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Religion and Non-ReligionThe religious dimension in human history1. The expression of the religious dimension in human historyIdentify the following expressions of the religious dimension in human history:animismpolytheismmonotheismAnimism from Latin ‘anima’ meaning breath/soul → it is the belief that all natural objects (people, animals, landforms etc) possess a soul. Reality is therefore ‘animate’.Animism is the term coined by the nineteenth century British anthropologist Sir Edward Tylor in1871 as a proposed theory of the origins of religion in his book, "Primitive Culture".The soul is understood to exist independently of the natural object it inhabits These spirits were believed to govern the day-to-day activities of the natural world Since all natural objects had souls, every part of creation had to treat every other part of creation with respect In some animistic societies, it is believed that the soul can survive physical death After physical death, some communities believed that the soul became a wandering ghost that actively intervenes in the day-to-day lives of people who are still alive Other communities believed that the soul moved onto a more fertile world, where vegetation and game were plentiful Animistic cultures had priests, known as shamans who performed rituals to appease these wandering souls Sacrifice evident in some animistic cultures served to control the physical environment Animism is still a key feature of some communities today For example, animistic thought still features in the Australian Aboriginal, the Melanesian, Polynesian, the Micronesian and the Native American Indian cultures of today Tylor's theory, though it was influential during the nineteenth century, has been largely rejected by scholars today Polytheism: the worship of multiple gods or deities.Examples of polytheistic religious practice can be found in the Greco-Roman cultures, as well as in the Hindu, Norse, Aztec, Egyptian and Sumerian traditions Though this theory has been disputed, it is generally believed, that polytheism developed from animism One typical characteristic of polytheistic religious systems is that its deities resemble human beings in the sense that they have their own personalities, hold grudges against other gods, and have a personal history Another common feature of polytheistic religious systems is that polytheistic divinities are rarely omniscient, omnipotent and omnipresent Polytheistic deities are usually assigned jurisdictional powers, which are directly linked with their particular skill or talent Gods of the polytheistic religious system are generally immortal, and hence are often referred to as the " Immortals" Polytheistic religious systems are usually highly stratified, which each god being given their own position within this hierarchy Most ancient religions were polytheistic, and even today some tribal cultures and religions have remained polytheistic Hard polytheists conceive of their gods as being distinct and separate entities Soft polytheism is the belief that all the different gods embody a particular facet of a unitary, singular god or reality Monotheism: the belief in one God/divine being, supreme, creator → hence all other gods are false; monotheistic religions are The term monotheism is best used to describe the religious system adopted by the three major monotheistic traditions, Christianity, Islam and Judaism Background and history:Traces of monotheistic thought can also be found in the works of Greek antiquity, in cultures such as ancient Egypt and in traditions such as Zoroastrianism (one of the earliest monotheistic religions which worshipped the god Ahura Mazda). It is generally believed that monotheism developed from polytheism, though this theory has been disputed The transcendent: The god of monotheistic religious systems is usually depicted as an omnipotent, omniscient and omnipresent being Generally, this divine being is credited with the creation of the universe, and is responsible for giving humankind its moral code Deism and pantheism are two varying forms of monotheism:Deism affirms the notion that there is only one god , but rejects the idea that god actively intervenes in human history Pantheism equates god with the universe Therefore, pantheists believe that every part of creation is intrinsically a result of god's activities on earth.2. The significance of the religious dimension in human historyEvaluate the place of the religious dimension in human history to provide:meaning and purpose for the individualsocial cohesionsocial transformationMeaning and purpose for the individual:Human experience is characterised by a search for answers to the big questions of life, which are known as the key religious questions The most significant of these questions relate to the origin (where did we come from?), purpose (why are we here?) and destiny (what happens to us when we die?) of humankind The answers provided through religion understanding give meaning and coherence to life One significant role of religion is to provide life with meaning, and hence a sense of overall consistency and direction in a world that is constantly changing During times of crises for example , religion is particularly uplifting because it provides life with a sense of purpose , and a framework upon which to understand life The ritualistic dimension of religion provides individuals with one of the most basic needs of humankind, a sense of belonging within a community Religion can also serve to reinforce the cultural identity of a group, which is particularly important when the group consists of small ethnic minorities or people who have been socially marginalised by mainstream society.Social