New Imperialism-Progressives
I. New Imperialism
A. basic American attitudes
1. Monroe Doctrine - you keep out and we’ll keep out
2. U.S. resorts to isolationism - a better term might be withdrawal or preoccupation with
internal development
B. reasons for these attitudes
1. continentalism - no countries should acquire territory outside its continental boundaries
2. against American principles to rule without the consent of the governed
3. desire to avoid entanglements
4. desire to avoid military appropriations - particularly naval
5. desire to avoid absorbing alien races
6. preoccupation with domestic growth
7. obsolete navy
8. natural protection - wide oceans, weak neighbors
C. nevertheless, some attempts at involvement
1. Seward proposed purchase of Alaska, intervention in Korea, acquisition of Hawaii, Caribbean acquisitions
2. other attempts - annexation of Santa Domingo proposed, annexation of Canada proposed intervention in Cuba 1868-1878, naval stations in Samoa (1870s), naval harbors in Haiti (1880s)
D. foreign affairs activities
1. Pan-American Conferences (Blaine) 1881-1889
a. purpose was to establish a $100m customs union and arbitrate disputes
b. little accomplished except goodwill
c. real purpose was to control Latin America economically
d. Pan American Union formed
2. seal slaughter - Pribilof Islands - 1886
a. U.S. deems seals domestic animals who had wandered out of bounds during migration
b. U.S. seizes Canadian vessels
c. 1893 arbitration orders U.S. to pay $500,000
3. Italian lynchings - 1891
a. 11 Italians lynched in New Orleans
b. diplomatic relations severed - war possible
c. U.S. eventually pays $25,000
4. Chilean crisis - 1891
a. True Blue Saloon incident kills two American sailors
b. diplomatic relations severed - war possible
c. West coast seen as vulnerable
d. Chili agrees to pay $75,000
5. Venezuela - 1894-1895
a. boundary dispute between Great Britain and Venezuela - U.S. insists on arbitration
b. European problems eventually force Britain into arbitration
c. enhanced the Monroe Doctrine
6. Samoa
a. U.S. obtains naval rights in 1878
b. Germany attempts takeover by fostering a native rebellion
c. by 1887 it was said there was a new conspiracy every day
d. 1889 - German and American ships face off - all six ships sunk by a hurricane - one
British ship makes it out to sea
e. 1899 three powers agree to divide Samoa
7. Hawaii
a. by 1820 U.S. missionaries conspicuously present in Hawaii
b. by 1842 five-sixths of all ships visiting Hawaii were American
c. treaty attempts for duty=free Hawaiian sugar
d. renewed efforts made in 1884 - formally approved in 1887
e. 1890 McKinley tariff removed it from the duty-free list
f. by 1890 Americans owned two-thirds of all the real estate - it was said that American missionaries came to Hawaii to do good, and did well
g. native revolt in 1893 overthrows Liliuokalani who was strongly nativist with open
help from the American navy
h. treaty of annexation proposed but Cleveland withdraws it because of U.S. involvement
i. eventually annexed during the Spanish-American War 7-7-98
II. Impulses toward New Imperialism
A. the passing of the frontier - developing American psychology of diminishing resources
B. panic of 1893 - desire to focus discontent elsewhere
C. reform and protest - desire to focus discontent elsewhere
D. exports - 1870-392m, 1890-857m, 1900-1.394b - the belief was that continued expansion
of overseas markets was necessary for continued U.S. economic development
E. world pressure - other nations were becoming imperialistic - “we must not fall out of line” -
get territory before all the good stuff is gone
F. Darwinian philosophy - if the natural world was governed by natural selection, social Darwinists
felt that the strongest and best should dominate human activity as well
G. Josiah Strong - missionary zeal - White Man’s Burden concept
H. political philosophy - superior institutions must be imposed for the benefit of the human race -
“There is no human right to the status of barbarism.”
I. yellow journalism
J. strong navy advocates sought something to emphasize the development of a strong U.S. fleet - Alfred Mahan - “The Influence of Sea Power Upon History - 1660-1783” - “Sea nations were the great nations.”
III. The Spanish-American War (“this splendid little war”)
A. by 1898, only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained as Spanish colonies in the Western Hemisphere
B. in Cuba, frequent attempts were made to overthrown Spanish rule between 1868-1878
C. 1890s find new attempts to overthrow Spanish rule
D. reasons for revolt
1. continued misrule
2. 1894 Wilson-Gorman Tariff created serious economic consequence as sugar was taken
off the duty-free list
3. Cuban nationalism
E. by 1895, brutality existed on both sides
1. rebels attempted a scorched earth policy - if there wasn’t much left, Spain would leave
a. concentrated on destroying sugar crops and processing mills
b. even dynamited passenger trains
2. 1896 - “Butcher” Weyler sent to lead Spanish attempts to recontrol
a. established reconcentration camps - purpose was to hold entire villages prisoner so they couldn’t supply rebels
b. sanitary conditions were abominable - thousand died from yellow fever
c. Bailey DH 454, 457 - Hearst - New York Journal - “It is not only Weyler the soldier...but Weyler the brute, the devastator of haciendas, the destroyer of families, the outrager of women...Pitiless, cold, an exterminator of men...There is nothing to prevent his carnal, animal brain from running riot with itself in inventing tortures and infamies of bloody debauchery.” - Pulitzer -New York World - “Blood on the roadside, blood in the fields, blood on the doorsteps, blood, blood, blood! The old, the young, the weak, the crippled - all are butchered without mercy...Is there no nation wise enough, brave enough, strong enough to restore peace in this bloodsmitten land? -
Senator Proctor of Vermont - March 17, 1898 - “Torn from their homes, with foul air, foul earth, foul water, foul food or none, what wonder that one-half have died and one-quarter of the living are so diseased that they cannot be saved? Little children are still walking about with arms and chest terribly emaciated, eyes swollen, and abdomen bloated to three times the natural size...I was told by one of our consuls that they have been found dead about the market in the morning, where they have crawled, hoping to get some stray bits of food from the early hucksters.”
d. it is estimated that in two years over 200,000 (1/8 of the total population) was wiped
out
F. Cleveland refused to budge (as bull headed as he was bull bodied) - stated that even if Congress declared war he would not issue the necessary orders to mobilize the army
G. both Cleveland and Weyler left their positions in 1897
H. into this emotional dispute stepped William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer who were
engaged in a heated circulation battle
1. yellow journalism (Yellow Kid) thrived on sensationalism
2. in the absence of abuses, they manufactured them
3. Hearst sent the noted artist Frederick Remington to Cuba to send back drawings
a. reported that conditions were not as bad as expected
b. Hearst tersely reprimanded him - “You supply the pictures, I’ll supply the war.”
c. Remington sends back pictures of burly Spanish guards strip searching an American woman - searches were actually conducted by female guards
4. Evangelina Cisneros implicated as a rebel and jailed
a. Hearst - her only crime was to defend her virtue against the lust of a Spanish officer
b. sent reported to Cuba - somehow managed to spring Cisneros from jail
c. Hearst headlines - “An American newspaper accomplished at a single stroke what
the red tape of diplomacy filed utterly to bring about in many months.”
d. Bishop of London cables congratulations
e. governor of Missouri suggests that Hearst send in 500 reporters and free the entire island
I. 1898 events leading to the Spanish-American War
1. 2-9-98 - DeLome Letter
a. ambassador’s letter stolen - refers to McKinley as an “ear to the ground politician,
a bidder for the admiration of the crowd.”
b. with sensational exposure it causes quite a stir
c. contrast his remark with those of the Undersecretary of the Navy (Theodore
Roosevelt) - “white livered occupant of the White House” - “having the backbone of a
chocolate éclair”
d. ambassador resigns, but the dignity of the U.S. is injured and emotions aroused
2. the battleship Maine pays a friendly visit to Havana harbor, actually there to remove American nationals should conditions worsen - Mark Hanna remarked that sending it was like “waving a match over an oil well just for fun”
a. 2-15-98 - the Maine explodes and sinks
b. who did it - possibilities
1. Spanish - least likely because of its desire not to involve other nations in the conflict
2. Cuban rebels attempting to pin the blame on Spain in an emotionally heated environment - most likely
3. internal explosion - distinct possibility because of typical boiler problems
c. conclusions of commissions
1. U.S. commission determines that it was an external submarine mine
2. Spanish commission determines that it was an internal explosion
3. 1912 commission confirms it was an external explosion
4. 1976 Rickover Commission concluded it was an internal explosion
3. Hearst headlines - “The Warship Maine was split in two by an enemy’s secret infernal
machine: the whole country thrills with war fever; the Maine was destroyed by treachery”
4. thus the battlecry - “Remember the Maine, To hell with Spain”
J. U.S. issues an ultimatum to Spain
1. end reconcentration
2. establish an armistice with the rebels
3. submit the dispute to arbitration
4. Spain agrees to U.S. demands 4-10-98
5. nevertheless, McKinley sends a war message to Congress 4-11-98
6. 4-25-98 Congress declares war retroactive to 4-21-98 - note the lag time between the
message and the declaration
K. the Teller Amendment is attached
1. designed to show that the U.S. had no imperialistic motives in war with Spain
2. declared that the U.S. would grant Cuba their independence if we won
L. who wanted war
1. big business was not in favor of it because prosperity was returning and war provides a
degree of economic instability
2. McKinley didn’t want it
3. the people did want it
a. hyped up by sensationalism to an emotional fever pitch
b. desire to focus attention externally - hadn’t happened since the Mexican War
4. McKinley succomes to political pressure
a. support for the Congressional party
b. desire for reelection
M. songs portray the spirit in which the U.S. approached the war
1. “There’ll Be A Hot Time In The Old Town Tonight”
2. “Hail, Hail, the Gang’s All Here”
N. the balance sheet
1. U.S. forces totaled 28,00 - still largely on the frontier - increased to 68,000
2. volunteers estimated at 80,000-130,000
3. Spain had 200,000 troops in Cuba alone
4. on paper the Spanish fleet was superior - in fact it was in wretched condition
5. U.S. fleet was largely of recent construction
O. the war
1. Admiral Dewey stationed in Hong Kong
2. Undersecretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt - cabled Dewey that in the event of war, he was to descend on the Philippines
3. Secretary Long always hated leaving Roosevelt in command - afraid that his jingoistic
attitude would cause mischief
4. 5-1-98 Dewey descends on Manila Bay
5. Dewey battles 10 Spanish warships with 6 of his own - sinks the entire Spanish fleet - 400 Spanish killed (one from heat stroke)
6. Dewey becomes a national hero - “Oh , dewy was the morning, upon the first of May, and Dewey was the admiral down in Manila Bay, and dewy were those Spanish eyes, them orbs of black and blue, and dew we feel discouraged, I dew not think we do.”
7. Dewey was unable to follow up because of a lack of troops
8. spends the summer sitting in Manila Bay until an attack can be launched 8-13-98
9. tension develops between German ships and U.S. but the British intervene on U.S. behalf
10. Hawaii annexed on 7-7-98
P. war in Cuba
1. organization for the war is very poor
2. 17,000 troops show up in Tampa Bay - so many that troops literally had to fight their way
on board and fight to hold their position
3. issued heavy woolen uniform and long johns geared toward fighting Indians on the
frontier in the winter time
4. Rough Riders one of the most colorful groups
a. Roosevelt resigned as Undersecretary of the Navy so he could join the fight
b. composed of cowboys, polo players, and convicts
c. Leonard Wood commands - they become known as Wood’s Weary Walkers because their horse had to be left behind
5. Admiral Cervera dispatched from Spain to provide naval assistance
a. 4 cruisers, one with no guns
b. 6 torpedo boats (three sunk on the way)
c. nevertheless, U.S. east coast goes into a panic
1. vacationers abandon beaches
2. deposits are withdrawn to inland banks
3. Civil War vessels reactivated for coastal defense
d. takes the U.S. 5 days to land troops with no resistance
6. battles of San Juan Hill and El Carney
a. General Shafter in charge - 300 pounds - needs to be carried around the battlefield on
a door
b. Spanish are able to concentrate only 13,000 troops around Santiago despite
having 200,000 in Cuba
c. can get only about 2000 into battle
d. Roosevelt was so nearsighted he brought along 12 extra pair of glasses - got to
shoot a Spaniard and reveled at how he “curled up like a jackrabbit.”
e. Mr. Dooley (Puck) - says Roosevelt’s accounts of his own importance are so bloated that they should be entitled “Alone In Cuba”
f. these two battles constitute the only major battles of the Spanish-American War
in Cuba - they are both solid U.S. victories
7. naval battle - the Battle of Santiago
a. Cervera kept his fleet bottled up in Santiago Harbor until ordered to engage
b. 7-3-98 Battle of Santiago Bay Spanish fleet is destroyed
c. 500 Spanish killed - 1 American killed - “Don’t cheer boys, the poor devils are dying.”
