BACKGROUND - aceh.b-cdn.net



TERMINOLOGYAfrikaner - term used by original Dutch settlers and their descendants to describe themselves.Apartheid - a theory of racial separation used by South Africans to divide their society.African National Congress (ANC) - key black organisation opposing white supremacy, created in 1912 as the South African Native National Congress (SANNC), renamed in 1923.Separate development - idea behind apartheid, non-whites would develop own societies separate from white people, interacting only when it benefitted the whites.Sanctions - threatened penalties for a person or country breaking a rule of agreed course of action.Umkhonto we Sizwe - Spear of the Nation - military wing of the ernment of J.B. Vorster - Prime Minister of South Africa 1966-1978.Bantustans - ‘homeland’ or territory set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa.Rand - currency of South Africa, e.g. R72 million.TIMELINE1960 - Sharpeville Massacre killed 69 black South Africans.1961 - Sharpeville Massacre led to state of emergency, banning the ANC and communist party.1963 - South Africa leaves Commonwealth.1964 - Trial of Mandela - sentenced to life imprisonment.1968 - Prime minister Verwoerd assassinated.1977 - Soweto Uprising, 100+ school students are shot dead by police.1978 - Steve Biko, leader of Black Consciousness movement, killed in police custody.1983 - P.W. Botha became Prime Minister.1985 - SA’s new constitution creates Tricameral Parliament.1989 - Free Nelson Mandela Concert - 600 million worldwide audience.1990 - F.W. de Klerk becomes President of South Africa.1993 - unbanning of political organisations and freeing political prisoners - Mandela becomes de facto leader of ANC - dismantling of apartheid legislation begins.1994 - De Klerk and Mandela won the Nobel Peace Prize.NATURE OF THE APARTHEID SYSTEMBACKGROUND 6 April 1652 - original Dutch settlement - founded on racial division, and isolation of dutch colony from nativesBritsh vs Dutch war in SA from 1899-1902Purified National Party - influenced by Nazi ideology of racial purity - 1948 general elections joined the United Party to become the Reunited National Party - election campaign based on apartheidCountry with 25 million blacks and 5 million whites Apartheid was a device for a very small racial minority to dominate and economically exploit a very large racial majorioty through the comination of the legal system and police violenceDuring the Great Depression - number of white political parties - 1934 PM J.B.M Hertzog wanted unification with the party of Jan Smuts and subsequently formed the United Party - Afrikaners felt PM Jan Smuts had begun to oppose segregation and did not deal with the problem of the ‘poor white’ status of the many Afrikaner peopleAfrikaner - believed they were god's chosen peopleAfrikaners effectively became a platform of both Afrikaner affirmative action to protect the interest of the Afrikaners and a doctrine of racial segregation 1948 election victory for the National Party - campaigning on the apartheid platform - stay in power for 46 yearsPOLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC ISSUES IN SOUTH AFRICA IN 1960POLITICALPopulation Registration Act 1950 - required SA classification along racial lines - classification decided life chances (opportunities to improve life) - if your classification was disputed the pencil test was used on the hairLegislation prohibited sexual relations between white and non-white people - racial purity Reference book system - ‘passes’ - documents to be carried at all times by non-white South Africans, documenting racial status and travel restrictions - frustration over documents led to Sharpeville protest in March 1960, left 69 protesters dead - shot while fleeing policeEurpean withdrawal from African colonies was a direct challenge to the white minority gov of SA - decolonisation deemed to be a betrayal of the white man and left South Africa open to ‘an attack by black communist nations’ Decolonisation - concerning - newly free African states would not tolerate racism and oppression of black Africans by white governments - UN and Organisation of African Unity demanded SA to end its racial policiesECONOMIC1960 - black population’s average income level was less than 10% of white population, and Asian was less than 20% of white incomeDominique Lapierre - country ‘that produced more steel, coal, copper, uranium, and precious woods than India and Brazil consumed, but failed to provide millions of its children with a daily dish of corn and sweet potatoMultiracial communities such as Sophiatown were destroyed and rebuilt as white african housing named Triomf (Triumph) - 500 yard buffer zones established between white african and black african citiesSOCIALWhite South Africans lived a privileged lifestyle.DEMOGRAPHIC1960 - population classified into four groups - whites, coloureds, asians and blacks.Population in South Africa in 1960:16,003,139 people.19.3% white.68.3% African.3.0% Asian.9.4% coloured.APARTHEID - IDEOLOGY, POLICY AND PRACTICEIDEOLOGYApartheid - different racial groups in SA needed to be seperated for their own mutual benefit - based on the phlosophy of scientific racismAfrikaners believed that it was impossible and ungodly for different races to live as one - creating separate development policyPOLICYProhibition of Marriages Act (1949)Prohibition of marriage between whites and any other racial groupImmorality Act (1950)Prohibition of adultery, attempted adultery or related ‘immoral’ acts such as sexual intrcource between white and black people.The Population Registration Act (1950)All South Africans must be racially classified into one of three categories: white (both parents), black (part of an african race or tribe), coloured (neither black nor white).The Group Areas Act (1950)Residential separation compulsory - legal provisions on the specific areas where people of different population groups could own property, reside and work - to prevent non-whites from entering white-only areasThe Suppression of Communism Act (1950)Formally banned Communist