cohesion:Religion has an important role in affirming traditional beliefs and practices Religion provides communities with a sense of continuity as it serves to link the rapidly changing, complex modern society with a more traditional and stable past The downside of religion as a force of social cohesion is that religion can also used to reinforce and legitimise values and institutions, which may be unjust e.g. SlaverySocial transformation:Paradoxically, whilst religion is a force of social cohesion it can also serve as a force of social transformation Religion can be used as a tool for criticising the structures, customs and beliefs of its own societies The importance of working towards a just and peaceful society is integral to the message of all major religious traditions Historically, religious groups have played a significant role in advocating and campaigning for social justice and equality Today religious groups can be seen at the forefront of campaigns, which seek to address issues such as poverty, environmental degradation, global conflict, economic inequality, indigenous rights and unemployment.3. The global distribution of the five major religious traditionsInvestigate statistical data of the current global distribution of the five major religious traditionsGlobal percentages:Christianity33%Largest Christian population in Central & North AmericaSecond largest in South East Asia & ChinaSteady decline in Europe and the Western worldSteady growth in AfricaIslam22%Asia, Africa, Middle EastSteady growth in Western countriesHinduism15%India, Fiji, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indonesia (10% of the population) Buddhism6%Mahayana (Zen): Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Tibet, Vietnam, India, RussiaTheravada: Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, Thailand Judaism0.3%Largest in USA (WW2 + immigration)Second largest population in Israel Christianity:Origins:Founded by Jesus of NazarethAfter his death – largely restricted to the Judeo Roman province of Palestine Paul of Tarsus ( Saint Paul) and the apostles spread Christianity into the Greco Roman world formalising the religion and providing Christianity with an infrastructure Christianity grew as an underground movement that faced intermittent persecution in the Roman Empire up to the 4th century CE Under Emperor Constantine, Christianity became a state religion in the 4th century Christianity became the dominant religion in Europe during the Middle Ages as a result of missionaries who were sent out to convert local European tribes who were seen as barbaric The age of European colonisation from the 15th century onwards saw the spread of Christianity to Asia, Africa and North America Distribution: Christianity is the largest religion in the world today There is a clear trend in the recent development of Christianity which points to its steady decline in the Western world and its rapid growth in Asia, Africa and Latin America The 10 largest national populations of Christianity are: (in descending order) USA, Brazil, Mexico, Philippines, China, Russia, India, Nigeria, Germany and Zaire/Congo Islam:Origins:Islam was founded by the Prophet Muhammad in 622 CE in Medina Within a century or two of its establishment, Islam had spread to Palestine, Syria, Persia, Damascus, Persia, Jerusalem, Caesarea, Egypt, North Africa, and Spain which it dominated until the Middle Ages The spread of Islam: 4 rightly guided caliphsDuring the 19th century, as a result of the efforts of missionaries, more people were converted to Islam on the African continent Distribution:Many Muslims were resettled to Western countries such as the US and the UK in the post World War II period Islam is the fastest growing religion of the five major world religions today Islam is the second largest religion in the world today Islam is remaining strong in its traditional areas such as Asia, Africa and the Middle East, and is also growing steadily in Western countries The 10 largest national populations of Muslims are: Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Turkey, Iran, Egypt, Nigeria, Algeria and Morocco Hinduism:Origins:Hinduism began in the Punjab region in Northwest India 4000 years ago The vast majority of the Hindu's in the world are found in India and surrounding areas This is because Hinduism is largely dependent upon the Indian cultural environment for its existence Another reason is that Hinduism lacks the doctrine of self propagation, unlike the other major religious traditions Furthermore, the diverse nature of Hinduism works against the possibility of its spreading easily with a single recognisable doctrine Distribution:The growth of Hinduism is largely due to immigration The 10 largest national populations of Hinduism are: (in descending order) India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Malaysia, USA, South Africa and Burma (Myanmar) Buddhism:Origins:Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama in approximately 500 BCE Began as an offshoot of its mother religion, Hinduism in the Ganges Plain King Asoka sent out missionaries to spread the word of the Buddha in the 5th century BCE which resulted in the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia, Burma and Sri Lanka Distribution:Today Mahayana Buddhism is mainly located in Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Tibet, Vietnam and in some parts of India and Russia Today Theravada Buddhism is mainly located in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka and Thailand Buddhism is steadily growing from a small base in Western countries The 10 largest national populations of Buddhism are: (in descending order) China, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, India, South