UNIT #8 - Teacher Jaime Torres
UNIT #8
CITATIONS
SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
IN THIS UNIT: Avoiding Plagiarism
Citations and Reference List
Supporting Evidence
Fact vs. Opinion
Quotations
direct / reporting verbs
indirect / tense rules
Statistics
AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else’s idea and using it without proper attribution. Within academia, plagiarism by students, professors, or researchers is considered academic fraud and offenders are subject to academic censure. While plagiarism in scholarship and journalism has a centuries-old history, the development of the Internet, where articles appear as electronic text, has made the physical act of copying the work of others much easier, simply by copying and pasting text from one web page to another. (For instance, I just plagiarized this opening paragraph by copying and pasting from Wikipedia!)
To avoid plagiarism, you must always cite the following:
• Direct quotations from sources
• Paraphrased ideas and opinions from sources
• Summaries of ideas from sources
• Factual information from sources
A “source” may be anything -- "a book, an article, a movie, an interview, a microfilmed document, a downloaded image, an anonymous newsgroup posting."
You DO NOT have to cite common knowledge. Common knowledge is "the standard information of a field of study as well as folk literature and common sense observations." However, you need to be careful. If you do not know your field of study very well, you may not know whether a piece of information is considered common knowledge or not. If you’re not sure, it’s safer to cite. And, of course, you can always check with a teacher.
SOURCES ON THE INTERNET
Internet resources must be acknowledged just as with any other source. The ability to download and cut and paste requires particular care when using Internet resources in your research.
• Download text into individual files and make sure you save the names of the sites and their addresses … it’s easy to misplace these
• Summarize or paraphrase downloaded material before using it
• Use quotation marks when using exact words
• Give proper credit for e-mail, Internet sites, discussion groups … any place you take information from!!
CITATIONS & REFERENCES
What is wrong with the following paragraph?
In a survey of teachers from 41 high schools and universities in the state, 24 (or 58.5%) described testing procedures at their schools as ineffective; a full 75% of teachers surveyed felt testing could be improved.
Where did this information come from? Who knows? No citations! If you are borrowing material, you must cite it!!
There are two parts to every citation: the in-text citation (which tells your reader the name of the author, the year of publication, and a page number if appropriate) and the reference (which lists all the information about a source).
IN TEXT CITATIONS
APA in-text style uses the (author, year, page number) method of citation. The first citation of any work must include the author, year and page number (if applicable) of the work unless it is mentioned in the text containing the citation. Subsequent citations to the same work need not include the year as long as the work can easily be distinguished from other works cited in the paper.
A. A typical citation of an entire work consists of the author's name and the year of publication.
Example: Charlotte and Emily Bronte were polar opposites, not only in their personalities but in their sources of inspiration for writing (Taylor, 1990).
Use the last name in both first and subsequent citations, except when there is more than one author with the same last name. In that case, use the last name and the first initial.
B. If the author is named in the text, only the year is cited.
Example: According to Irene Taylor (1990), the personalities of Charlotte. . .
C. If both the name of the author and the date are used in the text, parenthetical reference is not necessary.
Example: In a 1989 article, Gould explains Darwin's most successful. . .
D. Specific citations of pages or chapters follow the year.
Example: Emily Bronte "expressed increasing hostility for the world of human relationships, whether sexual or social" (Taylor, 1988, p. 11).
E. If the author is quoted, the date follows the author’s name and page numbers follow the quotation.
Example: Taylor (1998) argues that Bronte "expressed increasing hostility for the world of human relationships, whether sexual or social" (p. 11).
F. When the reference is to a work by two authors, cite both names each time the reference appears.
Example: Sexual-selection theory often has been used to explore patterns of various insect mating (Alcock & Thornhill, 1983) . . . Alcock and Thornhill (1983) also demonstrate. . .
G. When the reference is to a work by three to five authors, cite all the authors the first time the reference appears. In a subsequent reference, use the first author's last name followed by et al. (Meaning "and others." Note that “et” does not have a period after it but “al.” does.)
Example of a subsequent reference: Patterns of byzantine intrigue have long plagued the internal politics of community college administration in Texas (Douglas et al., 1997)
H. Electronic sources that do not provide page numbers. For electronic sources that do not provide page numbers, use the paragraph number, if available, preceded by the abbreviation "para."