8. General Miles descends on Puerto Rico and easily captures it 7-13-98 - so easy that Mr.
Dooley suggests it be titled “General Miles’ Grand Picnic and Moonlight Excursion.”
Q. peace is worked out on 8-12-98 (note, the day before Dewey captures Manila)
R. U.S. troops are in dire straights in Cuba - 25,000 suffering from yellow fever
1. they are finally removed to Long Island where their summer uniforms finally arrive
2. many die as a result of the embalmed beef scandal (later effects regulation of the meat
packing industry
S. total deaths from the war - 460 killed in battle - 5200 die from disease
T. Treaty of Paris of 1899
1. U.S. gains Puerto Rico, Philippines, Guam
2. Cuba granted their independence
a. forced to write the Platt amendment into their constitution
b. no foreign nation was allowed to secure leases
c. limited indebtedness so that foreign nations would not have a right to intervene
d. U.S. could intervene in order to protect order
e. Cuba would sell or lease the U.S. a naval base (Guantanamo)
f. the real reason the U.S. didn’t annex Cuba was a $400m debt it would have to assume
3. Puerto Rico and Guam were retained by the U.S. - Teller amendment didn’t apply to it
4. Philippines a dilemma - to annex or to grant independence - U.S. ends up paying Spain
$20m for them
a. reasons for retaining
1. White Man’s Burden - Kipling - Take up the White Man’s burden, Ye dare not stoop to less, Nor call too long on freedom, To cloak your weariness.
2. business, which had not favored the war, saw economic benefit in retaining them
a. tremendous source of raw materials
b. possibility of new markets
c. possibility of stimulus to far eastern trade
b. reasons for freeing them
1. dearness of the principle of self government
2. fear of incorporating an alien population into the U.S. population - relate this
to immigration restriction sentiment of the time
3. big name opposition
a. a. William James and Mark Twain
b. Samuel Gompers and Andrew Carnegie
b. c. William James (Harvard) - “Goddamn the United States for its vile conduct
in the Philippine Isles.” He couldn’t believe the U.S. could “puke up its ancient soul in five minutes without a wink of squeamishness.”
d. Nash 689 - Take up the White Man’s Burden,
Send forth your sturdy kin,
And load them down with Bibles
And cannonballs and gin.
Throw in a few diseases
To spread the tropic climes,
For there the healthy niggers
Are quite behind the times.
They need our labor question, too,
And politics and fraud-
We’ve made a pretty mess at home,
Let’s make a mess abroad.
5. Bryan turns out to be the champion of the treaty
a. believed that the Republicans would receive blame for ratification
b. wishes to use it as a campaign issue in 1900
6. Senate approves the treaty by one vote - 2-6-99
U. significant of the Spanish-American War
1. showed the U.S. had attained the status of world power
2. increased prestige for the U.S. - Bismarck - “There is a special Providence that looks
after drunkards, fools, and the United States of America.”
3. made the U.S. a far eastern power - both in trade and military power
4. showed the distinct advantages of naval power
5. lessened the tension of the Civil War (Bailey) - Fighting Joe Hooker in the heat of battle
cried - “To Hell with the Yankees! Damn it, I mean the Spanish.”
6. showed the need for an isthmanian canal - Battleship Oregon had to travel around Cape
Horn to get into the Battle of Santiago
IV. The election of 1900
A. Republicans stand pat with McKinley and the full dinner pail
1. run on prosperity
2. continued talk of the menace of free silver
B. Democrats and Bryan insist that imperialism was the critical issue
1. remember Bryan’s support for the Treaty of Paris 1899
2. to some degree he is still interested in the free silver issue
C. kicking Roosevelt upstairs
1. the vice presidency was a death bed, a burial ground
2. Roosevelt was unruly as governor of New York
3. deal made between Hanna and Platt - Hanna - “”only a heartbeat between that wildeyed
madman, that damned cowboy, and the presidency.”
4. Roosevelt had no desire for the vice presidency other than to show he could get it
D. election never comes down to a mandate on imperialism
1. Bryan the untried v four more years of the full dinner pail
2. outcome - McKinley - 7.2m - 292 EV - Bryan - 6.3m - 155 EV
3. Morton writing to Cleveland - “It is a choice between evils, and I’m going to shut my eyes,
Hold my nose, vote, go home and disinfect myself.”
V. Additional foreign policy issues
A. Open Door policy
1. John Hay is Secretary of State - aggressive, stubborn, arrogant, and good
2. background - Sino-Japnese War 1894-95 had exposed the pathetic weakness of the
Chinese government
3. European thus sought to maximize economic gain
4. China is partitioned into ‘spheres of influence’
5. these posed a threat to Chinese territorial integrity because they granted a certain
degree of political control to European countries as well as economic advantage
6. Chinese trade accounted for only 2% of U.S. foreign trade - however, control of the
Philippines portended an increase in its importance
7. it was in the best interest of the U.S. to allow equal economic treatment to all - particularly since the U.S. was late in arriving
8. Britain was very concerned with increasing German aggressiveness in the Far East - they suggested the open door
9. Hay issues the Open Door notes in September 1901 (England, Germany, Russia,
France, Italy, Japan) - receives very conditional responses - “It was like asking who, at a
dinner party, has thieving intentions.”
10. Hay boldly proclaimed that all nations had accepted it unconditionally - what position did
that put other nations in?
11. points of the Open Door Notes
a. within its sphere of influence, no power would challenge the established power
b. equal treatment for the trade of all nations
c. Chinese territorial integrity would be maintained - not originally introduced until
after the Boxer rebellion
B. the Boxer Rebellion - Society of Harmonious Fists
1. around 1900 strong anti-foreign feeling arises in China
2. riots occur and foreign delegations are besieged in Peking
3. 18,000 man foreign contingent sent in to put down the rebellion
4. reparations demanded of the Chinese government
a. $333m demanded - would have been more but for the insistence of Hay
b. U.S. ultimately granted $25m - eventually returns $18m in the form of scholarships to Chinese students to study in America
c. the whole affair demonstrated the weakness of the Chinese government
C. Roosevelt assumes the presidency
1. McKinley assassinated in 1901 - Mark Hanna’s reaction - “My God, that damned cowboy
is president of the United States
2. Roosevelt’s characteristics
a. aggressive and egotistical
b. energetic with a genuine love for people
c. politician who recognized the need for compromise
d. strong belief in the leadership role of the president
e. moralistic - his were the right ones
3. some contend that his popularity rested on the fact that these were national characteristics
4. believed in the West African proverb - “speak softly and carry a big stick and you will go far.”
D. the Panama Canal
1. need for an isthmanian canal was demonstrated during the Spanish-American War
a. two-ocean navy needs could be significantly reduced
b. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty a major stumbling block - said that any canal had to be a
joint venture between the U.S. and Great Britain
2. 1901 - Hay-Pauncefote Treaty allows the U.S. to go it alone (actually an earlier treaty
failed because of British unwillingness to allow fortifications)
a. Britain was having problems elsewhere - particularly with rising German power
b. thus they desired to cultivate U.S. friendship
c. would allow the British to reduce their presence in the Caribbean
3. earlier French attempt had failed because of mismanagement - DeLessups (snowshovels, boats, vacation homes, yellow fever, pans of water)
a. DeLessups association with the Suez Canal
b. difference between lock-type and sea level canals
4. French Canal Company wished to sell its assets for $109m
a. House favored a Nicaraguan route because of cost factors - Walker Commission -
vote 308-2
b. price of French Canal Company assets dropped to $40m and they employ lobbyists
1. Phillippe Bunau-Varilla canal company representative
2. William Cromwell - $60,000 contributor to the Republican campaign in 1900
- later charged the canal company $800,000 for his service
c. drawback to the Nicaraguan route was rumored volcanic activity
1. 1902 Mt. Pelee erupts on Martinique killing 30,000
2. Bunau-Varilla secures Nicaraguan postage stamps picturing their most active volcano and sends one to every U.S. Senator
5. Panama is a part of Columbia and agreement must still be reached with them
a. treaty with Columbia is proposed
1. grant U.S. a strip of land six miles wide
2. $10m one time payment
3. $250,000 per year
b. the Colombian Senate rejects the treaty unanimously (wanted $25m)
6. Roosevelt extremely agitated with the delay - “Damn the law, I want the canal built,”
“blackmailers of Bogota,” “trying to get the Colombian government to agree to anything
is like trying to nail current jelly to the wall”
7. alternative is for Panama to revolt and declare their independence (plot may have been
hatched in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York - room 1162)
8. Bunau-Varilla (Canal Company employee) raises a patriot army with 500 bought Colombian troops and the Panama City fire department
a. revolution occurs November 3, 1903
b. U.S. involvement included the coincidental visit by U.S. warships and refusal to
allow the Colombian army access to the isthmanian railroad
c. revolution consisted mostly of fireworks being set off - casualties included one
Chinaman and a donkey
9. Roosevelt officially recognizes the government of Panama three days later - indecent haste
10. 15 days later a treaty is signed with Panama - Bunau-Varilla is the new Panamian
ambassador to the U.S. despite being an employee of the canal company and a French citizen
11. the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty
a. grants U.S. sovereignty over a ten mile strip of land
b. one time payment of $10m
c. $250,000 per year
12. Roosevelt boasts - “I took the canal zone and let Congress debate.”
13. 1921 the U.S. pays Columbia $25m - Canalimony
a. proposed in 1914 but Roosevelt blocks it while he’s alive
b. oil had been discovered in Columbia in 1921 - designed to ease the hard feelings
between the countries so U.S. companies could explore for oil
14. Roosevelt’s desire to see the dirt fly
a. disease control - William Gorgas eliminates yellow fever - relate back to discoveries
by Walter Reed in Cuba
b. engineering - George Washington Goethals (mudslides a major problem)
c. completed in 1914 at a cost of $440m
15. discuss the moral rightness of this incident and relate it to 1980 canal treaty
E. Venezuelan involvement
1. problems stemmed from perpetual debt problems between Latin American countries
and European power - gave them an excuse for involvement
2. 1902 Britain and Germany blockade ports until payment is made
3. attempts at arbitration had been blocked by Castro (Venezuelan dictator)
4. Roosevelt’s response - “If any South American country misbehaves toward any European country, let the European country spank it.”
5. only when U.S. interests were threatened would we intervene
6. finally resolved by arbitration - Britain wants to court U.S. favor - negative public opinion
stemming from German sinking of ships and bombarding towns
F. the emergence of the Roosevelt Corollary
1. wherever in the Western Hemisphere peace was threatened, U.S. interests were involved
2. therefore the U.S. had a preemptive right to intervene in the internal affairs of Latin `American nations to prevent serious international disturbance - preventive intervention
3. attached to the Monroe Doctrine (not formally) to give it added weight - greatly expands
and perverts the intention of the Doctrine
G. Cuba
1. under the terms of the Platt Amendment the U.S. had the right to intervene in the internal affairs of Cuba - written into the Cuban constitution
2. debt and unrest force the U.S. to intervene with troops in 1906 (not withdrawn until 1909) - debt problems raise the possibility of foreign intervention
3. Roosevelt takes over the customs houses
a. prevents unrest because the spoils of government are gone
b. 45% of collections paid to the Dominicans - 55% goes toward debt
4. highlights the Roosevelt Corollary “Chronic wrongdoing may in America, as elsewhere,
ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the adherence of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power.”
5. some considered this an excuse for continued imperialism - it probably was not
6. a treaty of annexation fails in 1905
7. Roosevelt - “I have about the same desire to annex it as a gorged boa constrictor might
have to swallow a porcupine wrong end to.”
8. some said the Monroe Doctrine had changed to “You mind your business, and we’ll mind yours.”