Korea and Taiwan Judaism:Jewish history is marked by a series of persecutions and exiles leading to Diaspora communities From the time it began to the Middle Ages, as a result of centuries of persecution the Jewish people came to be scattered across Europe and the Middle East Many Jews migrated to the US in the 20th century During World War II, Hitler's Nazi Party sought to destroy the Jewish population of Europe As a result of this attempted genocide, known as the holocaust, approximately 6 million European Jews died In 1948 the United Nations sponsored the reformation of the Jewish state of Israel in Palestinian territories It is often difficult to obtain precise figures about the numbers of Jews living in any given area This is because Jews fear religious persecution and hence are reluctant to divulge their religious identity New religious expression4. The rise of new religious expression and spiritualities Recognise the reasons for the rise of new religious expressions as people:search for personal fulfilment seek ethical guidelines seek to clarify their relationship with societySearch for personal fulfilment:In this secular, individual oriented society where traditional religious beliefs are often recognised as irrelevant, there is a strong need to find meaning and purpose in life’s journeyThe most significant attraction of new age religions is that they offer personal fulfilment Given diverse nature of new age religions, new age religions are well suited to offer personal fulfilment in a considerable variety of ways Seeking ethical guidelines:In accordance with the trend which points to the growing secular society, traditional religious guidance is seen as meaningless and irrelevant The postmodern nature of society means that there is a lack of moral certainty in society, and in its place is the notion of moral relativism Because many people find it difficult to formulate their own ethical guidelines, they turn to new age religions for ethical guidelines Seek to clarify their relationship with society:Human beings are essentially social creatures, and few people will live happily without meaningful contact with others The failure of religious communities to provide meaningful support and the cult of individualism in Western societies has left some individuals feeling isolated from the rest of the community For some, this void may be filled through involvement with new age religions which cater to the needs of the individual 5. The influences on the growth of new religious expressions and spiritualitiesExplain how the following have influenced the growth of new religious expressions and spiritualities:the rise of materialismscientific progressgrowth of ecological awarenessdisenchantment with ‘traditional’ religious practice and guidanceThe rise of materialism :Some new age religions indicate a large involvement in gaining profits New age religions which favour individual spirituality and personal fulfilment, thrive in materialistic societies with its cult of individualism In this consumerist environment, new age philosophies which purport to provide personal fulfilment and well being are represented as commodities which can be brought or sold Scientific progress Rapid growth of scientific knowledge has raised serious questions for some religious perspectives Some abandon traditional religious beliefs, in the belief that scientific discoveries have discredited such beliefs When scientific progress has the effect of undermining the authority the authority of religious traditions, some people will go in search of new age religious expressions to meet their needs Many new age religions have a pseudo-scientific basis e.g. numerology This appeals to many, as often science is seen as validating this new age philosophy Growth of ecological awareness The growth of E. A in recent generations has made a scientific contribution to the awareness of the beauty and power of creation A number of new age religions are creation centred spiritualities which adopt animistic and ancient nature religions in response to rising environmental consciousnessSuch new are religions seek to recapture the traditional wisdom of the environment Many people are attracted to new age religions because they feel that the closeness to the environment is a healing thing e.g. nature retreats and prayers invoking a power from within creation Disenchantment with the traditional religious practice and guidance Many people feel that traditional religious practices do not provide a relevant and meaningful support system for them in the challenges they face in the modern world Increasing disillusionment with traditional religions hypocrisy, abuse of power and/or irrelevance means that religions have lost moral authority and respect it has become increasingly acceptable in contemporary Australian society to have no religious affiliation or not to participate on ones nominal religion the significant decline in religious affiliation is a clear sign of growing secularism new age religions are popular because there is still a longing for a spiritual dimension to lifeNon-Religious Worldviews6. The human search for personal fulfilment through non-religious practices:AgnosticismAtheismHumanismOutline the essential features of Atheism and AgnosticismAtheism is the doctrine or belief that there is no God and Agnosticism is the belief that nothing is or can be known about the existence or nonexistence of God.Atheism:Atheism is the philosophical position that deities do not exist, or that rejects theism. In the broadest sense, it is the absence of belief in the existence of deities or transcendent beings.This absence of belief generally comes about either through deliberate choice, or from an inherent