Example: (Myers, 2000, para. 5).
I. Documents not indicating the name of the author (this is common in Internet sites). If a document does not indicate the name of the author(s), refer to the document by repeating the first few words of its title.
Example: ("Study finds," 2001).
Citing a source cited in your source.
• You’ve read and are citing Author A.
• Author A cites Author B.
• You haven’t read Author B, but you want to cite Author B.
Here’s what you do:
1. List Author A (who you read) in the References List. Don’t list Author B there.
2. In your text, use the following citation:
Author B’s study (as cited in Author A, Year, p. #)
for instance: Richter’s study (as cited in Santos, 2009, p. 75) …
(Of course, you may also choose to find, read, and cite Author B as its own source.)
EXERCISE 1
A typical citation of an entire work consists of the author's name and the year of publication.
• You read a book by Peter Dittmer called “Landscape Architecture.” It was published in 2007. The pages you read were 111-112. In the book, another author named Kenneth Richter discusses the placement of roses.
• You also read a journal article by Doug Winningham called “Music and Social Interaction.” It was in a magazine called Groove (August, 2009, volume 6). The article ran from page 210 to 215.
• You also read an Internet site called “Fundamentals of Academic Writing.” The article was written by Lyle Adelson and David Coronado and published on April 6, 2008.
Use the information above to create in-text citations for the following sentences. You may have to slightly edit some of them. (You will need to guess which citations go with which texts):
1. Lyle Adelson and David Coronado point to the importance of understanding academic writing.
2. Adelson and Coronado write that grammar is a “necessary evil.”
3. As Doug Winningham states, “music has always served as a kind of ‘social glue’.”
4. Pete Dittmer points out that “the wealth of the French kings made landscaping economically possible.”
5. In his groundbreaking 2009 work, Winningham posits the origin of music.
6. Kenneth Richter argues that roses are both beautiful and symbolic.
7. Landscaping “was only codified during the French renaissance.”
8. Music has been a part of society since Man first picked up a pair of rocks and banged them together.
9. Students simply can’t expect to survive university courses without understanding academic writing.
10. Winningham argues that the earliest music was reserved for sacred events.
REFERENCES
Every citation in your paper must refer to a reference. References are written on the last page of your essay in the “reference section.” The reference section will contain ALL the information about the sources you have used (everything a reader might need in order to find the work you cite). Here is an example of what a reference section should look like:
REFERENCES
Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A.S. (1996). Language testing in practice: Designing and developing useful language tests. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bailey, K. (1998). Learning About Language Assessment. New York: Heinle and Heinle.
Davies, A., Brown, A. (Eds.). (1999). Dictionary of language testing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
EXERCISE 2: Reference List
Look at the following three examples: a book, a journal, and a chapter. Now find “books,” “journals,” and “chapters” in your guide to APA style. Make a reference for each.
[pic]
Write a proper citation for this book here:
[pic]
Write a proper citation for this journal here:
[pic]
Write a proper citation for this chapter here:
SUPPORTING DETAILS
Fact versus Opinion
It’s important to distinguish between facts and opinions. Opinions are subjective statements based on a person’s beliefs or attitudes. Sometimes what is fact and what is opinion may cause debate.
Smoking is a bad habit.
Chinese is the hardest language for English speakers to learn.
Opinions are not acceptable as support. It is certainly acceptable to express opinions in academic writing. In fact, most professors want you to express your own ideas. However, you may not use an opinion as SUPPORT, and if you express an opinion, you must support it with facts.
Cigarette smoking is the single most preventable cause of premature death in the United States. Each year, more than 400,000 Americans die from cigarette smoking. In fact, one in every five deaths in the United States is smoking related. Every year, smoking kills more than 276,000 men and 142,000 women. (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, )
OR
The British Foreign Office has looked at the languages that diplomats and other embassy staff have to learn and has worked out which they find the most difficult to learn. According to their studies, the second hardest language for a native English speaker to learn is Japanese, which probably comes as no surprise to many, but the language that they have found to be the most difficult to learn is Hungarian, which has 35 cases (forms of a noun according to whether it is subject, object, genitive, etc).