I. these early incursions did not raise a storm of protest from Latin American countries but were
viewed largely as semi-benevolent protection
J. Alaskan boundary dispute
1. Klondike gold strikes needed an outlet to the sea
2. led to a reinterpretation of the Anglo-Russian Treaty of 1825 designed to place the
headwaters of many rivers under Canadian control
3. it is submitted to an arbitration panel of 3 Americans, 3 Canadians, 1 British (Alverstone)
4. Roosevelt write a bullying letter indicating that if the arbitration panel fails to decide in the U.S. favor he would send in troops and run the line where he wanted to
5. Alverstone in a difficult position - failure to support American claim could result in war
6. ultimately British desire to foster American friendship leads to favorable decision
K. Morocco
1. bone of contention for Germany, England, France (African imperialism)
2. 1905 Kaiser pays a visit and makes a belligerent anti-French speech - war possible
3. 1906 Algerciras Conference held to resolve tensions
4. Roosevelt sends strong words - situation defused - Roosevelt claims credit - “You will
notice that while I was most suave and pleasant with the Emperor, yet when it became
necessary at the end I stood him on his head with great decision.”
5. seems to be a further extension of the Roosevelt corollary - U.S. intervention might be
necessary in Europe to prevent a war which might ultimately involve the U.S.
L. Russo-Japanese War
1. weakened state of the Chinese government led to a confrontation between Russia and
Japan as each sought to extend their influence in China - Russia retained troops in China following the Boxer Rebellion
2. February 1904 the Japanese launch a surprise attack on Port Arthur - U.S. reaction praises Japan for its cleverness and cunning
3. U.S. public opinion favors Japan - reasons
a. commercial confrontation with Russia under the Open Door
b. despotic rule of Russia
c. traditional favoring of the underdog
d. anti-Jewish pogroms - massacres of the 1880s-90s
4. Japan does well initially but cannot sustain their gains
a. call for Roosevelt to negotiate a settlement
b. he accepts because of his desire to maintain the balance of power in the far East
5. Treaty of Portsmouth - 1905
a. basically splits the difference
b. Nobel Prize for Roosevelt
c. satisfied neither side
1. Russians refer to Teddy as a Jewish Rosenfelt
2. in Japan his picture is turned face to the wall
M. Japanese immigration problems
1. 1906 San Francisco earthquake reduced available school space
2. Japanese immigration increased as a result of the Russo-Japanese War
3. newspapers express concern about the “yellow peril” - some suggested that newspapers were the real “yellow peril”
4. special school established for the Japanese (segregation) - causes great indignation in Japan
5. Roosevelt browbeats the San Francisco School Board into submission by calling them
all to the White house
6. 1907-08 Gentlemen’s Agreement with Japan voluntarily restricts immigration
N. Root-Tarahira Agreement - 1908
1. U.S. and Japan agree to maintain the status quo in the Pacific
2. territorial integrity of China is guaranteed
3. Open Door to be honored
4. Roosevelt - “I am exceedingly anxious to impress upon the Japanese that I have nothing but the friendliest possible intentions towards them, but I am nonetheless anxious that they should realize that I am not afraid of them and that the United States will no more submit to bullying than it we to bully.”
O. the Great white Fleet
1. entire fleet of sixteen battleships embarks on a worldwide cruise
2. seeking a feast, a frolic, or a fight
3. criticism over sending the fleet
a. possibility of it being caught in a storm
b. possibility it will be hostility received
4. well received in both South America and Japan (Japanese school children sing)
5. the obvious intent was to impress upon weaker countries the power of the U.S.
6. reflects the bullying. grandstand tactics of Roosevelt
P. reflect on the balance sheet of Roosevelt foreign policy - what did it change?
VI. The Progressive Movement
A. the impetus for reform
1. agrarian reform movements - Greenback-Populist traditions
2. European socialistic experimentation
3. perceived breakdown in morals of business and government - profit motive elevated
above human concern - power elevation reflected by bossism
4. growth of monopolies
a. by 1903 - 185 monopolies
b. this stifled competition and limited the American Dream
5. concentration of wealth
a. 1900 - 1% of the population owned 50% of the wealth
b. 1900 - 12% of the population owned 90% of the wealth
6. perceived control of government by big business - perhaps the realization that the
government was not now (if it ever had been) laissez-faire, but was dominantly pro-business
7. increased intellectual and muckraking attacks on the status quo
a. increasing literacy contributed to this
b. decreased cost of magazines and newspapers contributed
8. rise of the middle class
a. viewed monopolies a threat from above and socialism (social unrest a threat from
below - Steinbeck - “When property accumulated in too few hands, it will be taken away.” who would be the first to lose? - middle class
b. had an abiding faith in democracy
9. middle class social workers (particularly women)
a. increasingly educated women found professional jobs closed and gravitated toward social work
b. rise of settlement houses between 1890-1900 provided them with first-hand
experience in the suffering of the urban poor
1. provide support for immigrants
2. designed to educate and ease the assimilation process
a. Jane Addams - Hull House (Chicago)
b. Lillian Wald - Henry Street Settlement House (New York)
B. important factors in understanding the Progressive Movement
1. there is no progressive movement but collateral progressive movements
a. there is no central formulating agency
b. there is no centrally directed leadership
c. instead several progressive movements emerge
1. social justice movement
2. intellectual progressivism
3. economic progressivism
4. political progressivism
a. municipal reform movement
b. state reform movement
c. national reform movement
d. there are progressive wings of both major parties plus third party activity
2. urban middle class leadership gains control from earlier agrarian leadership
3. it impacts first at the state and local level and later at the national level
4. historians disagree over whether it is essentially a conservative or liberal movement
a. the growing disparity of wealth led to social unrest
b. radical movement believers would hold this
1. the social consciousness of man forced a violent reaction to the status quo
2. thus, the progressive movement was fundamentally an attempt to redistribute wealth
c. conservative theorists hold this
1. a rising middle class viewed increased social unrest with alarm
2. having much to lose, they opted for a policy of appeasement to limit the
degree and scope of the social unrest without fundamentally altering the
status quo (they did as little as was necessary to quell discontent)
3. thus it is fundamentally an attempt to maintain economic stability (Hostader)
4. human consciousness cannot be discounted, but it was not the primary motive
4. the progressive movement rejects socialistic doctrine and prefers to alter the democratic
and capitalistic processes without destroying them - this is not to say that no progressives were socialists, it is merely to reflect the general trend
C. goals of the Progressive Movement
1. to improve life for average Americans
2. this was to be accomplished in three ways
a. regulation of big business in the public interest
b. making government more responsive to the will of the people
c. the enactment of social welfare legislation (fundamental change in the perceived
function of the federal government)
3. all three contradict the basic Jeffersonian philosophy which distrusts power in the hands of the central government
4. Progressives work to change the basic conception of the function of government in the minds of the American people
a. wished to show it could be a mechanism for social and economic reform
b. believed the primary function of government was to serve as the agent of human
welfare by promoting the general welfare of its citizens
5. they therefore favor increasing the power of the federal government - “The single cry
of the progressive movement was ‘strengthen the state.’”
a. this was viewed as the mechanism which could challenge the dominance of big business
b. they did, however, have Jeffersonian fears of tyranny
c. hence mechanism to increase the control of government by the average citizen
D. intellectual literary assaults on the status quo
1. Theodore Dreiser - realism - function was to describe the barren life of the poor “as
simply and effectively as the English language will permit.”
2. Frank Norris - The Octopus - The Pit - attacked the excesses of monopolies
3. Thorstein Veblen - The Theory of the Leisure Class - criticized “conspicuous consumption” - desire to see business and government run by expert management
4. Charles and Mary Beard - An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution - undercut the
reverence for the document
5. Jacob Riis - How the Other Half Lives - designed to show the misery of urban life
6. Upton Sinclair - The Jungle - attacks health standards the meat packing industry
7. Jack London - White Fang - Call of the Wild - socialist tracts
8. John Spargo - The Bitter Cry of Children - attacks child labor (exploitation)
E. attacks in new middle class magazines
1. Herbert Croly - New Republic
2. Godkin - Nation
3. McClures - exposes of muckrakers - characterized by Roosevelt - “dug for dirt that
people loved” - term from Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan - faces never looked up
4. Ida Tarbell - The History of Standard Oil - her father had been ruined by Rockefeller
5. Ray Stanard Baker - multiple attacks
6. Lincoln Steffens - The Shame of Cities - attacked corrupt politics
F. all this is brought about by rising literacy, decreasing cost due to advertising supplanting
subscription price as the chief source of revenue, and the success newspapers had enjoyed
with sensationalism
G. artistic attacks
1. emergence of realism and the “Ashcan School”
2. “found compelling subject matter in dirty alleys, dank saloons, and squalid tenements,
chapters out of life, which they interpreted with beauty that expressed the sorrow and
injustice...previously unrecorded.”
H. the emergence of the philosophy of pragmatism
1. William and Henry James
2. believed that the value of any idea is dependent of its utility for the thinker and his society
I. movement toward professionalism - part of the broader trend toward consolidation and
centralization - big business’ success fostered inclination to mimic it
1. Thorstein Veblen
a. industry should be in the hands of scientifically trained engineers to promote the
greatest efficiency
b. government should be placed in the hands of experts rather than politicians
2. Frederick Taylor - the father of scientific management
a. studies in the steel industry (shovels) leads to the conclusion that there is one
scientifically best way (most efficient way) to complete each task
b. fosters time studies and industrial engineering (flow charts)
c. caution - Hawthorne effect
d. transfer value - scientific studies of government could improve its efficiency
3. change in professions - they seek greater stability and influence - seek to maintain advantageous economic by developing standards which limit the influx of new
professionals - for both these reason professional organizations flourish
a. 1901 - American Medical Association
b. 1916 - bar exams are required in all 48 states
c. 1905 - National Education Association
d. 1895 - National Association of Manufactures
e. 1912 - Chambers of commerce
f. 1905 - Niagara Movement - 1909 National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People (relate to Atlanta compromise - DuBois v Washington) - originally
founded by DuBois and white lawyers - sought legal redress to black problems
g. General Federation of Women’s Clubs - Sarah Platt Decker
h. National Consumer League - Florence Kelley
i. International Lady Garment Workers Union
4. these develop, to some degree, out of the notion that even professionals can be more
effective if unified in an organization run by professionals
J. religious motive - the emergence of the Social Gospel
1. began in the 1870s and emphasized the perfectibility of man
2. Wm. Rainsford, Washington Gladden, Walter Rauschenbusch most associated with it
3. it criticized middle class apathy over immigrant suffering
4. beliefs
a. God is present in human institutions
b. fatherhood of God - brotherhood of man
c. kingdom of God is here and now
5. man is saved through faith and good works - social consciousness is a visible display
of both
6. a forerunner of progressivism rather than a serious contributor to it
VII. Political reform
A. began with municipal reform movement
1. cleanup of powerful majors (Golden Rule Jones, etc.)