Party of SOuth Africa, proscribed any party or group subscribing to communism according to a uniquely broad definition of the term. EffectFrequently used to silence critics of racial segregation and apartheid Facilitated government suppression of organisations The Bantu Authorities Act (1951)Objective to keep black people permanently from urban areas - set up “homelands” - granted independent status by central agreement - under chiefs subordinate to masters in Pretoria - lose SA citizenship and voting rightsThe Native Laws Amendment Act (1952)Narrowed definition of category of blacks who had the right to permanent residence in towns - limited this to those who’d been born in a town and had lived there continuously for at least 15 years or worked there for 10 yearsThe Abolition of Passes Act (1952)Further measure by govt to curb labour mobility - Introduction of reference book bearing photographs, details of origin, employment record, tax payments, fingerprints, encounters with police - repealed regional pass laws - made it nation-wideBantu Education Act (1953) - Establishment of a separate educational system, to ‘provide Blacks with skills to serve their own people in the homelands’ - 1 Jan 1954 - repealed in 1979The Criminal Law Amendment Act (1953) - Asserted anyone accompanying a person found guilty of offences committed during protests, or accompanied campaigns against harsh laws - presumed guilty and would have the responsibility to prove his or her innocence - repealed 1982The Reservation of Separate Amenities Act (1953) -Nationalist Party gov developed concept of unequal allocation of resources into law. Provided that there should be separate amenities for different racial groups, these facilities not the same quality for different groups - segregation signs displayed across the country - repealed 1990Native Labour (Settlement of disputes) Act (1953) - Prohibited registered trade unions from accepting black workers as members and forbade black workers to strikeSeparate Representation of Voters Act 1956 (amendment) - Replaced 1951 Board for Coloured Affairs with Union Council for Coloured Affairs (15 non-white people) - person not qualified for provincial council election unless white, State-aid institutions Act (1957) -Government to enforce segregation in libraries and places of entertainmentJob Reservations Act 1957/8 - Job reservation is one means by which the South African government limited job opportunities for blacks by compelling employers to maintain a fixed percentage of white workers Extension of Universities Act 1959This act made it a criminal offence for any non-white student to register at an open university without the written consent of the Minister of Internal Affairs Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act (1959)Abolished the representation of black people had in parliament and set guidelines for a political system for black rule in the homelandsPRACTICE1953 the SA gov introduced homelands or Bantustans, which were ethnic tribal homelands for black people - separated Pass book - carried by black Africans when entering white areas for purposes of workHomeland system introduced in 1960s - impoverished rural areas with no real capacity to function as separate states - relocation of black africans meant that they were no longer SA citizens - 13% of country divided into 10 homelandsWhite gov was constantly paranoid and vigilant of the ‘black peril’Influx control - limit the number of passes issued to black SA - passes contained finger prints, and notes of conduct from their white employer - regular pass raids, and if the pass book was not in their possession then they would be returned back to their Native homelands - violence used: beaten or whippedPass raids common - majority of Africans had been arrested at some point - majority criminals - white gov spent no finances on constructing services for Bantustans - public services for the black population were absent or insufficient IMPACT OF APARTHEID ON RURAL AND URBAN COMMUNITIES80% of Africa's land was set aside for white residents. Despite the fact that they consisted of less than 10% of the population1961 - referendum to become a republic - white south africa voted to cut all ties with the British commonwealth1960s economy was successful - mining and minerals - Johannesburg was the city of gold - number of people in gold mining doubledLarge Afrikaner corporations were formed, Afrikaners began earning twice that of the english speaking South Africans were earning - whites lived comfortable life - skilled jobs, able to afford a maid and gardenerBlack workers - backbone of economy - paid less than half of white worker and work was labour intensive and unskilled - not until the 1970s were blak workers able to demand wage increasesWhite protest of apartheid state was minimal - relationship between balck and white = master-servant dynamicElderly black SA man refer to white child as ‘Baas’ or ‘Master’ - all black men, regardless of age were ‘boys’ or ‘kaff*rs’1960s - white SA urbanisation - illegal black townships were bulldozed out of existence due to fears of black revoltTownship facilities and services were inferior - shanty houses, dirt floors, no electricity or running water, over crowded, poverty stricken, scarce fertile soil and lacked water - self sufficiency impossibleNATIONAL RESISTANCE TO APARTHEIDANC (African National Congress) formed in Bloemfontein in 1912 - working rights for non-whites - too passivePan African Congress 1959 - radical offshoot of ANCMalan National Party Government 1948 - elected after formal apartheid establishmentNATURE, GROWTH AND IMPACT OF THE AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (ANC) AND THE PAN AFRICANIST CONGRESS (PAC)ANC created in 1912 as the South African Native National Congress (SANNC)Communist Party of South Africa - early 1940-1950 organised most apartheid resistance and led by white communists - banned in 1952Anton Lembede president of ANC Youth League - ANC led to manifesto rooted in African nationalism and direct actionMembers of the youth league - Anton Lembede, Nelson Mandela, Oliver Tambo, and Walter Sisulu demanded more assertive program of action - mass protests, boycotts, and passive resistance of pass laws - known as Program of Action - adopted 1949Defiance Campaign (1952) - politely break apartheid laws such as curfew and pass laws - not effective against harsh oppression - extreme violence, fined, jailed - ANC had to call offANC organised official strike 26 June 1950 - protest against the Malan Government's move to ban the communist party - serious consequences Congress alliance - number of groups protesting apartheid - ANC, South African Council of Trade Unions, South African Indiean Congress, and Coloured Peoples Association - 1955 travelled collecting demands of ordinary africans for a free and just socieyu - compiled as the Freedom Charter - statement of political aims, and list of basic rights and freedomsFreedom CharterAdopted at the Congress of people on 26 June 1955The people would govern - all the right to vote - democratic electionAll National groups shall have equal rights People share the countries wealth - bank and monopoly industry transferred ownership to the people as a wholeLand shared among those who work itAll equal before the lawAll enjoy equal human rightsShall be work and securityDoors of learning and cultured opened to allHouses, security, and comfortPeace and friendship1959 splinter group within the ANC, led by Robert Sobukwe broke from the ANC and formed the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) - support from Soweto and black areas near Cape Town - group differed in conception of apartheid - PAC believed they were repressed as africans - more pro-African (equity) than pro-equality like the ANC - black people alone should be responsible for policy matters without white interferenceSIGNIFICANCE OF THE SHARPEVILLE MASSACREPAC formation in 1959 - more radical than ANC - Mandela, Tambo. Amd SisuluPass Laws - PAC and ANC planned direct action against pass laws in 1960 - competitive for supportPAC campaign resolved on the tactic of having thousands of male Africans present themselves at police stations - offer arrest for not carrying passes - clogging the judicial system - 21 March 1960 - rushed organisation and small number of protesters5000 protesters converged on a small police station armed with stones - police open fired and killed 69 people and wounded 180 - at the same time in Cape Town, the PAC was demonstrating with 20 000 protesters - killed 49 protestersConsequences:International condemnation - caused Pass Laws to be temporarilyPhillip Kgosana - local PAC leader led 30 000 to parliament house to protest police brutality in Cape Town - not enough numbers to hold back protesters, and Pass Laws suspended - Phillip arrested the next day and suspension order liftedVulnerability of whit SA was made clearANC and PAC were banned and went undergroundPAC leader Robert Sobukwe arrestedNelson mandela and Oliver Tambo fled overseasANC and PAC changed from non violent protest to direct military action - parties formed armed wings - Umkhonto we Sizwe (ANC) and Poqo (PAC) - Poqo was the first black political organisation in SA that openly accepted the taking of human life as a part of its strategyMANDELA AS HEAD OF UMKHONTO WE SIZWE, ‘THE SPEAR OF THE NATION’ (MK)Family Background and EducationMember of Madiba clan and royal family of the Thembu people, Rolihlahla Dalibhunga Mandela was born 18 July 1918 in Mvezo, in district of UmtataFather was village chief that often clashed with white authorities - when Mandela was 1 his father was stripped of position, lost cattle and home, and family was forced to move to the nearby village of QunuMendelas mother was christian - Mandelas father died in 1927Mandela attended the only black university in South africa - fled due to attempts by guardian to arrange marriage - began working at Crown Mines, witnessed true brutality of apartheid - graduated with a bachelor of the arts, then went on to get law degree 1952 opened first black legal service - providing low cost legal representation - injustice of apartheid laws - shaped ideas of needing radically different methods for fighting apartheidMandela’s leadership of the ANC1944 - joined ANC and became Youth League LeaderLate 1940s - helped launch the parties defiance program and in 1955 involved in drafting Freedom charter - made him a target with the authorities - restricted travel, association, and speechDecember 1956 - arrested with 100+ other people on charges of treason - went to trial and acquitted in 1961Mandela as head of Umkhonto we Sizwe, ‘The Spear of the Nation’ (MK)After Sharpeville Massacre, ANC banned by gov - went underground and pursued policy of violence successfully for 2 yearsMK’s sabotage attacks in 1961 against power station and gov buildingsObjective of sabotage to harm white economyMandela moved across South Africa - trained in Ethiopia as a guerrilla fighterDisguised himself as police, chauffeur, gardener, milkman, and chief - all to dodge policeAugust 1962 Mandela was arrested in Natal and received a 3 year sentence for incitementRIVONIA TRIAL, IMPRISONMENT ON ROBBEN ISLAND, ‘FREE MANDELA’ CAMPAIGNRIVONIA TRIALPolice arrested MK’s executive, including Walter Sisulu, at a hideout on Liliesleaf farm in Rivonia, Johannesburg - evidence that MK was planning a large-scale military action code-named Operation Mayibuye (‘bringing back what was lost’).Members of the ANC and whites in the South African Communist Party were arrested and charged with treason - sabotage.White government outraged that a banned organisation was planning a black revolution - involvement of Communist Party was made the central issue in prosecution of MK leaders.Nelson Mandela arrested in Durban in 1962 - sentenced to 5 years imprisonment in Pretoria.2016 - former CIA Donald Rickard revealed he had informed SA government of Mandela’s location - fear that Mandela was a dangerous communist.Mandela added to list of accused when Liliesleaf Farm raid went to trial despite being in prison when event occurred.Charge was