level was also compared to factors assessing their level of postgraduate success and attitudes. These were based on final grade point average, marital status, annual earnings and their attitudes on recommending the college to another African American student. 68.75% of all respondents answered “Yes” that they would recommend Saint Mary’s College to another African American based on their experiences as a minority student, 10 out of 14 being comfortable and 2 out of 2 being uncomfortable.

The data also indicates the socio-economic status of the respondents by indicating their annual earnings. In addition, earnings of $50,000.00 or more would classify participants as part of the middle class as per the commonly known Dennis Gilbert class model. This is shown due to 10 out of 14 comfortable participants that indicated earning $50,000.00 and above, 2 out of 2 of those uncomfortable are also in this category displaying 75% of participants being members of the middle class.

Discussion

Overall this study shows that African American alumnae of Saint Mary’s College have maintained a high level of comfort with the college indicating an overall positive experience. Saint Mary’s is a predominantly White institution lacking racial, ethnic and religious diversity. The research shows that due to the homogeneity of the student body, African American alumnae of the college have endured a variety of negative experiences such as discrimination, stereotypes, feelings of social alienation and attitudes of dissatisfaction toward the college’s diversity efforts.

However, the most important correlation found was the level of comfort and campus experiences in reference to the racial climate. Those indicating a high comfort level also indicated having negative racial experiences, with an overall low number of respondents indicating being uncomfortable at the college. In addition, respondents indicated high levels of success in respect to achieved socio-economic status based on occupation and income.

A number of reasons can be used to explain the high level of comfort and postgraduate success despite negative experiences with the campus racial climate. As the literature indicates, African American females are more likely to excel in predominantly White settings, moreover those attending women’s liberal arts colleges. Since Saint Mary’s is an all women’s college this factor accounts for higher comfort levels. Thus gender may be a significant factor in one’s educational process and positively impacts African American women in this setting.

Another explanation may be the high tolerance levels of the participants due to their background. Many of the participants indicated attending predominantly White or racially diverse high schools before attending Saint Mary’s College. Comfort levels and adjustment appeared easier for participants who had previously attended White high schools, supporting the idea that preparation for racist treatment enhances possibilities of coping. (Nghe & Mahalik, 2001; Davis & Bowie, 2004)

In conclusion, Dubois theory of double consciousness may apply to this particular situation of Blacks within the White dominant culture. Over the years, African Americans have mastered the technique of double consciousness and are able to be successful in more than one setting. However, further research is necessary to completely explore the experiences of African American students at predominantly White institutions including a co-educational institution, a larger sample size and possibly qualitative data to obtain a more in depth description of personal experience. A further investigation of Blacks perception of self-while attending predominantly White institution’s might answer the question. Overall, while Blacks in Predominantly White academic institutions may have to balance double consciousness and still face experiences of a negative racial climate, the data shows that the effects of attending these institutions do not have a negative impact on their attitudes about the college experience.

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