2. Galveston experiments with the Commission System
a. experts in various areas run the city government
b. thus the most efficiency is provided without graft and corruption
c. problems with getting experts to run, or getting them elected
d. more than 400 Commission Systems established
3. Staunton, Va experiments with the City-manager System
a. manager would be hired by a council
b. would be an expert in running the city
c. would not be subject to the pressures of reelection
d. more than 45 cities experiment with this type
e. seemed best suited for mid-size cities
4. despite gains - bossism continued - they frequently found clever ways to circumvent
whatever system was put into operation
B. state level reform - Oregon System - Wisconsin Idea
1. election of Robert LaFollette in Wisconsin leads to its designation as the laboratory of democracy
2. major state concerns focused on the following
a. regulating utilities
b. regulating railroads and trusts
c. improving working conditions through child labor laws, minimum wage/maximum hour laws for women, and workmen’s compensation
d. state regulation increasingly successful though it frequently runs into a hostile
federal court system
C. broader political goal of progressives emphasized increased control of government by the people
1. direct primary
2. Australian (Secret) Ballot
3. Oregon System
a. initiative - right of citizens to propose laws
b. referendum - right to vote on laws already passed
c. recall - right to remove and elected official from office prior to the expiration of
their term (particularly used to remove state judges
4. corrupt practices acts - designed establish a code of acceptable conduct for government officials
5. direct election of Senators
a. designed to end control of Senatorial selection through their control of state legislatures
b. 17th Amendment ratified in 1913
6. women’s suffrage
a. women’s movement focuses on suffrage, despite involvement in other areas of the progressive movement
b. women’s rights groups had split in 1869
1. National Women’s Suffrage Association (Stanton, Anthony) focused on broader goals and were concerned with many areas of reform and a national amendment
2. American Women’s Suffrage Association (Lucy Stone, Blackwell) focused narrowly on the issue of suffrage and winning state by state approval
c. 1890 they combine to form the National American women’s Suffrage Association
1. 1893 - 13,000 members
2. 1917 - 2m members
d. after Anthony’s retirement in 1900 Carrie Chapman Catt provides energy
1. by 1919 - 39 states had some form of women’s suffrage
2. Western states are the quickest to act - Wyoming - Equality state
3. still opposition - “One who has ceased to become a lady and had not yet become a gentleman.”
e. Alice Paul - forms the Congressional Union in 1913 (later the Women’s party)
1. dissatisfied with a state by state approach and the pace of change
2. adopts more violently confrontational tactics - marches, demonstrations, arrests
f. 19th Amendment ratified in 1920
g. women’s movement spread to other areas as well
1. unions - International Lady Garment Workers union
2. National Birth Control League - Margaret Sanger
D. despite the fact that the federal government was more reluctant than states to undertake reform in the political arena, state and local progressives initiated successful grassroots attempts to make government more responsive to the people - eventually the federal government was forced to move in that direction as well
VIII. Roosevelt and the progressive movement
A. Republican organization (bosses) were in control of state parties
1. their control was exercised through a very conservative Senate
2. Roosevelt understood the necessity of working with Congress
B. Roosevelt is basically a conservative who believed in the Social Gospel
1. as such, he was unwilling to go as far as progressives wanted him to
2. because of the Senate he was unable to go as far as he wished
C. The Square Deal
1. Brinkley - “He envisioned the federal government not as the agent of any particular interest, but as a mediator of the public good.”
2. thus, he reflected the pragmatic philosophy of the times
D. the “trust buster” reputation
1. Roosevelt recognized the need for consolidation in American industry
2. thus, he never favored the dissolution of all trusts
3. instead, he distinguished between “good” and “bad” trusts
a. good trust served the needs of the public in a paternalistic way
b. bad trust exploited the public for their own gain
4. Mr. Dooley - “On the one hand I would stomp them underfoot, on the other hand, not so fast.”
E. Northern Securities case - 1902
1. Roosevelt determined to push with vigor for the prosecution of bad trusts under the
provisions of the Sherman Anti-trust Act
2. Morgan - “If we have done anything wrong, send your man to my man and they can fix
it up.” - Charles Schwab delivered the message
3. in 1904 the Supreme Court orders the dissolution of Northern Securities
4. the impact here is largely symbolic - the government is actively pursuing a course in
direct opposition to the interests of big business
5. more than 40 trusts are dissolved under Roosevelt
6. however, more trust are formed under Roosevelt than under any previous administration
7. 1907 - Kenesaw Mountain Landis orders a $29 m fine on Standard Oil - guilty of over
1460 violations - judgment is later overturned as excessive - the real question is what
kind of a judgment would have possible earlier
F. the anthracite coal strike - 1902
1. mine workers were terribly exploited and sought an eight hour day and 20% pay hike
2. Roosevelt summons both sides to the White house because of concern over dwindling
fuel supplies
3. he is swayed, more than by the plight of the workers, the arrogance of the mine owners
who refused to arbitrate the dispute
4. “If not for the dignity of this high office, I would have taken one of them by the seat of the breeches and chucked him out the window
5. Roosevelt threatens to operate the mines with 10,000 federal troops
6. represents the first time that the government was willing to use force against owners
rather than unions
7. this did not mean that Roosevelt was pro-labor - intervenes on the side of management
in Arizona in 1903 and Colorado in 1904
G. Department of Commerce and Labor established in 1903
1. Bureau of Corporations was empowered to investigate businesses
2. seemingly they would determine “goodness” or “badness”
H. Elkins Act - 1903 - strengthened the ICC by curbing railroad rebates
I. Hepburn Act - 1906 - further strengthened the ICC
1. placed restrictions on the issuing of free passes
2. ICC had the right to nullify existing rates and establish maximum ones
J. consumer protection and business regulation
1. meat packing industry particularly abusive
a. recount parts of The Jungle
b. Bubbly Creek
c. men falling into vats
d. rat problems and cleaning out traps
2. “Mary had a little lamb, and when she saw it sicken, she shipped it off to Packingtown,
and now they call it chicken.”
3. embalmed beef scandal of the Spanish-American War
4. Meat Inspection Act - 1906 - requires government inspection of meat shipped interstate
5. Pure Food and Drug Act - 1906 - designed to ensure proper labeling and purity
K. The Mann Act - made the interstate transportation of women for immoral purposes illegal
L. conservation - Roosevelt thought of as one of the great conservation presidents
1. some earlier efforts had been made
a. Desert Land Act - 1877 - allowed sale f government land to those who would
improve it through irrigation
b. Harrison, Cleveland, McKinley set aside 46m acres of government land
c. Carey Act - 1894 - allowed states to control federal land if they would irrigate it
2. Roosevelt strategy fell short of outright protection of resources from development
a. favors resource management - the wise, balanced use of resources for business
as well as posterity
3. Newlands Reclamation Act - 1902 - $80m federal program for the construction of dams, canals, and irrigation projects financed by land sales
4. Governor’s Conference - 1908 - leads to the establishment of 41 state conservation
commissions
IX. Roosevelt - election in his own right
A. by 1904, Mark Hanna and Matt Quay (likely challenges) are dead - Roosevelt a shue-in
B. Democrats abandon Bryan and nominate conservative Alton B. Parker
C. outcome - Roosevelt - 7.6m - 336EV - Parker 5.0m - 140 EV
D. two notable outcomes from this election
1. Roosevelt immediately turned himself into a lame duck by announcing he would not be
a candidate in 1908 - this cut his effectiveness
2. he viewed the election outcome as a mandate for the Square Deal and proceeded much
more aggressively - note the number of acts already discussed which occur after 1904
E. Brinkley view of what this meant - “”Starting in 1907 he proposed an eight hour day for workers, broader compensation for the victims of industrial accidents, inheritance and income taxes, regulation of the stock market, railroad property valuation, and others. He was openly and self-consciously moving to the left; and in the process he started openly to criticize conservatives in congress, who were blocking much of his legislation, and to denounce the judiciary, which was striking down many of the measures that did pass.” - pause to see if students can project the result of this - “The result was not only a general stalemate in Roosevelt’s reform agenda, but a widening gulf between the president and the conservative wing of his party.” - remember Bailey’s contention that parties unchallenged from outside will self-destruct
F. the Roosevelt recession of 1907
1. short severe panic
2. hurt his ability to pass his reform agenda
3. resulted in the passage of the Aldridge-Vreeland Act - 1908 - gave national banks
latitude in loosening the money supply
G. the Roosevelt balance sheet
1. Bailey - “The truth is that he was not so much a reformer as the beneficiary of a riptide
of reform.” - the right man at the right time - assess the validity of this statement
2. Blum - “The goal Roosevelt defined and the principles he enunciated were the chart and course of progressives in 1908 and for many years thereafter. He did not invent them, but
he gave them effective expression, put the dignity of his high office at their service, and converted to them thousands who felt the integrity and the vitality of his person.”
3. Morison - “Yet, in one sense, Roosevelt failed as a leader. He inspired loyalty to himself
rather then to progressive policies.”
4. Hierl
a. “He greatly enlarged the scope of the presidential power and in so doing refired
the old debate of whether our government is one of law or of men.”
b. “He changed the conception of the presidency from that of a static administrator
to one of dynamic leadership.” - review the stewardship theory of the presidency-
it is the president’s obligation to lead public opinion and congress in pursuit of the public good - do you elect leaders based on their policy or your believe in their judgment as wise and enlightened?
c. “He added respectability to both the office of the presidency and progressive goals.”
d. “He increased the awareness of the American public of the responsibility that came with being a dominant economic and military power in the world.”
5. formulate your own view - are these enough to rank him as one of the great presidents?
X. Taft and progressivism
A. election of 1908
1. Roosevelt handpicks his successor William Howard Taft
a. 350 pounds - oversized bathtub had to be installed in the White House
b. excellent adminstrator - governor of the Philippines - “Little brown brothers”
c. pushed by his wife and brother - his real desire is to sit on the Supreme Court
2. Democrats nominate Bryan in Denver
a. Bryan partially because of location - heart of silver country
b. paltry showing of the conservative wing in 1904 (Parker)
3. campaign is rather dull
a. Taft reads cut and dried speeches
b. Bryan supports much of the Roosevelt program claiming they were stolen
c. Republicans campaign on the four “Ps” - prosperity, progressivism, prosecution,
and personalities (largely Roosevelt’s)
4. outcome - Taft - 7.6m - 321EV - Bryan - 6.4m - 162EV - Debs - .42m
a. thus Bryan does better than Parker but not as many as he had in 1896
b. Taft gets slightly more than Roosevelt had
B. Taft’s problems upon entering the presidency
1. Roosevelt a tough act to follow - he was going to pale by comparison - relate to Van
Buren 1836
2. philosophy - Roosevelt believed in government by men (“Damn the law. I want the canal built.”) - Taft believes in government by law
a. thus, Roosevelt scanned the law for restrictions to power
b. Taft searched the law for a legal basis to act
c. the presumption of the ability to act v the presumption of inability to act
d. relate this to strict and loose constructionism
3. Taft believed the constitutional role of the president was as chief administrator - that is
to execute the will of the people as expressed through Congress
a. thus he sought not so much to lead, as to follow the will of the people
b. may have been a holdover from the era of forgettable presidents
4. he was probably a better lieutenant than leader (better at following orders than at giving them)
5. he was mildly progressive, though he was more wedded to the status quo than to change
6. entered the president as both the darling of progressives and conservatives - why -
what problems might this lead to?
a. conservatives saw him as someone they could control better than Roosevelt
b. progressives saw him as Teddy’s successor in the progressive crusade
C. tariff problems
1. Taft committed himself to downward reduction of the tariff
a. to do this Taft had to abandon progressives in their attempt to unseat Speaker of
House “Uncle Joe” Cannon
b. he realized he needed Cannon’s power to push through a lower tariff
2. 1909 - original version of the Payne tariff bill actually increases the tariff
a. in the Senate there were 847 amendments to the Aldridge tariff- 600 upward
b. included on the duty free list were - hides, sea moss, canary bird seed, false teeth, curling stones, silk-worm eggs - Mr, Dooley commented “Practically everything necessary for existence comes in free.”