OR
STATISTICAL SUPPORT: The Defense Language Institute of the United States trains diplomats, soldiers, etc. Below is a list of time it takes to complete a basic course in a number of languages.
Basic Course
Arabic 63
Chinese 63
Japanese 63
Russian 47
Tagalog 47
Thai 47
Vietnamese 47
Spanish 25
As an American Senator once famously said:
“Everyone is entitled to their own opinions, but not to their own facts.”
-- Daniel Patrick Monyhan
It’s important then, to be able to distinguish opinions, facts that need substantiation, and facts that may be used as support:
Opinion: Photographs of ultra-thin fashion models send the wrong message to girls and young women.
Fact, but needs proof: Fashion models are unnaturally thin.
Specific Supporting Detail: The average model weighs 25 percent less than the average woman of the same height.
EXERCISE 3: Opinions vs. Facts
Decide which of the following statements are opinions, facts that need substantiation, and facts that may be used as support. If the sentence is an opinion or a fact in need of support, what kind of support might you include?
1. _____ People who steal identities do a lot of damage before their victims become aware of it.
2. _____ Punishment for identity thieves is not severe enough.
3. _____ Last year, the losses of victims totaled more than $7 billion.
4. _____ Identity theft is more serious than any other type of theft.
5. _____ Identity theft is increasing at a rapid pace.
6. _____ In 2000, 31,000 cases of identity theft were reported to the Federal Trade Commission; in 2003, the number was 210,000.
7. _____ Most people do not report identity theft to the police.
8. _____ In 2003, 60 percent of identity theft victims did not notify the police, according to the Federal Trade Commission.
9. _____ Identity theft happens to ordinary people, not just the wealthy.
10. _____ As grocery clerk Sue Jamison reported, “My wallet was stolen, and within a week, the thieves had ordered an expensive cell phone package, applied for a VISA credit card, and received a PIN from the Department of Motor Vehicles to change my driving record online.”
11. _____ It is easy for a thief to use the U.S. Postal Service to steal identities.
12. _____ For example, thieves steal credit card statements from mailboxes, and then send a change-of-address card to the postal service to have future statements sent to a different address.
13. _____ Most victims of identity theft are young adults.
14. _____ The Federal Trade Commission reports that there were more victims in the age group 18-29 than in any other group.
15. _____ The police should do more to protect citizens from identity theft.
16. _____ Most identity thieves operate in large, organized gangs.
USING OUTSIDE SOURCES
Where can you find specific supporting details to support your ideas? For some assignments, you may be able to use examples from your own personal experience, or you may be able to gather quotations and statistics by performing an investigation, taking a survey, or interviewing people. For other assignments, you may have to look for outside sources by researching your topic in a library or on the Internet.
There are three ways to insert outside information into your own writing. (1) You can quote it, (2) you can summarize it, or (3) you can paraphrase it. Later in the semester, we will devote an entire class to paraphrase and summary. Today we will look at quotations.
QUOTATIONS
Quotations from reliable and knowledgeable sources are good supporting details. There are two kinds of quotations: (1) direct and (2) indirect. In a direct quotation, you copy another person’s exact words (spoken or written) and enclose them in quotation marks. In an indirect quotation, you report the person’s words without quotation marks, but with a reporting expression such as according to XXX .... or ....XXX believes that ....
(1) Direct Quotations
Read the following model and notice how direct quotations are used to support the topic sentence. Notice that a quotation can be a complete sentence (or several sentences) or a short phrase. Also notice the punctuation of each quotation.
Drugs and the Olympic Games
It is no secret that performance-enhancing drugs have been used by Olympic athletes for decades. According to an article in Forbes magazine, “From the brute steroids the East Germans reportedly used on their Olympians during the Cold War to today’s man-made versions of natural human proteins, drugs have been as much a staple of the Games as gold, silver, and bronze” (Herper, 2001). Despite rigorous drug testing, the use of banned performance-enhancing substances has become more widespread than ever. The disqualification of athletes from the most recent Olympic Games because of drug use shows that the problem is ongoing.