sabotage rather than high treason - SA government seeking death penalty despite lesser charge - determined to see the ‘traitors and terrorists’ executed for violence against white society.Rivonia Trial and life sentences of ANC leaders broke leadership of MK and to some extent its spirit of resistance - Mandela’s role highly significant in recharging spirit of resistance.Mandela (a lawyer) used the trial as a platform to respond to the oppression by white society in SA - made historic address explaining ANC’s decision to adopt violent strategies and his own motivations to fight apartheid.World’s attention on trial - death penalty begrudgingly withdrawn by government.Accused found guilty - sentenced to life in prison on Robben Island, a small desolate island off Cape Town.Courage of Nelson Mandela to defy white law under threat of death and make a stand on universally moral grounds elevated ‘struggle’ of black South Africans and their representatives in the ANC - gained high international profile and became focus point/figurehead in anti-apartheid protests.AFTERMATH OF THE RIVONIA TRIALImmediate effect of trial was removal of leading figures of the MK and ANC.Oliver Tambo fled country after Sharpeville - by 1962 was formally the head of ANC’s diplomatic mission, addressing meetings and driving international support for struggle.External bases in African countries:Zambia - 1964.Botswana - 1966.Lesotho - 1966.Swaziland - 1968.Mozambique - 1975.Angola - 1975.Tanzania provided both administrative (Morogoro) and military (Kongwa) headquarters for ANC from 1965.1968 - South African Students’ Organisation (SASO) was created.1972 - Black People’s Convention (BPC).Rise of Black Consciousness Movement, matched by increased government suppression.Rivonia brought apartheid policies to international attention.1966 - United Nations commenced conferences seeking solutions to apartheid and implemented sanctions on South Africa.International sporting organisations banned South African teams that were selected on racial grounds from participating in events.SA excluded from Olympics between 1964 and 1988, and football’s World Cup.1970s - also excluded in cricket and rugby - country effectively excluded from international sports competition.IMPRISONMENT ON ROBBEN ISLANDKnow that he went there - Township riot case study - Pollsmoor March, Aug 1985March 1982, Mandela and fellow ANC leaders were transferred from Robben Island to Pollsmoor Prison. United Democratic Frount (UDF) called upon people to march to Pollsmoor Prison to demand the release of Mandela and other political prisoners - protestors had a majority of students who were protesting against the state’s education system.The march was severely repressed by the government and 28 people were killed in the ensuing violence.‘FREE MANDELA’ CAMPAIGNMandela became the symbol of the liberation struggle - transformed from imprisoned ‘terrorist’ to the world’s most famous prisoner, ‘Number 46664’.1980 - ANC leader Oliver Tambo introduced ‘Free Nelson Mandela’ campaign - fuelled international outcry against SA’s racist regime.1985 - Albertina Sisulu, wife of Walter Sisulu and one of the campaign’s presidents, said that Mandela’s release was the number one political priority of blacks.Believed that his would bring about negotiations for ending apartheid and working out a ‘non-racial, democratic’ constitutional system.World watched military state crush the opposition mounted by the black people it oppressed - international pressure increased and action was demanded.Campaign strong in England.Students led anti-apartheid protests and marched on banks to demand disinvestment in SA.E.g. Barclays in England, Chase Manhattan in NY.1986 - Europe Common Market vanned the purchase of SA iron and steel.1987 - 250+ international companies withdrew from SA, e.g. IBM, Ford, Coca-Cola.Corporate disinvestment in SA saw value of the Rand fall by 35% - caused immediate financial crisis.Economic sanctions were effective method in proving that the world considered apartheid morally reprehensible.1980s - SA economically vulnerable and dependent on world economy - no longer supported by mining.To avoid international sanctions - ‘sanction busting’ policies mittee for Unconventional Trade - set up to trade with Israel and countries in Latin America and Asia who would not uphold sanctions.For many black people, economic recession caused high unemployment and suffering.1960s - SA unable to compete in Commonwealth or Olympic Games; Britain, Australia and NZ banned cricket and rugby matches - games played by rebel teams faced pitch invasion and large demonstrations.SA deeply offended by rejection by nations it believed had similar racial policies - Aus and NZ.White South Africans that watched the first televised demonstration against their beloved Springboks in 1971 were forced to recognise the world’s disgust with apartheid.1977 Gleneagles Agreement - Commonwealth Presidents and Prime Ministers agreed to discourage contact and competition between their sportsmen and sporting organisations, teams or individuals from SA - unanimously approved at meeting in Gleneagles, Perthshire, monwealth was relevant body to impose a sporting ban on SA - popular sports dominated by Commonwealth member states.Agreed six months before parallel UN boycott - powerfully effective, success may have led the way to sanctions in cultural and economic areas.ROLE OF MANDELA’S LEADERSHIP OF THE ANC1944 - Mandela joined ANC, became a leader of its Youth League, also met and married Evelyn Ntoko Mase.Subsequently held other ANC leadership position - helped revitalise organisation and oppose apartheid policies.Late 1940s - helped launch party’s defiance program.1955 - involved in drafting of Freedom Charter.Anti-apartheid activism made him frequent target of authorities.From 1952 - banned numerous times (severely restricted in travel, association and speech).1955 - arrested with more than 100 other people on charges of treason that were designed to harass anti-government activists, went on trial that same year, acquitted in 1961.During