Determinants of College and University Choice for High ...

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International Journal of Higher Education

Vol. 7, No. 3; 2018

Determinants of College and University Choice for High-School Students in Qatar

Semsia Al-Ali Mustafa1, Abdel Latif Sellami1,, Engi Assaad Ahmed Elmaghraby1 & Haneen Basheer Al-Qassass1 1 Social and Economic Survey Research Institute, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar Correspondence: Semsia Al-Ali Mustafa, Social and Economic Survey Research Institute, Qatar University, P.O Box 2713, Doha, Qatar. Tel: 974-4403-3038. E-mail: semsia@qu.edu.qa

Received: April 4, 2018 doi:10.5430/ijhe.v7n3p1

Accepted: April 17, 2018

Online Published: April 24, 2018

URL:

Abstract

This paper investigates various predictors of high school students' college and university choice decisions in Qatar. Based on a 2015 survey of 1,427 participants, this study utilized exploratory factor analysis to identify variables that affect student choice of higher educational institutions (HEI). Three factors were extracted from the analysis, revealing the following aspects of the academic experience as important when choosing a HEI: i) quality of education; ii) cultural values; and iii) the cost of education. Ordinal logistic regression was employed to test whether several independent variables (student's gender, nationality, parental education, and parental occupation) act as significant predictors of the three extracted dimensions (dependent variables). The analysis revealed, to varying degrees, that demographic characteristics significantly predict a student's HEI choice. Discussion on postulated reasons behind the recorded relationships will follow, along with implications and recommendations for further study and research. The study's findings will assist HEIs in Qatar and the broader region, to position themselves more effectively, and develop targeted strategies that attract and maintain a diverse student population.

Keywords: post-secondary educational plans, Qatar, factor analysis, regression

1. Introduction

Marketing has become the hallmark of modern institutions of higher education across the globe. With colleges and universities increasingly incorporated within the global education market, the educational landscape has become highly competitive. As such, colleges and universities are facing increased competition as they attempt to attract an ever-growing and diverse student base. Kinzie et al. (2004) noted that in order to stay financially viable and competitive, student enrollment serves as "the lifeblood of colleges and universities" (p. 4). Mounting evidence shows that higher education marketing plays a significant role in recruiting college- and university-going students (Ivy, 2001, 2008; Lang, 2009; Noel-Levitz, 2012). Subjecting educational institutions to market forces has been a popular topic of debate (Bartlett et al., 2002; Bok, 2003; Newman et al., 2004), as some educators and decision-makers oppose the marketization of education, and dispute the idea of treating students as consumers or customers altogether (Holbrook, 2005; Sharrock, 2000).

In today's world of globalization and rapidly evolving technological advancements, having completed high school is no longer perceived as sufficient to maintain a comfortable standard of living (Cohen, 2016; Git, 2014). With more jobs demanding post-secondary education and training, attending further education is now considered a requirement to gainful employment. Belief in the traditional formula: "college = white-collar job = success", often motivates parents to prepare their children to engage in additional higher education. Since skilled job opportunities generally require post-secondary credentials, a college or university degree is "the ticket to a white-collar job and a middle-class lifestyle" (Kinzie et al., 2004, p. 15). It is therefore important to understand the determinants that underpin school-leavers' decisions to enroll in a HEI.

Research into the variables affecting student college and university choices is well established, particularly in the United States (Davignon, 2016; Hoyt & Brown, 2003; Johnston, 2010; Kinzie et al., 2004; Moogan & Baron, 2003; Perna, 2006). Additionally, similar work has been carried out in the UK (Briggs, 2006; Dunnett et al., 2012; Moogan & Baron, C2003), Australia (Mazzarol, Choo & Nair, 2001), and Canada (Drewes & Michael, 2006; Lang, 2009). However, very little is still known about student educational choices in the Arab world. While limited in scope, this

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International Journal of Higher Education

Vol. 7, No. 3; 2018

study paints a picture of important factors that determine student college or university choice in the context of an Arab country, Qatar, and offers an alternative perspective that may bridge this gap in the literature.

1.1 Education in Qatar

The State of Qatar exhibits an example of a market-driven system of higher education involving a number of rival institutions that actively recruit students. Home to many different nationalities, Qatar is a small Arabian Gulf state with a total population of 2,641.669 in 2017 (Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics, 2018). Estimates indicate that Qatari nationals make up less than 15% of the total population in the country. Abundant carbohydrate resources such as oil and natural gas have provided the nation with incredible wealth and its citizens with economic security for the past few decades, during which time the country has developed a reputation for massive investments in education, research, the arts, and science (Crist & Powell, 2017).

