Do School Uniforms produce benefits in student achievement



Do School Uniforms produce better grades and behavior in students?

Thomas G. Korth

Saginaw Valley State University

Analysis & Digital Skills

EDL 631

Elizabeth Hansen, PhD

November 10, 2012

Table of Contents

1. Abstract

2. Introduction

3. Interview questions for principals

4. Chapters:

I. Introduction

1. History of school uniform use – premise for use

2. Thoughts and reasoning to support and defend the use of school uniforms

II. Development of theoretical or hypothetical background – answering the how

III. Purpose and rationale for the project – answering the why

Conclusion

A. Interview conclusions – answers disseminated

1. Private education and Charter School use of school uniforms – premise of use

2. Public school sector use of school uniforms – premise of proposed use or not

Do School Uniforms produce better grades and behavior in students?

Abstract

With the decline of dress codes within schools in the United States, this paper will explore research in order to examine if there are any direct benefits or advantages for students who attend schools that have developed and initiated a mandatory dress code policy, primary in wearing school uniforms. Specifically, does the wearing of school uniforms by students result in better academic performance relating to test scores and better conduct and behavior while in school?

I will gather primary data and information by exploring past research material already presented on the subject specifically focusing on research detail that argue for or against by specific question and premise. I will also conduct two interviews of school principals; one public school principal the other a private parochial school or semi-private charter school principal, to survey their thoughts based on a set of interview questions that I have developed.

Introduction

Debates regarding the use of school uniforms and their effectiveness in student achievement and behavior have continued over the past decades, dating back to when I was and elementary school student in a parochial school in East Detroit. Since their inception, there have always been reasons and passionate discussion about the effectiveness of school uniforms relating to the difference it would make in the student wearing the uniform. Having attended parochial grade school 1st – 7th grade, I can still recite the school uniform code; namely, the reasons all students wore it. We wore school uniforms to: a) show our school pride, b) to understand that we were students preparing for the future and we were to dress for business, the business of learning, c) to show respect for and submit to authority in our school, d) when we are dressed for business, we will perform better and act in a courteous and professional manner toward teachers and students. These basic premises for using a school uniform also allowed our parents the reduced stress of having to dress us everyday. We all knew what we were going to wear each day. There was no pressure to have new clothes or the worry that you wore something more often than not.

Interestingly, I never really had issues about wearing the school uniform until it became a target in which to identify us apart from the public school students who did not have to wear a uniform. Public school kids took delight in bullying and fighting the parochial school students just because the uniform identified us as not belonging to their school or group.

In answering how and specific to understanding more of the perception that school uniforms somehow allowed students to perform better academically and behaviorally is where the study of previous research helps to define actual perceptions and actual facts. From first hand experience, it would not have mattered and caused me to do any better academically if my required school uniform was for me to wear a silk tuxedo with tails and white tie in the belief I would be a better student. No matter what I was dressed in, I would have struggled academically. Additionally, in my school setting, behavior of students wasn’t the greatest just because they wore navy blue trousers, blue shirt and tie and black shoes. Most of the students who attended the parochial school that I attended would be classified as “hard to handle,” or students who had behavioral issues at home. The thinking was if these students attended a strict school environment, the nuns would get them in shape. Unfortunately the downside of that thinking allowed these behavioral challenged students to bully the weaker students on a regular basis and the weaker students feared to report their behavior to the nuns for fear of reprisal by their fellow student. The actual correlation in hindsight relating to my study; that was there was a real disconnect of and from parental influence at home and the parents were attempting to compensate for their personal lack of discipline by relinquishing their disciplinary authority to the nuns.

I would argue that if a person is dressed for an event perhaps wearing formal wear for a social event, their behavior would reflect proper etiquette for the event. Even with my perceived contention and belief that when a person dresses for an event, or even dresses in a costume, they are empowered to mimic or personify the character they are emulating; data does not support the argument and perception based on real data.