It seems apparent that if athletes want to win, they must consider using drugs. Dr. Michael Karsten, a Dutch physician who said he had prescribed anabolic steroids to hundreds of world-class athletes, states, “If you are especially gifted, you may win once, but from my experience you can’t continue to win without drugs. The field is just too filled with drug users” (Bamberger, 2007). In fact, some people claim that record-breaking performances of Olympic athletes may be directly due to drugs. Charles Yesalis, a Pennsylvania State University professor who has studied the use of drugs in sports, believes “a large percentage” of athletes who have set new records have done so with the help of performance-enhancing drugs. “A lot of experts, at least in private, feel that way,” he claims (Herper, 2001).
EXERCISE 4
1. Which sentence states the main idea of the first paragraph?
2. What direct quotation supports it?
What phrase introduces the quotation?
3. What is the main idea in the second paragraph?
What three direct quotations support it?
4. What verbs introduce the quotations in the second paragraph?
5. Who spoke the words in the in-text citation at the end of the second paragraph?
6. Who wrote the article in which the words in quotation marks appear?
Reporting Verbs and Phrases
To introduce borrowed information -- direct quotations, indirect quotations, or statistics -- use the phrase according to or a reporting verb such as the following:
Smith (2004) describes... Green (2002) reports ...
Jones (1999, p 3) states... Kather (2003) writes ...
Reporting Verbs
To introduce borrowed information -- direct quotations, indirect quotations, or statistics -- use the phrase according to or a reporting verb such as the following (note that reporting verbs can be used in the PAST or the PRESENT tense):
Some verbs are neutral:
Smith (2004) describes... Green (2002) reported ...
Jones (1999, p 3) stated... Kather (2003) writes ...
Some verbs give information about the author's work:
Holmes (2000) investigated...
McColl (2002) estimated...
Church (1998) evaluated...
Some verbs highlight the author's viewpoint:
Brown (2001) believes...
Todd (2006) challenges ...
Harris (2001) argues...
McAllister (1996) recognized...
Rodd (1987) asserts ...
O'Neill (1997) disputes...
Malcolm (2004) insists ...
Jackson (2003) conceded...
Brown (1966) claims ...
Smith (2004) predicted...
Kirk (2001) refutes ...
Powell (1986) maintains ...
Other useful verbs (use present or past tense as appropriate):
analyze define indicate report
compare demonstrate list show
comment discuss mention suggest
conclude highlight note validate
criticize identify observe verify
declare illustrate point out
Basic Rules for Using Reporting Verbs
1. Reporting verbs can appear before, in the middle of, or after borrowed information. The reporting phrase according to usually appears before or after but not in the middle.
One young bicyclist asserts, “To win in world-class competition, you have to take drugs.”
“To win in world-class competition,” asserts one young bicyclist, “you have to take drugs.”
“To win in world-class competition, you have to take drugs,” asserts one young bicyclist.
According to one young bicyclist, athletes have to take drugs to win.
Athletes have to take drugs to win, according to one young bicyclist.
2. Reporting verbs can be used either with or without the subordinator as.
As one writer states, “Athletes are always going to try to get an edge on their competition.”
One writer states, “Athletes are always going to try to get an edge on their competition.”
3. Including the source of the borrowed information with the reporting expression gives authority to your writing because it lets your reader know immediately that your information is from a credible source.
The Institute of Global Ethics warns, “The Olympics could well become just another money-drenched media promotion in which contestants will be motivated less by athletic glory than by lucrative future contracts.”
EXERCISE 5: Punctuating Quotations
Add punctuation to the following direct quotations, and change the capitalization if necessary.
1. Dr. Yixuan Ma, a well-known astrophysicist who has been studying black holes, said they are the most interesting phenomena we astrophysicists have ever studied.
2. As she explained in black holes the laws of nature do not seem to apply.
3. A black hole is a tiny point with the mass 25 times the mass or our sun explained Ma’s associate, Chun-Yi Su. Black holes are created by the death of a very large star she stated.
4. It is an invisible vacuum cleaner in space she added with tremendous gravitational pull.
5. According to Dr. Su, if a person falls into a black hole, he will quickly be crushed due to the tremendous gravitational forces.
6. Time will slow down for him as he approaches the point of no return she said and when he reaches the point of no return, time will stand still for him.
(2) Indirect Quotations
In indirect quotations, the speaker’s or writer’s words are reported indirectly, without quotation marks. For this reason, indirect quotations are sometimes called reported speech. Indirect quotations are introduced by the same reporting verbs used for direct quotations, and the word that is often added for clarity. The tense of verbs in indirect quotations is affected by the tense of the reporting verb.