3. a compromise bill is effected at Taft’s insistence
a. rates are reduced from 46% to 40.8%
b. 2% tax added on the profits of corporations
c. compromise insured the proposal of an income tax amendment by Congress
4. Taft’s dilemma is whether to sign the bill or veto it since it was extremely disappointing to
progressives
a. best course would have been to apologize for it and sign it
b. instead Taft strongly defends the bill calling it “”The best bill the Republican party
has ever passed.”
c. the impact was to alienate progressives who felt betrayed that promise reductions had not materialized
d. criticism of Taft by progressives over the Payne-Aldridge Tariff forced Taft to look to the Old Guard for support (the ultra-conservative wing of the party
D. the Ballinger-Pinchot affair
1. Roosevelt had removed much land from development under questionable legality
a. Ballinger (Secretary of the Interior and a lawyer) opened some of that land for
development - this was viewed as exploitation in the eyes of progressives
b. Gifford Pinchot (head of the Forest service) strenuously objected
c. Taft talked to both of them about this public squabble and told Pinchot to accept
the decision, back Ballinger, and keep quiet
d. subsequently, Pinchot attacked the decision in magazine articles
e. being a chief administrator, and believing in a chain of command, Taft feels compelled
to side with the higher ranking officer, Ballinger
f. he fires Pinchot who was a Roosevelt appointee
g. progressives view this as a betrayal of “Godlike” Teddy’s attempt to preserve the environment
h. again, Taft is forced to look to conservatives to support his decision
2. in truth, Taft had a very good conservation record
a. obtained necessary Congressional authorization to protect land
b. establishes the Bureau of Mines - regulatory agency
E. the insurgents revolt (insurgents are the progressive wing of the Republican party)
1. in 1910 insurgents attempt to limit the power of the Speaker of the House (Cannon)
a. Speaker had the power to appoint committees and committee chairmen
b. as a conservative, Cannon appointed conservatives to those positions
c. Speaker also had tremendous influence over which bills made it to the House floor for a vote
2. insurgents wanted to limit the power of the speaker to appoint rules committee
a. insurgents sought the support of Taft
b. secretly, Taft was in favor of these limitations
b. he was silent, however, not wanting to cross Cannon, and his silence was interpreted
as support for Cannon and Taft came under heavy Progressive fire
3. thus Taft is again driven closer to the conservative wing of the party
4. Taft and the Old Guard decide on a concerted effort to defeat insurgents in their bid for reelection
a. patronage positions were taken away from insurgent supporters in the Midwest - this area was the hotbed of progressive reform
b. strong campaigns are waged to defeat insurgents
c. election of 1910 is a dramatic defeat for Republicans
1. Democrats gain control of the House 228-161
2. in the Senate Republicans still control 51-41 - but by combining with Democrats insurgents had the power to block legislation
3. by 1911 the Republican party is clearly self-destructing
F. foreign policy under Taft
1. characterized by the term “dollar diplomacy
a. federal government urged private investment in critically important areas of the
world (Far East, Latin America) to increase American presence, influence, and
to provide a feasible rational for intervention if necessary
b. dollar diplomacy is always envisioned as a two-way street
1. foreign policy is designed to guarantee protection of investments
2. U.S. investment gives the U.S. leverage to insist on the acceptance of
our foreign policy
2. Canadian Reciprocity Treaty
a. supported by Taft - would allow U.S. manufactured goods into Canada duty free
in return for Canadian raw materials being allowed into the U.S. duty free
b. particularly harmful to midwestern interests - farm and forest products
c. Congress approves the treaty
d. Taft supports it by saying it would make Canada a mere economic satellite of the
United States - seen by some businessmen as a prelude to annexation
e. what is the effect of this on Canada - they reject the treaty
f. it was favored by progressives, and its failure less to reduced support for Taft
3. other foreign policy
a. intervention in Latin America - forced to intervene in Cuba, Honduras, Santa
Domingo, Nicaragua
b. Manchurian railroad
1. urged American business to buy the Manchurian railroad and give it to China
2. business balks and Taft lacks the bullying attitude of Roosevelt
4. thus, Taft is largely unsuccessful in foreign affairs except for dollar diplomacy
G. the Taft balance sheet
1. relatively inept - the wrong person at the wrong time
2. nevertheless, there are some significant contributions
a. Mann-Elkins Act - 1910 - further strengthened the ICC
b. there was downward tariff revision if only modest
c. Postal Savings Bank and parcel post established
d. merit system extended - more positions brought under Civil Service
e. prosecution of more than 90 trusts
1. established the rule of reason to determine when trusts would be broken up
2. break up of Standard Oil and American Tobacco undertaken
3. these breakups did not go far enough to please progressives
f. 16th and 17th amendments proposed by Congress, though not ratified until 1913
g. conservation advance - “Did as much or more than Roosevelt
h. Departments and Commerce and Labor divided - increasing the prestige of each
H. why doesn’t he get the credit Roosevelt does? - would progressivism have surged forth with
the same magnitude had Taft not been perceived as a dam to its advance
I. Roosevelt's return and the election of 1912
1. upon his return from big game hunting in 1910, Roosevelt is displeased with what he finds
a. claims he left Taft to carry out his programs and Taft has carried them out, on a
stretcher
b. begins to urge “New Nationalism”
1. greatly expanding the regulatory capacity of the federal government
2. balanced with substantial new initiatives in social welfare legislation
3. the radical nature of his program begins to alienate mild progressives
2. two factors combine to cause Roosevelt’s challenge of Taft
a. U.S. Steel prosecution - ordered the divestment of Tennessee Coal and Gas -
Roosevelt had approved this in return for private help to the economy during the
Roosevelt panic of 1907
b. Robert LaFollette suffers a nervous breakdown while campaigning leaving progressive Republicans without a serious challenger to Taft
3. February of 1912 Roosevelt declares that “My hat is in the ring.” - “I feel as fit as a Bull
Moose
a. enters and wins primaries in 13 states
b. nevertheless, Taft controls the party machinery and the convention
c. 254 seats contested at the convention - Roosevelt needed 100 to win the
nomination - got 19
4. failing to win the Republican nomination, Roosevelt organizes the Progressive party
(Bull Moose part) and launches a third party bid -is this a regular third party situation?
a. it spirit is revivalistic in nature - “We stand at Armageddon, and we battle for the Lord.”
b. William Allen White - “Roosevelt bit me and I went mad.”
c. some say Roosevelt had gone mad
5. Democratic nomination comes down to Champ Clark v Woodrow Wilson
a. Wall Street decided to support Clark which forced Bryan to throw his support to Wilson
b. Wilson wins the nomination of the 46th ballot - indication of the weakness of the
Democratic party
6. campaign comes down to a choice between branches of progressivism
a. New Nationalism favors allowing the growth of monopolies with strong regulation with
a comprehensive package of social welfare legislation
b. Wilson’s New Freedom believed in the breakup of all trust (fragmentation of industry) and the return of competition which would eliminate the need for social welfare legislation
7. Wilson’s strategy is to let Roosevelt and Taft slug it out
a. Taft called Roosevelt a “dangerous egotist, a demagogue”
b. Roosevelt on Taft - “A fat head with the brain of a guinea pig”
c. remember, the party in power is seldom defeated from the outside
8. outcome - Wilson - 6.2m - 435EV - Roosevelt - 4.1m - 88EV - Taft - 3.4m - 8EV - Debs -.9m
a. Wilson’s vote was smaller than Bryan's in 1908
b. Wilson is a distinctively minority president - 41% of the vote
c. progressivism is the real winner
9. look at election possibilities without Bull Moose challenge
a. combine Taft and Roosevelt
b. combine Wilson and Roosevelt
c. combine Taft and Wilson’s Southern vote
d. combine Wilson, Roosevelt, Debs
XI. Wilson and the progressive movement
A. character and background
1. Southern background - raised in Georgia - some say that the Civil War colored his view
of self-determination and movement him toward pacifism - first Southern since Taylor
2. devout Christian - very moralistic - viewed the presidency as a pulpit
3. political philosophy
a. believed in strong, centralized executive power
b. believed the role of the president was to provide legislative leadership
c. believed in appealing over the heads of Congress directly to the people
d. loved humanity rather than individuals - lacked Roosevelt’s ability to personally bully and relied more on a public, intellectual type of bullying
e. extremely idealistic - some say he wished to lead the nation faster than it was willing to go
f. extreme moral righteousness - would break rather than bend - his stubbornness
made him a less able politician than Roosevelt
4. scholarly writer on Congressional government - had tremendous knowledge of the
workings of government
5. had served as president of Princeton
a. conflict over the location of the graduate school with Dean West ousted him
b. New Jersey Democratic political machine ran him for governor of New Jersey,
largely because they thought they could control him
6. turned out to be an energetic and progressive governor
B. Wilson as president
1. appointments were largely second rate
a. Bryan becomes Secretary of State - why? - Mr. Dooley - “Better in his bosom than on
his back.” - Josephus Daniels Secretary of the Navy - his undersecretary is a man named Franklin Roosevelt
b. Bryan provided surprisingly able leadership - though he was a lot of political baggage
1. negotiates more than 30 conciliatory treaties
2. these provided for arbitration of disputes and a one to four year cooling off
period - reflected Bryan’s philosophy - “When angry, count to 50. When very angry, count to 100.”
2. Wilson and Congress - Arthur Link - “The chief thing required of him was to act as the
Catalytic agent of his time - to rally and strengthen his forces, to synthesize ideas and proposals, and then use his incomparable powers of articulation and leadership to translate ideas into statutory realities.” - “Wilson found a congressional situation in 1913 that afforded a unique opportunity for a strong executive. For one thing there was no democratic machine in Congress. For another, Democratic leaders, after wandering the wilderness for twenty years, were determined to make good and to cooperate for the success of their program and party.”
C. Wilson first assails the “triple wall of privilege” - “triple wall of protection”
1. first seeks action against the tariff - Underwood-Simmons Tariff - 1913
a. calls Congress into special session to consider budget reductions
b. makes a personal appearance before Congress to stress the importance of tariff reduction - first time a President had personally appeared before Congress since John Adams - this emphasized as well the fact that he intended to be the legislative leader of his party
c. Underwood bill has typical sledding but Wilson pressure forces reductions
1. it is not a free trade measure
2. it is not a low tariff
3. it does, however, lower tariffs on 958 items, place 100 items on the duty free list, and increase tariffs on 80 items (mostly luxuries)
4. reduces the tariff rate from 40.8% to 27%
5. it is the first significant tariff reduction since the Civil War - is it a progressive measure?
6. contains provisions to implement the income tax made constitutional by the 16th Amendment (remember, that amendment does not enact an income tax
7. tax of 1-6% on incomes from $4000-$500,000 - typically a married man making $5000 would pat a tax of $10
8. is it successful in replacing the tariff as the major source of income for the
government - by 1917 it does that
9. how did the income tax fit into progressive strategy
a. eliminate the tariff to reduce the cost of goods
b. eliminate the partnership of government and big business created by
a high protective tariff
c. since it was a graduated income tax, it would redistribute income, though only to a minimal degree
2. next attacks banking
a. progressives had significant concern over monied interests
b. centralization of the banking industry in New York lowered the money supply in
other regions, particularly in emergencies
c. Pujo Committee Report 1911
1. the Panic of 1907 was a Wall Street Panic
2. Morgan-Rockefeller combination controlled 118 directorships in 34 bank and trust companies worth $2.5 b
d. Aldridge Monetary Commission urged the creation of one huge bank controlled by bankers - unacceptable to progressives
e. the major question was whether monetary control should be in the hands of a centralized or decentralized facility - the result was both
f. Federal Reserve Act - 1913
1. creates 12 regional federal reserve banks
2. owned by member banks
3. governed by a presidentially appointed Federal Reserve Board
g. benefits of the system
1. Fed serves as a bank for banks - all national banks had to join - state banks
could join if they wished, but had to comply with Fed guidelines
2. provided easier currency flow - greater flexibility to response to regional
shortages - greater ability to alter the money supply
3. government tool of monetary policy
a. open market operation
b. rediscount rate
c. reserve requirements
4. within one year 50% of all state banks were members - by 1920 - 80%
5. remains today as the cornerstone of the banking system
3. trusts were the third wall of privilege - review major component of New Freedom (the
breakup of trusts and the reinstitution of competition)
a. Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) was to be the cornerstone of new freedom
b. it was broader in scope than the Sherman Act
c. designed to attack holding companies - Pujo Committee reported that Morgan-
Rockefeller combination controlled 341 directorships of 112 corporations with assets of $20b
d. exempted labor and farm organizations
e. restricted the use of injunctions in labor disputes
f. sanctioned picketing and strikes
f. nevertheless, it was a disappointment to Wilson because it was watered down by the time it was passed - Wilson gave up on it before its final passage - Senator Reed (MO)
- “Sort of a legislative apology to the trusts, delivered hat in hand, and accompanied by assurances that no discourtesy is intended.”