inability to believe religious teachings which seem literally incredible. It is not a lack of belief born out of simple ignorance of religious teachings.Some atheists go beyond a mere absence of belief in gods: they actively believe that particular gods, or all gods, do not exist. Merely lacking belief in Gods is often referred to as the "weak atheist" position; whereas believing that gods do not (or cannot) exist is known as "strong atheism."There is a difference between the strong and weak atheist positions. "Weak atheism" is simple scepticism; disbelief in the existence of God. "Strong atheism" is an explicitly held belief that God does not exist. In Western culture, atheists are frequently assumed to be irreligious or unspiritual. However, religious and spiritual belief systems such as forms of Buddhism that do not advocate belief in gods have been described as atheistic. Although some atheists tend toward secular philosophies such as humanism, rationalism, and naturalism, there is no one ideology or set of behaviours to which all atheists adhere.Agnosticism:The philosophical view that the truth value of certain claims?— particularly metaphysical claims regarding theology, afterlife or the existence of deities, ghosts, or even ultimate reality?— is unknown or, depending on the form of agnosticism, inherently impossible to prove or disprove. The term 'agnosticism' was coined by Professor T.H. Huxley. He defined an "agnostic" as someone who disclaimed both ("strong") atheism and theism, and who believed that the question of whether a higher power existed was unsolved and insoluble.It is often put forth as a middle ground between theism and atheism, though it is not a religious declaration in itself.American lawyer and Politian Robert G. Ingersoll defined Agnosticism as follows: ‘We can be as honest as we are ignorant. If we are, when asked what is beyond the horizon of the known, we must say that we do not know’Outline the positions of:Rational HumanismScientific HumanismEstablished in the Modern Era: Humanism is an approach to life that has its foundations rooted in the importance of humanity and reason. One of the most powerful secular alternatives to religion that has arisen in the modern era that functions as a source of social cohesion and social transformation. Can be explained as either an agnostic or atheist in approach to the existence of a transcendent. Although these two ideas are present in Humanism it must be noted that they are not completely central or vital to Humanism. There are several variations of Humanism, the two most prominent being Rational Humanism (also known as Secular Humanism) and Scientific Humanism (also known as Ethical Humanism).There are many types of humanists e.g. Christian humanists, scientific humanists etc Rational Humanism:Rational Humanism focuses on the value of human life and elevates human reason as the highest form of authority. Humanism encourages a rational approach to human problems with importance placed on reason, the defending of freedom of expression, and the availability of a constructive alternative to theological and dogmatic creeds. Rational Humanists believe that humans are the highest form of intelligence and that the human mind and experience are the most reliable guide for ethical human behavior, decision making, and understanding the world. Human experience is the foundation for all moral values: importance is placed on naturalistic ethics, for example, morality is linked to understandings of pleasure and pain and how one would like to be treated. Believe that this world and this life are all we have, hence we should try to live full and happy lives ourselves and, as part of this, make it easier for other people to do the sameHumanists believe in the intrinsic goodness of humanity, but realise that human potential is far greater than current achievement Scientific Humanism:An intellectual movement directed towards justice, equality and world peace. Its ethics were essentially those of modern Christianity but placed an emphasis on the importance of scientific method which is a confidence in the application of logic and technology in solving modern day dilemmas. Scientific method requires humanists to propose new assertions about the world in the forms of theories (observation, hypotheses and deductions) and predictions from these theories to be tested by experiment.Discuss how Agnosticism, Atheism and Humanism determine the aspirations and behaviour of individualsAgnosticismAgnostics believe that there is not sufficient evidence to make a judgement on the issue of the existence of transcendental beings However, if at a later date, there is sufficient evidence to prove the existence of god or gods, then their views will change AtheismAtheists believe that there is no God or divine being The universe and its life evolved by a natural scientific process Humanity has no ultimate goal and no further aspirations because there is no life after physical death Atheism is not an active philosophy, with an organised body of doctrines There are many beliefs and aspirations held by humanists, which atheists may also possess HumanismAs an alternative to religion Humanism is a way for people to find moral guidance and interpret the world. Humanism rejects the stance taken by religion that people are inherently bad and aim to affirm the goodness in all human beings. They believe that any bad deeds might be the result of being damaged by the experiences in their lives. It is by human experience alone that moral values can ariseNot afterlife, only the current and present being. Therefore, environmental preservation and harmony between individuals and in communities is of great importance. For the betterment of