The Education for a New Era (EFNE) reform ? an initiative designed to overhaul the K-12 education in Qatar ? was launched in 2002 (Brewer et al., 2007). Prompting educational institutions to embrace a market-oriented approach to their business activities, the EFNE led to a school system that consists of four types: i) independent schools; ii) international schools; iii) community schools; and iv) private Arabic schools. Qatari students often attend independent schools that are government-funded and gender-segregated, with separate schools for boys and girls, which respects the nation's conservative Muslim values.

The current education market in Qatar has fueled aggressive competition among colleges and universities, who offer various services and facilities to attract prospective students. Qatar University was inaugurated shortly after the independence of the country in 1973. Offering a range of nine Colleges including Arts and Sciences, Business and Economics, Education, Engineering, Health Sciences, Law, Medicine, Pharmacy, and Sharia and Islamic Studies), it is the oldest, largest, and only public university in the country.

Located in the so-called `Education City', Qatar hosts satellite campuses for other universities, such as Virginia Commonwealth University, Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University, Northwestern University, Texas A&M University, Weill Cornell Medical College, University College London, and HEC Paris (which offers executive education programs for mid-career and senior executives). These universities provide the same quality of education, programs and facilities that their main home campuses offer, with similarly high tuition fees.

Founded in 2010, Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU) is a recent addition to the Education City, and a member of the Qatar Foundation for Education, Science, and Community Development. HBKU offers programs in Islamic studies, Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Engineering, and Law and Public Policy. Other HEIs in Qatar include the Community College of Qatar that offers programs in Business, Computer Science, Humanities and Social Sciences; the College of the North Atlantic that offers programs by the School of Business Studies, the School of Engineering Technology and Industrial Trades, the School of Health Sciences, and the School of Information Technology; Stenden University that hosts degree programs in Hospitality, Tourism and Management; and the University of Calgary that offers a Nursing program.

2. Review of Literature

Scholarship on the factors that determine student choice of a future institution of higher education has undergone significant changes over the past few decades, due to important educational and societal changes, including demographic and market characteristics, as well as institutional practices (Agrey & Lampadan, 2014; Kinzie et al., 2004; Wiese, Van Heerden & Jordaan, 2010). Many researchers contend that the decision to enroll in further education is a complex process that involves different perspectives and a myriad of factors (Brennan, 2001; Wiese, 1994).

Two distinctly dominant models of choice are identified in the literature, as an attempt to account for the reasons why students choose particular post-secondary institutions: one is based on an economic model, and the other is based on a sociological model (Chatfield, Lee & Chatfield, 2012; Fernandez, 2010; Maringe, 2006; Somers, Haines & Keene, 2006). The economic model stipulates that students would choose a college or university when their choice decisions are associated with perceived costs and benefits (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000; Paulsen & John, 2002). The sociological model maintains that students' gender, academic ability, socioeconomic status, the school context, and the opinions of significant others are the prime factors that influence their choice of HEI.

In their review of HEI choice models, Krezel and Krezel (2017) noted a set of social factors that influence a student's HEI choice, which fell into three broad types of influences: 1. Student-related characteristics; 2. Institutional factors; and 3. Greater social environment, i.e. the family and peers. Similarly, other research reports that HEI choice decisions are associated with Student characteristics (Goldrick-Rab, 2009; Hoxby & Turner, 2013; Perna & Steele,

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2011), Institutional variables (Belasco, 2013; Cabrera & La Nasa, 2001; Kim & Schneider, 2005; Plank & Jordan, 2001), and Cultural influences (Hemsley-Brown, 1999; Lovenheim & Reynolds, 2012; Nora, 2004). Despite the literature on the choice of HEI, it is not clear what the effects of these influences are.

Student characteristics such as race, gender, and socio-economic variables, noting parents' education levels, occupations, incomes (Rouse, 1995; Long, 2004) and academic abilities (Hossler, Braxton & Coopersmith, 1989), are also recognized as influential on students' college/university choices. Other research referring to environmental factors in addition to parental income, considers family size, peer influence, residential area, and the distance from home to school as determinants of college enrollment decisions (Long, 2004; Townsend, 2007).