h. many provisions were ultimately struck down by courts - trusts were never pursued
with real vigor - reflect on the impact of WW I
3. Wilson turned to the Federal Trade Commission Act (1914) as the cornerstone of his
antitrust policy
a. established a watchdog agency designed to force business to police itself
b. Commission had the authority to issue cease and desist orders and to fight unfair
practices - similar to the ICC
c. discuss how this fits with New Freedom - Wilson is attacking the abuses of trust
rather than trusts themselves - thus it doesn’t fit with New Freedom but moves in
direction of New Nationalism
D. the retreat from reform
1. by 1914 Wilson thought the New Freedom was complete - he did not favor the enactment of social welfare legislation - as a matter of fact he vetoes Child Labor and Workmen's Compensation legislation - he believes always in the limited role of government - fails to support Women’s Suffrage Amendment - shows no commitment to desegregating government
2. late in 1914 there is a recession - caused by the outbreak of WW I
3. Congressional elections reduce the Democratic majority from 147 to 25
4. Wilson views this as a mandate for a move to the left toward more progressive legislation
5. he is also worried about the election of 1916
a. recognized that in order to win he must attract Bull Moose votes against a reunited Republican party
b. to do that he consciously adopts the principles of New Nationalism and begins to
encourage enactment of social welfare legislation
6. beginning in 1915 massive social welfare legislation is undertaken
a. Federal Farm Loan Act 1915 - low interest loans to farmers
b. Warehouse Act 1916 - loans with surplus staple crops as collateral
c. Louis Brandeis appointed to the Supreme Court - strong advocate of social justice and the first Jewish member of the court
d. LaFollette Seamen’s Act - improves conditions in the U.S. merchant marine -
ultimately destroys it by increasing costs
e. Workingmen’s Compensation Act 1916 - workmen’s compensation for Civil Service employees
f. Keating-Owen Act 1916 - interstate ban on goods produced with child labor - ruled unconstitutional in 1918 - Supreme Court continues to be a conservative force
g. Adamson Act 1916 - establish the eight hour day for interstate railroad employees
h. these are only a small portion of the acts passed
XII. Wilson and foreign policy - “moral diplomacy”
A. opposed to the big stick - sought a less aggressive foreign policy (though still active)
B. opposed to dollar diplomacy - announced that the federal government would not support
monied interests in foreign countries
C. increasingly Wilson found that idealism and political reality clashed
1. forced to send in U.S. troops several times
a. 1916 - Dominican Republic
b. 1915 - Haiti
c. purchase of the Danish West Indies (Virgin Islands) 1917-18 - $25m
2. watchful waiting in Mexico - Pershing sent to chase Pancho Villa unsuccessfully
World War I - New Deal - look at Billington’s contention that all progressive periods end with a great war - the fever pitch of emotional excitement may make them more likely to happen - what about wars tend to be anti-progressive?
I. WW I - background, cause, U.S. involvement
A. immediate cause id the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand (Austria-Hungary and Serbia)
B. deeper causes
1. secret alliances
2. militarism and an arms race
3. imperialism - more potential confrontation points
4. balance of power concept - Germany’s threat
5. Balkan nationalism
C. begins in July 1914 - Allies v Central Powers
D. initial U.S. reaction was a formal declaration of neutrality
1. Wilson said we must be neutral in thought as well as deed
2. from the outset, most Americans favored the Allies
E. reasons that neutrality could not be maintained
1. cultural ties
a. German-American/Central Powers numbered 11m
b. Irish-Americans also favor the Central Powers
c. on the whole, far more favor Great Britain
2. economic ties - exports and loans in dollars
a. country - 1914 - 1915 - 1916 - %+or-
Great Britain 594m 911m 1.5b 257%
France 159m 369m 628m 393%
Italy 74m 184m 269m 364m
Germany 344m 28m .28m .08%
b. loans to Allies = $2.3b - loans to Germany = $27m
c. why does this make a difference? Who will be able to repay loans
3. attack on France and Belgium - lead to view of Germany as the aggressor
a. France was considered a traditional friend of the U.S. - “Forget us God if we forget, the sacred sword of Lafayette.”
b. Belgium neutrality dismissed as a mere scrap of paper
4. German imperialism - particularly in the Pacific
a. conflicted more with U.S. interests
b. Samoa. Philippines, China
c. expanding German industry is competing with U.S. products
5. traditional German stereotype
6. anti-German propaganda
a. English propaganda style fits with accepted U.S. norms than does the German
b. English control of the transatlantic cable allows the British to control what news the U.S. gets from Europe
c. atrocity reports - submarine warfare, crucified Canadian, corpse factory which turned
bodies into soap, Belgium babies with their hands cut off, Belgium maidens with their
breasts cut off, Edith Cavell incident (British nurse executed)
d. sabotage in the U.S. - Black Tom Munitions Plant - Dr. Albert’s briefcase listing other
plans
7. unrestricted submarine warfare - the idea that German tactics killed while allied tactics only inconvenienced
8. Zimmerman Note - stated that Mexico and Japan should join the war on the side of the Central Powers so they could gain territory
a. Mexico - Texas and the Mexican Cession
b. Japan - Hawaii and the Philippines
F. initial depression at the outset gives way to economic prosperity
G. English strategy - blockade
1. went beyond traditional limitations of blockades for modern reasons
a. needed to stay out of the range of German land guns
b. geographic considerations - easier to blockade away from German ports
c. redefine contraband to include indirect war material
d. doctrine of continuous voyage
e. limiting trade between neutrals to prewar levels
2. England had to walk the fine line between enforcing the blockade and alienating the U.S. - this became easier as the war went on
3. payment for seized goods eases the pain
4. problem for Wilson is whether or not to allow unneutral trade
a. stopping it would hurt the cause of the allies
b. increasingly it would also hurt the economy of the U.S.
H. German strategy was to use the submarine (U-boat) warfare to blockade England
1. this required a different set of rules than did surface ships - since surprise was the primary weapon of the U-boat
a. thus it could not warn ship or provide for passengers or crew
b. early U-boats very vulnerable to even armed merchantmen
2. war zone declared around England creates problems - for the U.S. the major issue is freedom of the seas or the rights of neutrals
a. problems with identifying neutral ships (flags)
b. problem of armed merchantmen
c. problem of passenger ships carrying contraband
I. the Lusitania - May 7, 1915 - British passenger ship sunk by subs
1. 1200 killed - 128 Americans
2. warnings had been placed in U.S. newspapers
3. Wilson insists on the principle of freedom of the seas - sends stern notes to Germany
a. Bryan resigns over the severe language saying - “There’s such a thing as a man being too proud to fight.”
b. Morison terms the sinking of the Lusitania “a criminally stupid act.” - why?
J. sinkings of the Arabic and Sussex
1. Arabic goes down August 1915 - 2 American lives lost
a. Arabic pledge
b. Germany would not sink unarmed and unresisting passenger ships without warning
2. Sussex goes down March 1916 - some American lives lost
a. Sussex ultimatum sent - properly warn passenger and merchant ships or diplomatic relations will be broken - prelude to war
b. Germany agrees
K. preparedness - becomes an issue in 1916 - what problem is there with a neutral country readying itself for war - will it become more likely to enter the war?
1. the navy was in relatively good shape - ranks 3rd in the world
2. army ranks 15th - just behind that of Persia
3. Wilson initially resisted preparedness but eventually realizes the political benefits - 1916
L. June 1916 - National Defense Act
1. increased the size of the regular army from 100,000 to 145,000 or 200,000
2. increased National Guard reserves to 450,000
M. naval construction - August of 1916
1. authorizes $313m with emphasis on traditional battleships
2. none were completed before the end of the war
3. failed to recognize the need to combat submarine threat
N. Council for National Defense is formed - in the event of war, they would coordinate production
O. U.S. Shipping Board established - $50m to buy or build merchantmen
P. Election of 1916
1. Republicans
a. Roosevelt is not a candidate - the Republican party is reunited - settle of Charles Evans Hughes
b. Republican platform
1. critical of tariff policy
2. critical of trust prosecutions
3. neutral on the issue of participation in the war
c. Roosevelt had difficulty supporting Hughes - Charles “Evasive” Hughes - “Whiskered Wilson” - the only difference between the two was a shave
2. the Wilson (Democratic) platform
a. “he kept us out of war” slogan
b. becomes strong supporter of preparedness
c. ignores Hughes on the belief that “one should not kill a man attempting to commit
suicide”
d. Roosevelt very critical of Wilson - believes the U.S. should become involved in the war - refers to him as “that damned Presbyterian hypocrite”
3. outcome - Wilson - 277EV - 9.1m - Hughes 254EV - 8.5m
a. the South and the West support Wilson
b. Northeast and Midwest support Hughes
c. the California blunder - Hughes fails to greet Hiram Johnson - lost California by 4000 votes
II. Wilsonian idealism and WW I
A. Wilson believed the U.S. could control the peace process and demonstrate the futility of war
1. January 22,1917 - peace without victory speech
2. behind the scenes attempts at peace (Colonel House) unsuccessful as both sides attach too many conditions
B. the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare - January 31, 1917 - Germany would sink all
merchantmen in the war zone without warning
1. this was a calculated gamble - Germany believed that she could win the war before the U.S. could mobilize and become a significant factor
2. Germany knew that this would mean war with the U.S. - February 3, 1917 breaks diplomatic relations with Germany
3. Wilson insists on overt act before he will seek a declaration of war
C. USW leads to Wilson’s proposal to arm merchantmen
1. filibuster kills the chance of its passage
2. opposition was particularly strong in Midwest, South, and from Progressives - why?
3. Wilson brand’s obstructionist “a little group of willful men”
4. arms merchantmen under the authority of an old statute
D. Zimmerman note - made public March 1, 1917 - emotionalizes U.S. public opinion
E. overt acts occur in mid-March
1. four U.S. ships sunk - 36 killed
2. increased demand for war - Philadelphia newspaper - “The difference between war and
what we have now is that now we’re not fighting back
F. Russian revolution March of 1917 - establishes a democracy and increased the moral rightness of the U.S. joining the war effort - democracy v autocracy
G. Wilson asks for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917
1. Congress declares war 4-6-17
2. vote 82-6, 373-50
H. why did war come
1. submarine warfare
2. cultural bias
3. aggressor syndrome
4. commercial and financial interests
5. governmental systems
I. the mobilization of American industry
1. reflected tones of New Nationalism that Wilson was already leaning toward
2. “It is not an army we must shape and train for war, it is a nation.”
3. this required consolidation and centralization - priorities in the allocation of resources had to be made and bottlenecks to production eliminated
4. primary agency in charge - The War Industries Board - Bernard Baruch (Wall St. financier
heads the agency) - established July 1917
a. primary job was to win business cooperation with the goals of the government
b. provided for standardization
c. ensured profits for industries
d. exempted businesses from anti-trust suits for their cooperation
e. fixed prices
f. offered cost-plus contracts
5. the net effect of the War industries Board was to recreate a partnership between American business and government - what was the effect on the Progressive movement
J. The War Labor Board - “Labor will win the war”
1. co-chaired by William Howard Taft and Samuel Gompers
2. purpose was to resolve labor conflict without strikes
a. to gain labor’s support, government took a pro-labor position
b. labor’s support was traded for a labor voice in government policy - Samuel Gompers sat on several different boards
3. war labor board arbitrates 1250 cases
4. in return for a no-strike pledge, the government supported the right of labor unions to
organize and insisted that management deal with unions
5. government encourages an eight hour day for workers with time and a half for overtime
6. was willing to enforce its decisions - when Smith and Wesson (Springfield,MA) refused to cooperate, the government took over the plant
7. AFL membership grew from 1m in 1916 to more than 3m in 1919
8. nevertheless, there were more than 6000 strikes during the war - speculate on how the public would react to those strikes
9. IWW (Wobblies) were the most militant and were eventually decimated by public reaction against them
10. labor’s gains during the period did not keep pace with the gains of industrial profits or inflation- 42,000 new millionaires created by WW I
K. gains for black workers
1. Southern blacks were actively recruited for work in Northern industry
2. 400,000-450,000 blacks moved to Northern cities - Henry Ford sent recruiting agents into the south and set up special trains to bring Blacks North
3. what would you anticipate would happen after the war (loss of jobs - significant minority)
L. gains for women
1. 400,000 women join the labor force as a result of the war (a women’s place in in the war)
2. many of the 8m working women switched from low paying jobs to higher paying industrial jobs
3. additional gains for women
a. war had a positive effect on the women’s suffrage movement - why?