EXERCISE 6: Analysis
Compare the two paragraphs below. The first uses direct quotations. The second says the same thing, using indirect quotations. What differences in grammar and style can you find?
Drugs and Olympic Games
EXAMPLE #1: It seems apparent that if athletes want to win, they must consider using drugs. Dr. Michael Karsten, a Dutch physician who said he had prescribed anabolic steroids to hundreds of world-class athletes, states, “If you are especially gifted, you may win once, but from my experience you can’t continue to win without drugs. The field is just too filled with drug users”
EXAMPLE #2: It seems apparent that if athletes want to win, they must consider using drugs. Dr. Michael Karsten, a Dutch physician who said he had prescribed anabolic steroids to hundreds of world-class athletes, stated that if [athletes] were especially gifted, [they] might win once, but from his experience [they] couldn’t continue to win without drugs. He asserted that the field was just too filled with drug users.
Changing Direct Quotations into Indirect Quotations
1. Omit the quotation marks.
2. You may add the subordinator that if it helps clarify the meaning.
3. Change the verb tense if necessary (see below)
4. Change pronouns (and time expressions if necessary) to keep the sense of the original.
Tense Changes in Reported Speech
Verbs in an indirect quotation may change tense according to the following rules. Also, pronouns (and sometimes time expressions) may change.
|Tense Change |Direct Quotation |Indirect Quotation |
|Simple Present --> Simple Past |Susan said, “The exam is at eight o’clock.” |Susan said that the exam was at eight o’clock. |
|Simple Past & Present Perfect --> Past Perfect |She said, “We didn’t have time to eat breakfast.” |She said that they hadn’t had time to eat breakfast. |
| | | |
| |He said, “The exam has started.” |He said that the exam had started. |
|Will --> Would |Sam mentioned, “Today I will eat Chinese food, and |Sam mentioned that today he would eat Chinese food and|
|Can --> Could |tomorrow I’ll eat French food if I can find a good |that tomorrow he’d eat French food if he could find a |
|May --> Might |restaurant. If not, I may eat Italian.” |good restaurant. If not, he might eat Italian. |
| | | |
| | | |
| |The teacher said, “You must finish the test.” |The teacher said that we had to finish the test. |
| | | |
| | | |
|Must --> Had to | | |
|Time expressions may change if the meaning |The teacher said, “You must finish the test right |The teacher said that we had to finish the test right |
|requires it. |now.” |then. |
Exceptions (Unfortunately)
When the reporting verb is simple present, present perfect, or future, the verb tense does not change.
He says, “I am the best!”
He says that he is the best.
He has often said, “I am the best!”
He has often said that he is the best.
He will probably always say, “I am the best!”
He will probably always say that he is the best.
When the reporting verb is according to, the verb tense does not change.
The lawyer said, “My client is innocent.”
According to the lawyer, his client is innocent.
EXERCISE 7: Indirect Quotations
Rewrite the following direct quotations as indirect quotations.
1. Professor Shen stated, “I am certain that distance learning is the wave of the future. It may not happen tomorrow, but it will happen.”
Professor Shen stated that he was certain that distance learning was the wave of the future. It may not happen tomorrow, but it will happen.
2. Television channel Kay General manager Jim Burns said, “Not everyone can attend college in the traditional way; therefore, taking courses via television will offer many more students the chance to earn a college degree.”
3. According to Paul Silverstone, a professor at UCLA, “The ‘future’ of distance learning used to be television. Now it is the Internet.”
4. Silverstone argues that, “Distance learner can lead to some students feeling isolated.”
5. Pre-med student Alma Rodriguez said, “I miss being on campus, but I have to work and take care of my family.”
6. Another student said, “Last year, I spent several hours a day commuting to and from school. Now I don’t have to do that.”
7. Computer engineering student Amir Mehdizadeh stated, “I can choose when to study and how to study without pressure.” He also said, “I will take two more telecourses in the fall.”
STATISTICS
Like quotations, statistics are good supporting details. Study the graph and then read the paragraph that uses data from it. Notice the reporting verb that gives the source of information. As you do with quotations, you must also cite the source of statistical data.