humanityHumanists believe in the intrinsic goodness of humanity, but realise that human potential is far greater than current achievement Individuality and social cooperation are equally important Humanists believe that human beings are successful, because of our ability to manipulate and adapt to the natural world by working cooperatively with other human beings The Humanist Manifesto states that:Knowledge of the world is derived by observation, experimentation, and rational analysis.Humans are an integral part of nature, the result of unguided evolutionary change.Ethical values are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience. Life's fulfilment emerges from individual participation in the service of humane ideals.Humans are social by nature and find meaning in relationships.Working to benefit society maximizes individual happiness.Rational humanismPhilosophy which proclaims that the use compassion, equality, morality, ethics and most importantly reason can be used to build a better world for human kind Scientific humanism Philosophy which places a significant emphasis upon science and technology to address global problems such as poverty, environmental degradation, and social inequalities BehaviourA non-believer determines the moral and ethical way to behave through three methods: Conscience - ideas of pleasure and pain and guilt Logic - common sense Law The Difference between Religious and Non-Religious Worldviews7. The response of ONE religious and ONE non-religious belief system to: the concept of the transcendentthe human personsocial responsibilityCompare the response of ONE religious and ONE non-religious belief system to:the concept of the transcendentthe human personsocial responsibilityThe concept of the transcendentChristianity is based on the belief in God, a transcendent being who exists outside of and beyond the human Christians believe that God is the source of creation and it is God who gives meaning and purpose to life Humanists think that: this world and this life are all we have and hence reject the notion of the transcendent Secular humanists believe that once a person had died their life has ended and there is no continuation of their life in any form This is in clear contrast to the Christian view which holds that beyond death there is an eternal life Other aspects of Christian views such as heaven and hell, judgement and so on are in contrast to humanist views which would not entertain the idea of any existence after death Some groups within Christianity do not accept scientific views of the origin of the universe (such as evolution) Most, however, have no difficulty accepting evolution as the mechanism of creation while retaining a belief in God as the source of creation Secular humanists accept only the scientific view of evolution without any reference to God or any religious dimension Secular humanists align themselves with some scientists who believe that creation was a spontaneous event without any motivation or cause The human personHumanists believe that human beings have thrived through their intelligent adaptation to the environment and their problem solving capabilities They regard the human person as being of supreme value, though with communal or social responsibilities Similar to humanists, Christians regard the human person as being of supreme value and that people also have certain responsibilities to one another Christians regard human beings to be bearers of the image and likeness of God Christians believe that social and communal responsibilities are derived from the revelation of God Humanists on the other hand believe that the value of the human person and the accompanying responsibilities are derived purely from human experienceSocial responsibilityBoth Christians and humanists hold strong views on social responsibility and community involvement Ultimately both groups believe it is important to contribute to making the world a better place and contributing to the overall quality of life of all people Most Christian groups have specific doctrines on social responsibility Humanist ideas are similar though not as clearly defined Because humanism has no belief in an afterlife, there is a tendency to place greater emphasis on the contribution s made in this life Some Christian groups have been criticised for placing too much emphasis on the concerns of the afterlife and therefore neglecting the needs of people in this life Both Christianity and humanism hold a belief that material possessions are an acceptable adjunct to human life Both also regard the accumulation of excess as harmful, particularly in the face of the deprivation of others Some Christian groups have specific doctrines on the ownership of property and the accompanying responsibilities in the face of the need of others Humanist ideas are similar though not as clearly defined There are distinct similarities between humanism and Christianity in their practical attitude towards ecological concerns Both regard the protection of the environment as critical Humanists and Christians are now significant contributors to ecological activism For Christians, the primary concern for environmental action is the relationship between the creator and the creation Christians regard human beings as being part of the creation of God and related to the rest of creation in a profound way Humanist regard human beings as being connected to and dependent upon the environment but do not hold the same sense of relationship with a creator The humanist motivation is more centred on the idea that the earth is the environment of human beings and therefore must be sustained in order for human life to continue ................
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