b. Alice Paul’s Congressional Union opposed the war
c. National American Women’s Suffrage Association supports the war effort
d. Wilson converted to women’s suffrage in 1916 - withdrew his objections to the 19th amendment in 1918
e. cleared the House easily - took 18 months to get through the Senate
f. ratified August 26, 1920
4. how lasting were these gains
M. The War Trade Board
N. Fuel Administration - headed by Harry Garfield - “Mine more coal” - “Fuel will win the war”
1. coal production increased 2/5 largely due to guaranteed price increases which opened previously unproductive mines
2. heatless Mondays, lightless nights, gasless Sundays
3. introduction of daylight savings time
O. Food Administration - headed by Herbert Hoover - “Food will win the war”
1. the gospel of the clean dinner plate
2. full garbage pails make empty dinner pails
3. patriotic to the core
4. Hooverizing - wheatless Mondays and Wednesdays, porkless Tuesdays and Saturdays
5. encouragement of victory gardens
6. increased movement toward prohibition to save grain
7. no rationing introduced
8. successfully leads to a three fold increase in food exports
P. important to realize that these were all propaganda attempts to get people involved in the war
effort
Q. The Railway War Board - William McAdoo - Wilson’s son in law
1. railroads are nationalized and operated by the government
2. owners are guaranteed “standard return” equal to their average profits from 1915-1917
3. ownership would be returned to private hands not more than 21 months after the end of the war
4. railroads operated at a deficit of $862m
R. these agencies consolidated and centralized the war effort and required the expertise of skilled managers to effectively administer them - those people came primarily from business, thus recreating a partnership between government and big business
S. financing the war effort
1. total cost of the war was $32b - $44m per day at the end of the war
2. moved the U.S. from a creditor to a debtor nation
3. between one third and one half the cost was raised by taxation
4. the rest came from bond drive (“Liberty loans”)
a. bonds were sold in small denomination so average citizens could afford them and feel a direct attachment to the war effort
b. $50 denomination - even schoolchildren could purchase 25 cent thrift stamps
c. four separate bond drives raise a total of $22b
5. U.S. debt rose from $1b in 1915 to $20b in 1920
6. increased wages brought more people under the income tax liability and accustomed
them to paying this tax
T. The Committee on Public Information - headed by George Creel
1. support for the war effort was not a foregone conclusion
2. the purpose of the Creel Committee was to muster support for the war effort through a
massive propaganda campaign - it purpose was therefore to get everyone to think alike
3. this meant creating an emotionalized national ideology - what are the potential problems with this following the war?
4. CPI succeeds with a tremendously pervasive effort
a. 75m pieces of literature were distributed
b. sponsored short films designed to portray German as inhumane - “The Prussian Cur” - “The Kaiser, The Beast of Berlin”
c. 75,000 “four minute men” delivered 755,000 speeches to an audience of 300m
people, three times the population of the U.S.
5. the effect was to create a tremendous impetus for conformity in the U.S.
a. citizens were encouraged to look for “the man who spreads pessimistic stories, cries for peace, or belittles our effort to win the war” and to turn these people in to the Justice Department
b. Morison contends it “engaged the energies of frustrated old women of both sexes. It was a wonderful opportunity to bring patriotism to the aid of neighborhood feuds and personal grudges.”
c. American Protective League mobilized 250,000 “agents” to spy on average citizens (complete with badges furnished by the Justice Department)
d. Boy Spies of America and Sedition Slammers staged violent raids against draft evaders and war opponents
e. German-Americans (generally very loyal) were particularly the victims
1. German music was banned from concert halls
2. pro-German textbook references were removed
3. German could not be taught as a language
4. Sauerkraut became “Liberty Cabbage,” hamburgers became “Salisbury Steak,” German measles became “Liberty Measles”
5. what future problems might this create? - once the war is over how quickly will these suspicions fade?
U. legally instituted restraint against dissent
1. formally codified into the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918
a. made it illegal for anyone to “utter, print, write or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the form of government in the United
States, or the uniform of the Army or Navy - also included the Constitution, the
flag, or anyone interfering with recruiting
b. fines of up to $10,000 and 20 years imprisonment
c. more than 1000 convictions - including Eugene Debs for saying that the master class caused wars while the subject class fought them
2. IWW was a very tempting target
a. its leaders spoke out against militarism
b. 133 were arrested
c. Frank Little dragged through the streets of Butte, Montana and hanged for opposing the draft
3. freedom of speech
a. Schneck v U.S. (1919) - Congress could restrict free speech if it posed a “clear and present danger” - Oliver Wendall Holmes and Louis Brandeis - freedom of
speech does not give anyone the right to yell fire in a crowded theater
b. Abrams v U.S. - Holmes and Brandeis dissent
III. World War I - the need to create a moralistic war
A. reluctance of the Midwest to support war effort
1. large population of German immigrants
2. natural isolation of inland areas
B. nicknames of WW I display the idealistic nature - The Great War, The War to End All War, A War
to Make the World Safe for Democracy
C. Wilson’s Fourteen Points
1. beginning in January 1918 Wilson introduces the idea of “peace without victory” and
what that meant
2. over time these are developed into Fourteen Points - even though they increase to 23
3. many are specific in nature, but major points include
a. the abolition of secret treaties
b. free trade
c. freedom of the seas - the rights of neutrals to trade
d. reduction of armaments
e. self-determination (define)
f. a post-war international organization to resolve dispute peacefully - League of
Nations
4. European leaders had more practical goals conditioned by political considerations
a. Clemenceau - “Wilson’s Fourteen Points bore me. God almighty had only ten.”
b. refers to them as “Wilson’s Fourteen Commandments” - “God Almighty Wilson”
D. major impact of the U.S. during the war
1. Wilson viewed the primary function of the U.S. as building a bridge of boats to Europe -
most Americans felt that supplying the war effort would be our only involvement
2. steps taken to increase the size of the U.S. merchant marine
a. confiscation of German ships in U.S. ports
b. requisitioning of neutral ships
c. massive building program
1. ships made of steel, concrete, and wood
2. one completed in just 27 days
3. 7-4-18 - 95 vessels were launched in a single day
4. before the end of the war, two ships were being launched for every one that was sunk
5. when the war ended, 350,000 shipyard workers in 341 shipyards - the U.S.
has two times the ship building capacity of the rest of the world combined
3. success comes largely through the “Sims idea” (William Sims) - the convoying of ships -
concept of safety in numbers from submarine attack
E. the Army
1. increased to 200,000 six weeks after the declaration of war
2. conscription - Selective Service Acts of 1917 and 1918
a. 3m drafted into military service
b. 2m volunteer for service (ideological nature of the war) - F. Scott Fitzgerald example
c. 337,000 “slackers” - draft evaders
d. 4000 conscientious objectors
3. 2m men eventually transported to Europe without the loss of a single man - 6 transports
torpedoed on the way home
4. American Expeditionary Force - doughboys
a. General “Black Jack” John Pershing commands
b. October 23, 1917 first effective U.S. force arrives (remember, the Germans had counted on the fact that they could end the war with unrestricted submarine warfare before the U.S. power could effectively be brought to bear - they were nearly correct
c. jolly crusade-like force (remember, the Spanish-American War was the last the U.S. had fought - also, the idealistic nature of the war)
d. “Johnny Get Your Gun” - “Over There”
e. initially used as replacements for allied troops rather then as a unit
5. the horrors of trench warfare
a. stationary lines - 600 miles of trenches from Switzerland to the Belgium coast
b. tremendous losses for yards of ground - Verdum - 350,000 casualties for no gain
- over the top
c. Americans miss most of the trench warfare
d. no man’s land
e. description of life in the trenches - “trench coat, trench mouth, trench fever”
f. warfare anything but idealistic
6. new technology - tanks, machine guns, aircraft, submarines
7. German drive of 1918
a. get within 40 miles of Paris - Big Bertha could lob shells on the city
b. Americans successful at Chateau Thierry and Belleau Woods
c. by July the offensive is spent
d. last major offensive Meuss-Argonne forest - September-November 1918 - 47 days - loses 1.2m killed
e. Alvin York - kills 20 Germans - captures 132 (128)
f. Kaiser forced to flee in November
F. question of whether to accept an armistice or demand unconditional surrender
1. armistice signed 11-11-18
2. Germany sues for peace on the basis of the Fourteen Points
G. post-war forays into Eastern Russia
H. cost of the war
1. Russia - 1.7m
2. Germany - 1.6m
3. France - 1.385m
4. Britain - .9m
5. U.S. - 49,000 - another 52,000 from influenza epidemic
IV. Wilson and peace - The Treaty of Versailles
A. idealistic Wilson travels to Europe for treaty - finds European heads of state more practically
oriented than himself - Morison - 210 - Clemenceau and Wilson
B. treaty is not based on the Fourteen Points but is a semi-harsh treaty
1. requires reparation payments from Germany
2. requires German acknowledgement of war guilt
3. German colonies given as mandates to the victors (guise for imperialism?)
4. provides for demilitarization of Germany
5. requires territorial concessions from the losers
C. thus, it is sometimes referred to as the “lost peace”
D. Wilson is extremely popular in Europe - heads of state somewhat jealous of this popularity
E. Wilson’s political errors in attempting to win approval of the treaty
1. the October Appeal - attempt to influence Congressional elections in November 1918
a. Wilson desires to have a popular mandate before traveling to Europe and appeals
over the heads of Congress to the people for pro-treaty Senators
b. in Republican eyes this violates a non-partisan pact which was in effect during the war
c. Republicans win a small majority in Congress
1. this is a typical off-year election result
2. Wilson’s prestige is hurt only because he put it on the line
3. bad political strategy because it leaves Wilson as the only head of state at
the conference without a political majority at home
2. breaking the precedent by traveling to Europe
a. direct violation of Washington’s farewell address - thus violated the spirit of isolationism
b. seems very pretentious in American eyes
c. left at a time when the country would be experiencing significant readjustment problems
d. left critics a free hand at home
3. makeup of the peace commission
a. Wilson excludes powerful Senators whose support he will need for ratification
b. snubs the majority party in the Senate by not naming any significant Republicans 1. Will Rogers - “It was a 50-50 split. I’ll go and you stay.”
2. remember, Wilson needs a two-thirds majority for ratification
c. critical of Henry Cabot Lodge - Chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee
1. Lodge - “Had a mind like the New England soil, naturally barren, but well
cultivated.”
2. Lodge has a personal dislike for Wilson - had been the intellectual leader
in government before Wilson’s arrival
3. Lodge - “I never knew I could hate a man as much as I hate Wilson.”
d. to some degree, this represents the typical post-war struggle between the executive and legislative branches
4. willingness to compromise at the conference, but not on the terms of ratification at home
a. as early as 1915 many had proposed a league before Wilson - Roosevelt, Taft, Root, Lodge
b. there was a small group who opposed any treaty involving the U.S. in world affairs
- William Borah, Hiram Johnson - irreconcilables - Lodge is a reservationist - explain the difference
c. with a presidential election in 1920, the League was bound to become a political issue - particularly after the Republicans were caught with their pants down by the
October Appeal
d. traditional U.S. isolationism required some sought of compromise
e. Republicans were still smarting from progressive legislation
F. the ratification fight
1. Wilson’s trip home in the middle of negotiations signaled trouble
2. March of 1919 a Round Robin was signed by 39 Republican Senators
a. indicated they would not approve U.S. membership in the League of Nations
without changes
b. this hurt Wilson’s prestige and standing at the treaty negotiations
c. fearing that the Senate might block U.S. participation in the League, Wilson pushed to have it written into the Treaty of Versailles - he did not believe the Senate would kill the entire treaty to stay out of the League
d. to do this, Wilson was forced to compromise away all but 4 of his 23 points - Clemenceau - “God gave us ten commandments and we broke them. Wilson gave us his Fourteen Points, we shall see.”