[pic]
Source: United Nations, World Population Prospects, The 1998 Revision, and estimates by the Population Reference Bureau.
World Population Growth
According to statistics from the Population Reference Bureau, the world’s population is increasing at a geometric rate. World population first reached 1 billion back in 1804. It took 123 years for it to reach 2 billion in 1927. By 1960, a period of just 32 years, it had added another billion. Just 15 years later, we were at 4 billion, 12 years later 5 billion, and 11 years after that at 6 billion. The United Nations has projected an increase to 9 billion by the year 2050. Most of this increase will be in the world’s less developed countries (“World Population”).
United Nations. (1998). “World Population Prospects, The 1998 Revision”. [Online]. Retrieved October 20, 2004, from
EXERCISE 8: Statistics
Study the two charts on this page. Then, on the following page, finish the paragraph on world energy consumption by correctly filling in the blanks.
Figure 1: Quadrillion BTU
[pic]
Figure 2: Quadrillion BTU
[pic]
Source: World Marketed Energy Consumption, 1970-2025
World Energy Consumption
According to (1) ____________________ , world energy consumption has been steadily
(2) ____________________ . Currently, the nations of the world use between (3) ____________________and (4) ____________________quadrillion BTU (British Thermal Units) annually. By the year 2025, consumption is projected to increase to (5) ____________________BTU, an increase of 32 percent from the year 2010 . The largest consumers are the (6) ____________________countries, and the nations who consume the least energy belong to the (7) ____________________ (Eastern Europe / Former Soviet Union) group. Developing nations consumed approximately the same amount of energy as (8) ____________________ until about
(9) ____________________, when the energy use of developing nations began to (10) __________________ . By (11) 2025 , it is projected that their use will nearly equal that of (12) ____________________.
EXERCISE 9
Write one or two paragraphs (no more than one page) on a topic of your choosing. You must do some research, and provide evidence in support or your topic from at least 3 different sources. Cite correctly using APA guidelines and include a reference list.
EXERCISE 10: Citation Practice (DIFFICULT!)
Here is a list of different references for various types of sources. Carefully examine each reference and find the error in each.
1. BOOK
Geissler, E. M. (1998). Pocket guide to cultural assessment (2nd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
2. BOOK CHAPTER, ESSAY, or ARTICLE when author is credited
Lagana, K., & Gonzalez-Ramirez, L. (1996). Mexican Americans. In J. G. Lipson, S. L Dibble, & P. A. Minarik (Eds.), Culture and nursing care: A pocket guide (pp. 203-221).
3. BOOK CHAPTER, ESSAY, or ARTICLE when no author is credited (online version)
(1998). Worldmark encyclopedia of cultures and daily life. Retrieved January 9, 2003 from Discovering Collection database.
4. ARTICLE in a STANDARD ENCYCLOPEDIA (web site version)
Islam. (1992). In . database.
5. JOURNAL ARTICLE (paper copy)
Oguisso, T. Professional nursing in Brazil. International Nursing Review, 43, 81-94.
6. JOURNAL ARTICLE (from an online database)
Larry Schliessmann. (1999). Connecting and becoming culturally competent: A Lakota example. Advances in Nursing Science, 21, 9-31. Retrieved March 26, 2001 from ProQuest/Nursing Journals database.
7. JOURNAL ARTICLE (online, on a web site)
Outbreak news. (2001, February 23). Weekly Epidemiological Record, 76, 57-64. Retrieved February 28, 2001.
8. MAGAZINE ARTICLE (paper copy)
Ulrich, T. (1997, September 22). Linking An Amish Hereditary Disease With Cerebral Palsy, A Pediatrician Challenges A Dark Inheritance. Time, 150, 30-33.
9. MAGAZINE ARTICLE (from an online database)
(1997, September 22). Linking an Amish hereditary disease with cerebral palsy, a pediatrician challenges a dark inheritance. Time, 150, 30-33. Retrieved March 1, 2001, from InfoTrac/Expanded Academic ASAP database.
10. NEWSPAPER ARTICLE (from an online database)
Padilla, H. Hugo prohibits custom animal slaughter. Star Tribune (Minneapolis, MN), p. 1B. Retrieved February 28, 2001 from Lexis-Nexis Universe/General News database.
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