Institutional influences affecting student college/university choice include the institution's image and academic reputation, especially regarding the quality of courses and teaching (Baksh & Hoyt, 2001), as well as the quality of the institution's academic and recreational facilities (Absher & Crawford, 1996; Price et al., 2003). Research by Lagrosen, Seyyed-Hashemi and Leitner (2004) showed that the courses on offer, internal evaluations, computer facilities, and library resources are important factors that affect the post-secondary choice decisions that students make concerning enrollment in HEI. Other institutional factors included the availability of financial aid, employment opportunities, advertising (Kim, 2004; Van der Klaauw, 2002), the cost of tuition (Joseph & Joseph, 2000), convenience and accessible location (Absher & Crawford, 1996), and availability of programs sought (Yusof et al., 2008).

Research by Chung, Fam & Holdsworth, (2009) reported how social and cultural factors are important predictors that shape the enrollment decisions for college-going students. Other research refers to the impact of significant others, i.e., parents, teachers, and friends who serve as role models, and influence the hopes and aspirations of college goers (Hossler, Braxton & Coopersmith, 1989). In summary, the range of factors that students take into account when choosing a HEI differ in relevance, and vary according to students' social and cultural backgrounds.

3. Significance

Higher education is central to Qatar's effort to build national capacity, and transition into a knowledge-based society (Crist & Powell, 2017). Beyond the key role they play in preparing human capital, HEIs are essential for economic and social progress and prosperity. Within the context of growing concern about the shortage of citizens equipped with the critical skills and competencies needed for the knowledge economy in Qatar, higher education plays a critical role. A distinctly heterogeneous and overwhelmingly foreign-born population in the education system places pressure on the need for more colleges and universities.

This research was motivated by the limited options available to students and their families in the country, particularly those who are not citizens. Whilst Qatari nationals have better access to the nation's only public university, Qatar University, and enjoy preferential enrollment and free tuition, accessing higher education continues to pose a real financial challenge to many, particularly foreign nationals residing in the country, who often resort to bank loans to cover the educational expenses of their children. Consequently, most non-citizen students seeking high quality higher education are left with two options: 1. To obtain a degree overseas, or 2. Obtain their degree at one of the private universities based in Qatar's Education City, and meet the exorbitant tuition fees.

4. Research Questions

The study sought to (i) identify factors that significantly influence high school students' choice of a prospective college or university in Qatar, and (ii) examine the intersection of background characteristics, institutional traits, and socio-cultural variables, and their impact upon students' HEI choice. Concurrently, the study aimed to decipher the disparities reflected in student, institutional, and social and cultural influences.

The study was guided by two main research questions:

1) What factors drive students' choices of post-secondary institutions upon graduation in Qatar?

2) What background characteristics significantly predict the importance of these factors?

The study hypothesized that student background characteristics i.e. gender, nationality, and parental levels of education and occupation, significantly predicted their choice decisions regarding post-secondary education institutions.

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Vol. 7, No. 3; 2018

5. Methodology

5.1 Participants

The data collected for the study originate from the Qatar University Image Study (QUIS), a nationally representative survey conducted by the Social and Economic Survey Research Institute (SESRI) in November 2015. The QUIS consisted of two surveys administered to high school students and their parents. Due to resource constraints, the present study analyzed only the data on student participants.

The study included students attending 11th and 12th grades (N=1,427). Of these, 38% (N=461) were Qatari and 62% (N=966) non-Qatari. Amongst Qatari students who participated in the study, 54% were in grade 11 and the remaining 46% were in grade 12. With regard to non-Qatari students, 50% were from each grade. With respect to gender, female students constitute 53% of all respondents. Overall, 84% of Qatari students were enrolled in independent schools while 46% of non-Qatari students were in independent schools, followed by Asian expatriate schools (22%), and international schools (14%). Only 5% of Qatari students attended gender-mixed schools, whereas 41% of non-Qatari students attended gender-mixed school.

5.2 Sampling Procedure

Using information obtained from the Supreme Council of Education (replaced by the Ministry of Education and Higher Education in 2016 as part of a government reorganization), the sampling frame of this survey was developed by SESRI based on the list of all public and private schools operating in Qatar that offer grade 11 and grade 12 education. The sampling frame for the QUIS 2015 was developed by SESRI using school system information provided by the Ministry of Education.