court proceedings divorced first wife and married Nomzamo Winifred Zanyiwe Madikizela.SIGNIFICANCE OF STEPHEN BIKO AND THE BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS MOVEMENTImprisonment of the Rivonia Trial defendants removed some of the most popular and active anti-apartheid leaders - gave rise to Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) led by Stephen Biko in late 1960s and 1970s.Black Consciousness - young, disenfranchised black South Africans determined to overthrow apartheid, drawing pride from identity and culture.Drew strength from formation of South African Student Organisation (SASO) - formed by Steve Biko in 1968.Black trade unions also forming.Biko argued that only blacks could liberate themselves as white society was too accustomed to the racist policies of apartheid - must end all economic and social dependence on white people in order to be free.Set up Community Health Clinics (e.g. Zanempilo Community Health Care Centre (ZCHC)) to give free medicine and treatment.Biko’s work gained him national and international attention - apartheid regime banned him in 1973, detained without trial.From 1973 - Biko under close scrutiny by police for political and community programs.1977 - arrested and held naked in cell for 18 days, interrogated and beaten into a coma - driven over 1000km from King William’s Town cell to Pretoria army hospital and pronounced DOA.BCM immediately banned by government and Community Health Clinics Biko helped establish were destroyed by police.Goals of SASO as written by Stephen Biko:Make clear the needs and aspirations of the non-white students and make known their grievances.Put into effect programs designed to meet the needs of non-white students.To make the non-white students accepted on their own terms as an integral part of the SA student community.To establish a solid identity amongst the non-white students and to ensure that these students are treated with the dignity and respect they deserve.To act as a pressure group on all institutions and organisations for the benefit of the non-white students.To boost the morale of the non-white students and to contribute largely to the direction of throught taken by the various institutions on social, political and other topics.SOWETO UPRISINGBantu Education Act of 1953 - major battleground for Black Consciousness in 1970s.Education of black South Africans designed as a tool of repression - underfunded, ratio of 1 teacher to 58 students by 1967.1974 - Minister for Education ordered 50% of subjects to be delivered in Afrikaans (language of white oppressors) - most black teachers were unable to instruct in Afrikaans, black students knew their education would suffer as a result.16 June ernment of Prime Minister J.B. Vorster.Rising against overcrowding, lack of resources and high fees.Realisation that objective of apartheid plociy in education was to prepare black students to be servants.Over 20,000 protestors.School students began peaceful march to protest imposition of Afrikaans.Police responded by opening fire - armed police fired at will from armoured vehicles.Estimates of deaths range from 176 to over 700.Crushed by police - SA government lost remaining shreds of moral authority.Major impact on white society - largest challenge to government and apartheid system ever, could no longer ignore the demands for change coming from black people in SA.Global attention on methods and tactics of oppression used by apartheid regime.Soweto was the major turning point in the struggle against apartheid.REPRESSION AND CONTROL BY SOUTH AFRICAN GOVERNMENTS1970s - drastic changes:Economic boom of the 1960s slowed and unemployment rose.Black population growing faster than white.Resistance from black organisations intensified.International pressure increased.Laws and enforcing bodies of apartheid became expensive.SA neighbours setting up independent black governments.ROLE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF BANTUSTANS AND INDEPENDENT BLACK STATES1970s - government wanted to make a number of Bantustans fully independent black states - concept to preserve white SA and appease world.Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act 1959 - designed to create homelands or Bantustans as separate areas for black South Africans to live.Hendrik Verwoerd, Minister for Native Affairs - pushed message of ‘separate development’ for all black South Africans, theory was to ‘retribalize’.The economic, political and social administration of the Bantustans would eventually come under the control of black civil administrators, not the Republic of South Africa, and all blacks would be prescribed to 1 of 10 Bantustans as homeland.Many black leaders opposed the homelands but eventually came to adopt government policies.Most people living in the Bantustans saw the black tribal chiefs (e.g. Kaiser Matanzima, leader of Transkei) and other appointed leaders as ‘lackeys’ of the SA government.Bantustans were overcrowded and impoverished - heavily reliant on SA infrastructure and economic aid, e.g. Bophuthatswana.The government hoped that the creation of Bantustans would solve the ‘black problem’ because ‘ethnic’ loyalty in the Bantustans would replace broader African nationalism and split the power base of anti-apartheid groups.Failure by the 1970s - government determined to make them independent as demonstration of liberalisation and modernisation, and a way of quelling domestic and international protest.Only ever housed ? of black population and never received international recognition as independent ernment decided to grant limited independence to four homelands - own president, some administrative powers, remained financially dependent on SA, didn’t have the right to make own policies.P.W. Botha - hoped to create a group of African leaders in the homelands who depended on SA government.1976 - Transkei became first homeland to gain independence.1977 - Bophuthatswana and Venda.1981 - Ciskei.Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi refused to accept independence for KwaZulu, and resistance by the people in the remaining Bantustans led the government to scrap its plans.NATURE, IMPACT AND SIGNIFICANCE OF TACTICS OF REPRESSION AND OPPRESSIONWhite government’s control of the country rested on two things:Repressive legislation that controlled the movement and opportunities of the non-white population.A well-resourced security police force that thad permission to use any force necessary to enforce that legislation.Repression could quickly turn to a violent and deadly suppression of dissent - e.g. Sharpeville in 1960 and Soweto in 1976.Banning of individuals and organisations, and the Rivonia Trial, showed another side of repression.In all approached the SA government relied upon its security police to repress the aspirations of the non-white population.Tactics of oppression and repression:Legislation - Public Safety Act of 1953, the government could declare a state of emergency. Security measures and legislation in parliament.Internal Security Amendment Act No. 79 1976 - granted police powers to deal with individuals who were seen as a threat to the security of the state.Detention without trial - more than 75,000 people from 1960, many died from ‘suicide or hunger strikes’ while in custody, including Steve Biko.Banning of individuals - arrest, torture and killing of Steve Biko in 1977 for breaking a banning order.Political trials - Rivonia Trial 1963-64.Political executions - Notemba Bozwana in 1964 for sabotage.Control of passports - refusal of applications from non-white people for passports, e.g. Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo.Banning of organisations - South African Communist Party (1950), ANC (1960), PAC (1960), Congress of South African Students (1985).Repression of gatherings - formal ban on all outdoor political meetings since 1976.Repression of publications in 1977 - banning of books and magazines, newspapers unable to report on ‘unrest’, e.g. black daily newspaper The World.South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), newsprint and radio complied with censorship laws set down by the government - media used to transmit biased reporting of anti-apartheid protests and police action, anti-apartheid newspapers closed down, breaking censorship laws resulted in fines and jail.Repression of political activities - banning of a broad range of campaigns calling for change - 17 black political organisations banned in 1977.Gun ownership by white South Africans higher than any population in the world - over 2 million private guns.Military increased - modern equipment such as jets, tanks and military technology purchased from around the world.Personnel increased from 106,000 in 1961 to 592,000 in 1981.Military spending increased from R72 million in 1961 to R3 billion in 1981.Mid 1980s - leader of National Party and SA, P.W. Botha, declared that SA was facing a ‘total onslaught in every aspect of its national life’ - determined to keep SA under white minority rule.Perceived a world conspiracy against SA led by communists - to counter threat, Botha declared a policy of total strategy - every aspect of white SA would fight to resist enemies, internal and ernment intended to gradually introduce a number of reforms to gain black people’s support:Change petty apartheid laws such as separate amenities and therefore less ‘public apartheid’.Recognise African Trade Unions.Repeal laws against interracial sex and marriage.End some segregation in business and employment.Granted limited independence to four homelands - still economically dependent on SA.Planned to reorganise black urban townships by allowing the development of new townships and by providing them with adequate facilities, housing, water and electricity - to reduce frequency of riots.Attempted to build a black ‘middle class - wealthier blacks formed a class that poor blacks referred to as ‘excuse me class’, attempt to ‘appreciate’ white government but not demand end of apartheid.1983 - South African Constitution changed, allowing tricameral parliament (parliamentary representation to coloured people and Indians), blacks still denied vote.Representation of coloureds and Indians could be overridden by white representatives in the President’s Council.At the same time, intensified repression - tactics included:Banning orders.Strengthening of army.Increase of civil defence forces.Fighting wars in border nations to prevent liberation and deliberately destabilising any black government not subordinate to SA.Strategies for increasing white male conscription into the armed forces.Attempt to purchase nuclear bomb from Israel.Tried to persuade world into accepting apartheid and SA’s status as besieged nation.THE IMPACT OF GOVERNMENT TACTICS: A STATE OF EMERGENCYBlack resistance to apartheid intensified in 1980s - violent township riots.Oliver Tambo, President-General of ANC in exile, used the radio station ‘Freedom’ to call on people fighting apartheid to ‘render South Africa ungovernable’.1985 - protests left police unable to restore order.1986 - South African Defence Force (SADF) used to stop riots and national state of emergency declared - general state of emergency for all of South Africa - strict curfews, military patrols, townships sealed off by army.1985-1989 - political violence prominent, black townships became focus of struggle between anti-apartheid organisations and the Botha government.Township people resisted apartheid by acting against the local issues that faced their particular communities - against local authorities and leaders seen to be supporting the government.1985 - ANC’s aim to make black townships ‘ungovernable’ - rent boycotts and militant action.Township councils overthrown or collapsed - replaced by unofficial popular organisations, often led by militant youth.People’s courts set up, residents accused of being government agents were dealt extreme and occasionally lethal punishment.Black town councillors and policemen and sometimes their families were attacked with petrol bombs, beaten and murdered by necklacing - burning tyre placed around the victim's neck after they were restrained by