3. three quarters of the Senators and American people favored ratification with reservations
a. Lodge determines on a strategy of delay - feeling delay breeds apathy
b. reads aloud the entire treaty (264 pages) - despite the fact its printed
c. requires lengthy hearings with scores of witnesses
d. Wilson fear apathy and appeals over the heads of the Senate directly to the people
4. September 1919 - Wilson embarks on a crosscountry tour to generate support
a. “I can predict with absolute certainty that within another generation there will be another world war if the nations of the world do not concert the effort by which to prevent it.”
b. major objection to the treaty is Article X of the League Covenant
1. can require the assistance of member nations to punish covenant violators
2. fear is that U.S. will be drawn into conflict it could normally avoid
c. Wilson receives a lukewarm reception in the Midwest
d. he is followed closely by irreconcilables
e. campaign seems to be generating enthusiasm
f. September 25, 1919 - Wilson collapses from physical and mental exhaustion in
Pueblo, CO
1. funeral train takes him back to Washington
2. subsequently he suffers a stroke
3. totally incapacitated for several months - didn’t meet with his cabinet for 71/2 months
5. Lodge, realizing he doesn’t have enough votes to defeat the treaty adds 14 reservations
a. Wilson’s strategy should have been to accept the treaty with reservations which would most likely be quickly forgotten
b. Wilson instead turns it into a moralistic crusade with his name on the line - Bailey -
“Though too feeble to lead, Wilson was still strong enough to obstruct.”
c. orders Democrats to vote against the treaty with reservations
1. 11-19-19 - treaty with reservations voted down 55-39
2. treaty without reservations fails to pass 38-53
3. final treaty with reservations fails 3-19-20 - 49-35
d. thus, the U.S. eventually concludes a separate treaty with Germany and never joins the League of Nations
6. the election of 1920 - “The Solemn Referendum”
a. Wilson chooses to make the election of 1920 a referendum on the treaty
b. Republicans are nearly assured of victory
1. Wilson has claimed the spotlight so no other leading Democrats have had
the opportunity to emerge
2. leading contenders kill themselves off
3. eventually Democrats settle on James Cox and Franklin Roosevelt
c. leading Republicans also kill themselves off - Leonard Wood, Hiram Johnson
1. they settle on a darkhorse from Ohio - Warren G. Harding - Wilson had noticed him as a Senator saying he had a “disturbingly dull mind”
2. Vice President is Calvin Coolidge who had made a name for himself as governor of MA during the Boston police strike - in sending in the National Guard he noted “There is no right to strike against the public safety by anyone, anywhere, anytime” - typical of anti-labor sentiment
d. results - Harding 16.1m - 404EV - Cox - 9.1m - 127EV - Debs (from prison) .9m
e. the campaign was listless with Republican victory assured by defeat of the treaty
f. never became a solemn referendum
1. too many other issues
2. Wilson’s fallen name running against Harding
3. having fallen, Wilson could not muster Bull Moose support
g. one commentator - “Thank God only one of them can win.”
G. where does the blame lie for the defeat of the treaty - Wilson, Lodge, American public?
III. World War I - the need to create a moralistic war
A. reluctance of the Midwest to support war effort
1. large population of German immigrants
2. natural isolation of inland areas
B. nicknames of WW I display the idealistic nature - The Great War, The War to End All War, A War
to Make the World Safe for Democracy
C. Wilson’s Fourteen Points
1. beginning in January 1918 Wilson introduces the idea of “peace without victory” and
what that meant
2. over time these are developed into Fourteen Points - even though they increase to 23
3. many are specific in nature, but major points include
a. the abolition of secret treaties
b. free trade
c. freedom of the seas - the rights of neutrals to trade
d. reduction of armaments
e. self-determination (define)
f. a post-war international organization to resolve dispute peacefully - League of
Nations
4. European leaders had more practical goals conditioned by political considerations
a. Clemenceau - “Wilson’s Fourteen Points bore me. God almighty had only ten.”
b. refers to them as “Wilson’s Fourteen Commandments” - “God Almighty Wilson”
D. major impact of the U.S. during the war
1. Wilson viewed the primary function of the U.S. as building a bridge of boats to Europe -
most Americans felt that supplying the war effort would be our only involvement
2. steps taken to increase the size of the U.S. merchant marine
a. confiscation of German ships in U.S. ports
b. requisitioning of neutral ships
c. massive building program
1. ships made of steel, concrete, and wood
2. one completed in just 27 days
3. 7-4-18 - 95 vessels were launched in a single day
4. before the end of the war, two ships were being launched for every one that was sunk
5. when the war ended, 350,000 shipyard workers in 341 shipyards - the U.S.
has two times the ship building capacity of the rest of the world combined
3. success comes largely through the “Sims idea” (William Sims) - the convoying of ships -
concept of safety in numbers from submarine attack
E. the Army
1. increased to 200,000 six weeks after the declaration of war
2. conscription - Selective Service Acts of 1917 and 1918
a. 3m drafted into military service
b. 2m volunteer for service (ideological nature of the war) - F. Scott Fitzgerald example
c. 337,000 “slackers” - draft evaders
d. 4000 conscientious objectors
3. 2m men eventually transported to Europe without the loss of a single man - 6 transports
torpedoed on the way home
4. American Expeditionary Force - doughboys
a. General “Black Jack” John Pershing commands
b. October 23, 1917 first effective U.S. force arrives (remember, the Germans had counted on the fact that they could end the war with unrestricted submarine warfare before the U.S. power could effectively be brought to bear - they were nearly correct
c. jolly crusade-like force (remember, the Spanish-American War was the last the U.S. had fought - also, the idealistic nature of the war)
d. “Johnny Get Your Gun” - “Over There”
e. initially used as replacements for allied troops rather then as a unit
5. the horrors of trench warfare
a. stationary lines - 600 miles of trenches from Switzerland to the Belgium coast
b. tremendous losses for yards of ground - Verdum - 350,000 casualties for no gain
- over the top
c. Americans miss most of the trench warfare
d. no man’s land
e. description of life in the trenches - “trench coat, trench mouth, trench fever”
f. warfare anything but idealistic
6. new technology - tanks, machine guns, aircraft, submarines
7. German drive of 1918
a. get within 40 miles of Paris - Big Bertha could lob shells on the city
b. Americans successful at Chateau Thierry and Belleau Woods
c. by July the offensive is spent
d. last major offensive Meuss-Argonne forest - September-November 1918 - 47 days - loses 1.2m killed
e. Alvin York - kills 20 Germans - captures 132 (128)
f. Kaiser forced to flee in November
F. question of whether to accept an armistice or demand unconditional surrender
1. armistice signed 11-11-18
2. Germany sues for peace on the basis of the Fourteen Points
G. post-war forays into Eastern Russia
H. cost of the war
1. Russia - 1.7m
2. Germany - 1.6m
3. France - 1.385m
4. Britain - .9m
5. U.S. - 49,000 - another 52,000 from influenza epidemic
IV. Wilson and peace - The Treaty of Versailles
A. idealistic Wilson travels to Europe for treaty - finds European heads of state more practically
oriented than himself - Morison - 210 - Clemenceau and Wilson
B. treaty is not based on the Fourteen Points but is a semi-harsh treaty
1. requires reparation payments from Germany
2. requires German acknowledgement of war guilt
3. German colonies given as mandates to the victors (guise for imperialism?)
4. provides for demilitarization of Germany
5. requires territorial concessions from the losers
C. thus, it is sometimes referred to as the “lost peace”
D. Wilson is extremely popular in Europe - heads of state somewhat jealous of this popularity
E. Wilson’s political errors in attempting to win approval of the treaty
1. the October Appeal - attempt to influence Congressional elections in November 1918
a. Wilson desires to have a popular mandate before traveling to Europe and appeals
over the heads of Congress to the people for pro-treaty Senators
b. in Republican eyes this violates a non-partisan pact which was in effect during the war
c. Republicans win a small majority in Congress
1. this is a typical off-year election result
2. Wilson’s prestige is hurt only because he put it on the line
3. bad political strategy because it leaves Wilson as the only head of state at
the conference without a political majority at home
2. breaking the precedent by traveling to Europe
a. direct violation of Washington’s farewell address - thus violated the spirit of isolationism
b. seems very pretentious in American eyes
c. left at a time when the country would be experiencing significant readjustment problems
d. left critics a free hand at home
3. makeup of the peace commission
a. Wilson excludes powerful Senators whose support he will need for ratification
b. snubs the majority party in the Senate by not naming any significant Republicans 1. Will Rogers - “It was a 50-50 split. I’ll go and you stay.”
2. remember, Wilson needs a two-thirds majority for ratification
c. critical of Henry Cabot Lodge - Chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee
1. Lodge - “Had a mind like the New England soil, naturally barren, but well
cultivated.”
2. Lodge has a personal dislike for Wilson - had been the intellectual leader
in government before Wilson’s arrival
3. Lodge - “I never knew I could hate a man as much as I hate Wilson.”
d. to some degree, this represents the typical post-war struggle between the executive and legislative branches
4. willingness to compromise at the conference, but not on the terms of ratification at home
a. as early as 1915 many had proposed a league before Wilson - Roosevelt, Taft, Root, Lodge
b. there was a small group who opposed any treaty involving the U.S. in world affairs
- William Borah, Hiram Johnson - irreconcilables - Lodge is a reservationist - explain the difference
c. with a presidential election in 1920, the League was bound to become a political issue - particularly after the Republicans were caught with their pants down by the
October Appeal
d. traditional U.S. isolationism required some sought of compromise
e. Republicans were still smarting from progressive legislation
F. the ratification fight
1. Wilson’s trip home in the middle of negotiations signaled trouble
2. March of 1919 a Round Robin was signed by 39 Republican Senators
a. indicated they would not approve U.S. membership in the League of Nations
without changes
b. this hurt Wilson’s prestige and standing at the treaty negotiations
c. fearing that the Senate might block U.S. participation in the League, Wilson pushed to have it written into the Treaty of Versailles - he did not believe the Senate would kill the entire treaty to stay out of the League
d. to do this, Wilson was forced to compromise away all but 4 of his 23 points - Clemenceau - “God gave us ten commandments and we broke them. Wilson gave us his Fourteen Points, we shall see.”
3. three quarters of the Senators and American people favored ratification with reservations
a. Lodge determines on a strategy of delay - feeling delay breeds apathy
b. reads aloud the entire treaty (264 pages) - despite the fact its printed
c. requires lengthy hearings with scores of witnesses
d. Wilson fear apathy and appeals over the heads of the Senate directly to the people
4. September 1919 - Wilson embarks on a crosscountry tour to generate support
a. “I can predict with absolute certainty that within another generation there will be another world war if the nations of the world do not concert the effort by which to prevent it.”
b. major objection to the treaty is Article X of the League Covenant
1. can require the assistance of member nations to punish covenant violators
2. fear is that U.S. will be drawn into conflict it could normally avoid
c. Wilson receives a lukewarm reception in the Midwest
d. he is followed closely by irreconcilables
e. campaign seems to be generating enthusiasm
f. September 25, 1919 - Wilson collapses from physical and mental exhaustion in
Pueblo, CO
1. funeral train takes him back to Washington
2. subsequently he suffers a stroke
3. totally incapacitated for several months - didn’t meet with his cabinet for 71/2 months
5. Lodge, realizing he doesn’t have enough votes to defeat the treaty adds 14 reservations
a. Wilson’s strategy should have been to accept the treaty with reservations which would most likely be quickly forgotten
b. Wilson instead turns it into a moralistic crusade with his name on the line - Bailey -
“Though too feeble to lead, Wilson was still strong enough to obstruct.”
c. orders Democrats to vote against the treaty with reservations
1. 11-19-19 - treaty with reservations voted down 55-39
2. treaty without reservations fails to pass 38-53
3. final treaty with reservations fails 3-19-20 - 49-35
d. thus, the U.S. eventually concludes a separate treaty with Germany and never joins the League of Nations
6. the election of 1920 - “The Solemn Referendum”
a. Wilson chooses to make the election of 1920 a referendum on the treaty
b. Republicans are nearly assured of victory
1. Wilson has claimed the spotlight so no other leading Democrats have had
the opportunity to emerge
2. leading contenders kill themselves off
3. eventually Democrats settle on James Cox and Franklin Roosevelt
c. leading Republicans also kill themselves off - Leonard Wood, Hiram Johnson
1. they settle on a darkhorse from Ohio - Warren G. Harding - Wilson had noticed him as a Senator saying he had a “disturbingly dull mind”
2. Vice President is Calvin Coolidge who had made a name for himself as governor of MA during the Boston police strike - in sending in the National Guard he noted “There is no right to strike against the public safety by anyone, anywhere, anytime” - typical of anti-labor sentiment
d. results - Harding 16.1m - 404EV - Cox - 9.1m - 127EV - Debs (from prison) .9m
e. the campaign was listless with Republican victory assured by defeat of the treaty
f. never became a solemn referendum
1. too many other issues
2. Wilson’s fallen name running against Harding
3. having fallen, Wilson could not muster Bull Moose support
g. one commentator - “Thank God only one of them can win.”
G. where does the blame lie for the defeat of the treaty - Wilson, Lodge, American public?
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