To ensure the proportion of students in each stratum was similar between the frame and the sample, a proportionate sample allocation was utilized. The sample size of this survey was 35 schools with three schools refusing to participate, resulting in 32 surveyed schools. This sample design was taken into account when analyzing the data, to ensure unbiasedness and efficiency of the statistical estimates. Specifically, a weighting variable was created to account for different selection probabilities of students and non-responses. With the above number of completions, the sampling error was calculated to be +/- 3.9 percentage points.

5.3 Instrumentation

A draft questionnaire was developed in English and then translated into Arabic, and researchers fluent in both Arabic and English reviewed the translation for accuracy. Respondents were asked to fill in either the Arabic or English version of the questionnaire. The data needed for the study was collected using paper-and-pencil questionnaires distributed in class. Upon receiving approval from the Internal Review Board at Qatar University, official letters requesting permission to conduct the study were submitted to the relevant schools. Students and their parents/guardians were informed in advance about the purpose of the study, that participation in the survey was voluntary and that all answers would be treated in strict confidentiality. The questionnaire was pre-tested with interviews of 38 students from three randomly selected schools. Based on data collected, field observations and suggestions made by the pretest field team, necessary adjustment were made in the wording and translation of the questionnaire.

5.4 Measures

The dependent variable was captured by responses to the statement "In general, how important is each of the following factors in your choice of where to apply to college/university?" on a three-point Likert scale (1= Very important, 2= Somewhat important, and 3= Not important). The set of items to evaluate included: (a) Lower education cost (e.g., low tuition, fees); (b) Financial aid/scholarship; (c) Quality of academic programs; (d) Quality of professors/ teachers; (e) Quality of student life; (f) Availability of programs/majors I am interested in; (g) Availability of degree programs that offer good job opportunities; (h) Prestige of the university/ college; (i) Recognition of the degrees in other countries (accreditation); (j) Instruction in Arabic; (k) Instruction in English; (l) Separate campuses for male and female students; (m); Easy admissions criteria; (n) Campus environment is conducive to my culture/values; (o) Family member(s) attending/attended the college/ university; (p) Friends plan to attend the college/university; (q) Size of the college/university campus; and (r) Total number of students.

Based on the factor analysis, three dimensions were extracted: 1. Quality of education; 2. Cultural values, and 3. Cost of education, which were used as the dependent variables in the analysis. Details of the factor analysis will be further discussed in the Results section.

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Vol. 7, No. 3; 2018

Independent Variables: Five independent variables were employed in this study: gender, nationality, parents' highest level of education, father's occupation and mother's occupation.

Gender. The gender variable was dichotomized into 0= Female and 1= Male.

Nationality. Given the specific demographic composition of the population in Qatar, student's nationality was deemed as an important predictor of higher education choices. Accordingly, it was dichotomized into two subpopulations: non-Qatari (0) and Qatari (1).

Parental highest level of education. This variable consisted of four categories: 1= Less than high school, 2= Completed grade 12 or higher, 3= Diploma/associate degree after high school, and 4= Completed university degree. Level of parental education was initially recorded separately for fathers and mothers, but was later merged into a single variable so that the highest level of education of either parent is recorded.

Father's occupation and mother's occupation. Father's occupation was recorded in an open-ended item, and accordingly recoded into following categories: 1= Currently not working/retired, 3= Armed forces/police, 4= Clerk, 5= Professional, 6= Legislator. Mother's occupation was similarly coded, with the exception of category 1 (coded as Housewife/currently not working/retired), and there was no category 3 (armed forces/police). Unlike education, it would have been difficult to recode occupation into a single variable, for two reasons: a) there was a sizeable number of fathers in the army/police, unlike the mothers, and b) overwhelming majority of mothers were reported to be housewives, hence merging the two into a single category would have been misleading.

6. Results

The study only focused on the responses of those students who reported they planned to apply to college/university upon graduation from high school. All statistical analyses were carried out in Stata 14 using weighted data.

6.1 Factor Analysis

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to narrow down the list of 18 items to a smaller number of variables. This was done to simplify the interpretation and identify variables in order to create factor scores to be used later in regression analyses. The factorability of the 18 items was examined, and several well-recognized criteria for the factorability of a correlation were used. It was then observed that all items correlated at least .3 with at least one other item, suggesting reasonable factorability. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was .77, above the commonly recommended value of .65, and Bartlett's test of sphericity was significant (2 (153) = 4070.611, p ................
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