wrapping wrists with barbed wire.Necklacing was a signature act of torture and murder embraced by the ANC.20 July 1985 - Botha declared a ‘state of emergency’ in 36 magisterial districts - Eastern Cape and ‘Pretoria, Witwatersrand, Vereeniging’ (PWV) region affected, 3 months later Western Cape included.Increasing number of organisations banned or restricted and individuals restricted to house arrest.Internal Security Amendment Act:About 2436 people detained under this act during state of emergency.Gave police and military sweeping powers.The government could implement curfews.President could rule by decree without referring to the constitution or parliament.Criminal offence to threaten someone verbally or possess documents that the government perceived to be threatening, to advise anyone to stay away from work or oppose the government, and to disclose the name of anyone arrested under the state of emergency until the government released that name - up to 10 years imprisonment.Detention without trial common - by 1988, 30,000 people had been detained.Media censored, thousands arrested, interrogated and tortured.12 June 1986 - state of emergency extended to whole country, also 4 days before the 10th anniversary of the Soweto ernment amended Public Safety Act 1953 including the right to declare ‘unrest’ areas and allowing extraordinary measures to crush protests.Severe censorship of press dominant tactic - cameras banned from entering areas of unrest.South African Broadcasting Corporation provided propaganda in support of the government.Growth of pro-ANC underground press - increasing media opposition to system.1987 - state of emergency extended for two years.1987 - 200,000 members of National Union of Mineworkers commenced longest strike (3 weeks) in SA history.1988 - activities of UDF and other anti-apartheid organisations banned.State of emergency continued until 1990 - lifted by State President F.W. de Klerk.Most violence in late 1980s and early 1990s directed at government - substantial amount between dissidents.Many died in violence between members of Inkatha and UDF-ANC faction - government manipulated the situation by supporting one side or the other when it ernment agents assassinated opponents within SA and abroad - cross-border army and air force attacks on suspected ANC and PAC bases.ANC and PAC retaliated with bombing restaurants, shopping centres and government buildings.1960-1994 Inkatha Freedom Party responsible for 4,500 killings, SADF responsible for 2,700 killings and ANC responsible for 1,300 killings.ROLE OF SOUTH AFRICAN SECURITY FORCESThe South African security forces, became a combination of the police and the South African Defence Force (SADF). The difference between the two disappeared and they were tasked with maintaining law and preventing riots. The torture of accused ‘terrorists’ and diasppearances of others became commonplace, the security forces also employed the use of vigilantes, called Kitskonstabels (instant constables)Set up counterintelligence operations spying on all South Africans to prevent criticism of the government, main goal was to protect ‘key points’ + important government installations such as the Sasol oil refinery. A large proportion of the South African national budget was dedicated to making South Africa a military state - approx. 16.4% in the 1980’s, highest in 1982 of 22.7%RELATIONS WITH NEIGHBOURING AFRICAN COUNTRIESSecond phase of ‘total strategy’ was to protect the borders of South Africa from the neighbouring African countries who were advancing the process of decolonisation, gaining independence and implementing black governments.South Africa had always maintained the border countries of Angola, Namibia, Mozambique, Rhodesia (current Zimbabwe) and Botswana as a ‘buffer zone’, these countries were supported by Marxist governments who were determined to aid the ANC and other black freedom fighter organisationsThe SADF pursued a policy of forward defence by carrying out operation against its’ neighbours, the SADF crossed borders wherever it believed ANC bases were, it also illegally occupied NamibiaSADF assisted UNITA, a military opposition force in Angola, who had arms supplied by the US and raged civil war on the newly formed Angola governmentSADF also financed the Mozambique National Resistance (MNR), an opposing militay force in Mozambique Main Goal: to destabilise surrounding countries by supporting the opposing revolutionary forces and causing brutal civil warsThe ‘Boys on the border’ were tasked with protecting white South Africans from black communists As her neighbouring countries gained freedom, and were determined to oppose the apatheid INTERNATIONAL RESPONSES TO SOUTH AFRICAN POLICIESAfter the Soweto uprising in 1976 and the constant township riots of the 1980’s, South Africa began to face fierce international condemnation. Economic sanctions were applied by many Western countries. The Apartheid was coming under increasing attack from various organisations; UN, World Council of Churches, international business and international anti-Apartheid movements.US Vice-President Walter Mondale and President Jimmy Carter began to speak ou and demand rights for black people and tougher sanctions on South Africa.Margaret Thatcher, called the sanctions, ‘punitive sanctions as immoral and utterly repugnant. Ronald Reagan condemned the Apartheid but was opposed to economic sanctions. END OF APARTHEIDPOLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE END OF APARTHEIDPolicy of total strategy - did not stop the anti-apartheid groups such as the ANC, PAC, and UDF from protesting - poverty continued and unemployment rised 1984 township riots - Botha’s state of emergency failed to make SA safer for whites - whites lost liberties under military state - ANC continued to attack targets such as post offices and shopping centres - whites became disillusioned - many coloured and Indians became openly defiant of the white state, demanding full democracy Regional communities involving local activists had established on 20 Aug 1983 the multiracial party, the