The Sociological Perspective
The Sociological Perspective
Sociological Perspective
Peter Berger: “seeing the general in the particular”
possible to identify general patterns in the behavior of particular people
C. Wright Mills: “sociological imagination”
understand the connection between “history” and “biography”
awareness of the relationship between private experience and (external influences in the) wider society
our experiences in group interactions influence our perceptions of social reality and our reaction to it (social behavior)
Benefits of the Sociological Perspective
helps us assess the truth of “common sense” assumptions
prompts us to assess both the opportunities and constraints that characterize our lives
empowers us to participate actively in our society
helps us recognize human variety and confront the challenges of living in a diverse world
Importance of a Global Perspective
societies are increasingly interconnected
many problems we face are more serious elsewhere
thinking globally is a good way to learn more about ourselves
Development of Sociology
origins in Europe during mid-1800s
Industrial Revolution (urbanization, rapid social change)
colonization
success of natural sciences (positivism)
expansion in America at the turn of the century
immigration
emphasis on social reform
applied sociology
public policy
evaluation research
Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
sociology is a multiple paradigm science
a paradigm is a perspective or basic image of society that guides thinking and research
functional perspective (focuses on macro level)
sees society as complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability; maintain equilibrium
conflict perspective (focuses on macro level)
sees society as arena of inequality that generates conflict and change; groups competing for scarce resources
symbolic interaction perspective (micro level)
sees society as product of the everyday interactions between individuals; how people use symbols to develop and share views of the world
Sociological Investigation
How do we “know” what is “truth”?
ways of knowing or “kinds of truth”
faith
wisdom of experts
general agreement among people
empirical evidence (information we can verify with our senses)
Science is a logical system based on direct, systematic observations.
Research Model
selecting a topic
defining the problem
reviewing the literature
formulating a hypothesis
choosing a research method
collecting the data
analyzing the data
drawing conclusions
sharing the results
Research Methods
Henslin (text)
surveys
participant observation
secondary analysis
documents
unobtrusive measures
experiments
another method of categorization
experiments
laboratory
field
surveys
interviews
questionnaires
observational studies
participant
detached
secondary analysis
govt. statistics
previous research data
Important Concepts in Research
variable: a concept whose value changes from case to case
measurement: the process of determining the value of a variable in a specific case
operational definitions of variables specify exactly what will be measured in assigning a value to a variable
reliability: consistency in measurement
validity: measuring precisely what one intends to measure
relationships among variables
cause & effect: change in one variable causes change in another (independent, dependent)
correlation: two or more variables change together
controlling for intervening variables
population: people who are the focus of the research (target group you wish to study)
sample: part of the population that represents the whole
random sample, stratified random sample
questionnaire: series of written questions that a researcher presents to subjects
closed-ended, open-ended
interview: series of questions a researcher administers in person to respondents
rapport
Research Ethics
use of data
openness
honesty
no invasion of privacy
informed consent
no harm to participants
avoid deception
Interplay of Theory and Research
Theory and research are interdependent.
Inductive reasoning transforms specific observations into general theory.
Theory is used to interpret research data and research data is used to generate theory .
Deductive reasoning transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for scientific research.
Theory generates questions which need to be answered.
Objectivity vs. Subjectivity
These concepts are best understood as points on a continuum, not mutually exclusive categories.
Sociologists minimize bias and personal value judgments in the collection and analysis of data by:
adhering to the scientific method
openly stating their perspective (and sources of research funding)
reliance on replication or repetition of research by others
A.S.A. code of ethics
critical review by peers
Limitations of Sociological Research
Human behavior is too complex to allow sociologists to predict precisely any individual’s actions.
Because humans respond to their surroundings, the mere presence of a researcher may affect the behavior being studied.
Hawthorne effect
Social patterns change constantly; what is true in one time or place may not hold true in another.
Because sociologists are part of the social world they study, being value free when conducting social research is difficult.
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