United Demoratic front, was formed at a meeting in Cape Town - major goal to introduce tricameral parliament, advocated rent and consumer boycotts, school protests, and worker stayaways - highly successful because it was an umbrella organisation representing a vast number of people and ideologies - 1000 affiliated groupsUDF high profile members - Archbishop Desmond Tutu and the Reverend Frank Chikane, anti-apartheid activists such as Archie Gumede, Albertina Sisulu and Partik Lekota, and WInnie MandelaUDF adopted the Freedom Charter in 1987 and called for unbanning of the ANC, but the relationship between the groups was strainedUDF not part of township revolts of 1984-85, and focused on establishment of tricameral parliament - Gov still held them responsible (arrested) - Pietermaritzburg Treason Trial and Delmas treason trial (1985) - very existence claimed to be act of treason - all charges eventually droppedTricameral parliament - 3 chambers - 1 white, 1 coloured, 1 indianTownship revoltsSchool boycotts continued after 1976 - ‘Liberation before education’ - permanent schooling disruption for black studentsSeptember 1984 opening of the Tricameral Parliament in Cape Town - Vaal Triangle protests - marches, stayaways, and boycotts due to increasing municipal and transport rates - increased police retaliationMarch 1985 - stone-throwing protesters - police issued heavy ammunition leading to the death of 6 men - funeral scheduled on the 21 March as the state didnt allow weekend funerals in an attempt to curb political protest. 21 March is 25th anniversary of Sharpville massacre - new court order - funerals could only be held on Sundays21 March 1985 - crowd gathered in Langa township marching peacefully towards a white residential area - police open fired woulding 27 and killing 35 people15 October 1985 - South African Railways truck drove up and down a road in Cape Town repeatedly - stone was thrown at it - armed police got out and started open firing on the students who threw the stone - killed 3 - Trojan Horse Massacre - all police acquittedState of emergencyState President P.W. Botha declared partial State of Emergency on 21 July 1985 due to increasing violent and non-violent acts of resistance - only in 36 magisterial districtsGave the government extraordinary powers to impose curfews, ban organisations, destain undesirables indefinitely, silence mediaMany leaders imprisoned and killed - Matthew Goniwe (Cradock Four) amd Victoria Mxcenge Consumer boycotts of white shops were effective1985 UDF - 700 organisations, and over 2 million members - powerful in demanding the end of apartheid - August 1985 march to Pollsmoor Prison, Cape Town, where Mandela was held - non-violent - police retaliated killing 28 people - violence errupted throughout Western Cape - Township growing tension left forms of white authority met with violenceNatal - situation exacerbated due to Inkatha involvement - suspicion that UDF was a front for ANC - ideological clashes resulted in violent deaths600 killed (political violence) in the first 6 months of state of emergency1986 State of emergency declared nationally - political funerals banned, gatherings banned, TV not allowed to film unrest, curfews imposed, detained thousands - encouraged antiapartheid mobilisation - sign of insecurity of minority rule1986 January - UDF met ANC in Stockholm - attempted to work together - a few months after UDF banned as well as 16 other affiliated organisations - eventually joined Mass Democratic Movement in 1989 to continue civil disobedience1986 PW Botha abolished passbook - common identity document for all South Africans - lifted ban on mixed-race marriages, removed influx control laws - only cosmetic changesINTERNATIONAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE END OF THE APARTHEID1988 - cost of running military state resulted in poor economic performance - sanctions drove into economic recession - SA unable to obtain foriegn loans“Free Mandela’ Campaign, sporting sanctions, severe international criticism, military and tech embargoes, and isolation by other African Nations - crippled SA Bob Hawkes economic sanctions were successfulPROBLEMS FACING THE NATIONAL PARTY AND THE ANC IN THE TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY IN SOUTH AFRICAP.W Botha resigned as president - replaced by FW de Kerk who’s goal was to end the apartheid2 Feb 1990 - de Klerk opened parliament and began dismantling the apartheid state - recinded ban on ANC, PAC, SA Communist Party, abd 30 political organisations - freed political prisoners, halted death sentence - 11 Feb released Nelson Mandela from prisonMeetings to lay out SA’s new democracy - The Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) - National Party and ANC debated their differing versions of democracy - ANC walked outTraditional rulers of SA wanted to retain power and wanted to protect white minorityEugene Ney Terre’Blanche - popular white supremacist, nationalistm and keader of AWB - caused splintering of National Party - led right wing demonstartions - defy peaceful negotiations - difficult for National Party to make a peaceful transitionRight-wing white extremists let off bombs and interrupted meetingsANC faced a number of difficultiesConflict in negotiating with National PartyANC wanted ‘one person, one vote’ - anxious to embraceNatal province - Chief Buthelezi of Inkatha refused to assist with constitutional negotiations - feared ‘one man, one vote’ would lead to ANC government and instead proposed a federal democracyAssasination of ANC hero, Chris Hanu by white supremisists - almost caused violent national outbreak - Mandela appealed to nation and averted a mass reactionANC losing control of political base - feared white extremists were supplying Inkatha with weapons and instiated fighting between black political groups, preventing march towards democracy27 April 1994 - first non-racial electionANC won election - Nelson Mandela became President of SA - FW de Klerk became Deputy President ................
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