“Research has shown that both students and teachers believe that students behave better and get better grades when they wear uniforms. This is called the ‘Halo effect.’”(Wallin, 2011) The “Halo effect” was also cited in earlier works when relating to overall physical appearance of a person. “A halo effect appears to be operating, whereby an attractive person is perceived as more sociable (Lennon & Miller, 1984) as well as more accomplished at a task (Lapitsky & Smith, 1981; Lennon & Miller, 1984). Do students perform better academically and socially when wearing a school uniform? Although research took differing angles in how they studied perceptions and effects of the use of school uniforms, ranging from student interaction with teachers and with one another as well as academic scoring, the overall research consensus did not observe measurable positive effects in school uniform use. Even though research may have indicated that students and teachers believed or perceived that wearing a school uniform translated into better grades academically and better behavior socially, actual research studies comparing students who wore and did not wear a school uniform was tested. “Furthermore, it was found that student and teacher perceptions of school climate did not differ across uniform policy and that total self-perception scores reported by students from schools without uniforms were higher than those students from schools with uniform policies, although the overall effect was small. (Wade & Stafford, 2003, p. 1).

In spite of the fact that research concludes that there is no increase in direct correlation in academics and behavior with the use of school uniforms; why do some schools, primarily private and charter schools continue to use uniforms even though research doesn’t support actual better grades or conduct? The consensus of the research and the interviews conducted for this paper supports the research; the only plausible benefit to school uniforms relates to a perceived view of better citizenship or behavior. Instilling discipline among students and reducing need for administrators and teachers to be 'clothes police' (for example, determining whether shorts are too short, etc.), reducing distractions for students and instilling a sense of community. (, 2011, p. 1).

“School uniforms are correlated with improved attendance rates for middle and high school students and lower teacher-attrition rates at the elementary school level, but appear to have little effect on student behavior and achievement, a report concludes.” (Rice, 2011, p. 1). Even though the perceptions of both parents and teachers that wearing a school uniform translates into a better behaved and well attended student, the research does not support the claim of better scores and better behavior. It notes that in 2005, 14 percent of public schools mandated the use of uniforms, up from 5 percent in 1995. Despite the trend, researchers found no statistical difference between students in schools with and without uniforms in the district they studied (Rice, 2011, p. 1).

“The writer considers the practice of requiring public school students to wear uniforms. Proponents contend that school uniforms can lead to improved discipline and classroom behavior, lower clothing costs, more respect for teachers, better school attendance and performance, high student self-esteem and confidence, improved group spirit, less social stratification and lower rates of violence and crime. However, those who oppose uniform policies state that requiring school uniforms violates students’ rights, that uniforms are not responsible for decreased violence, that students will find other ways to compete, and that uniforms have no direct bearing on academic achievement.” (Konheim-Kalkstein, 2006, p. 1). This article is primarily argues the rights or liberties of the student in the realm of freedom of expression or identity. Thought and study is given to the overall consideration of possible benefits to the use of the uniform primarily in the measure of student achievement and conduct. No benefit was derived for achievement and the conduct issue was relating more toward overall peer pressure.

“Although there have been surprisingly few methodical research studies assessing the outcomes of uniform policies, some data suggests lowered violence (Gursky, 1996), gang influence (Wade & Stafford, 2003), and academic improvement in students (Elder, 1999; Pate, 1999). However, critics (Wilkins, 1999) suggest that the successes of the independent variable in the studies (uniform policies) are confounded. That is, school show improvement due to variables such as increased teacher enforcement and involvement with students as well as parental involvement with the school process and system.” (Firmin, Smith, & Perry, 2006, p. 3). This research is very interesting to me since I was the product of a Catholic school environment and the wearing of a uniform. The premise that a uniform alone did not help with the overall school climate, unless, it was supported at home by parental influence makes the difference. The nuns were strict, but I could identify with those of my fellow students, by their actions in class and at recess, who did not receive the same parental influence and discipline that the majority of our class received.

The last forty years in public education has seen many changes in school dress. Students are generally permitted in most present day public school to choose what to wear to school with limited restraints (Perkinson, 1995; Eppinger, 2011, p. 1). Too many students are preoccupied with how they look and what they wear, rather than their studies; (LaPoint & Holloman, 1993, p. 33; Eppinger, 2011, p. 2). Uniforms promote a “down to business” atmosphere because kids view them as work clothes instead of play clothes. Therefore, they take school more seriously than before the uniform code was instituted (Kaiser, 1985; Eppinger, 2011, p. 3). As I read this study, dressing for the business of school, or dressing for the job you want instead of the job you have are the underpinnings of this research. The student would be more apt to consider how they had to dress for their day and accomplishing the work at hand was the reason for wearing “business attire.” The student’s perception was they were dressed for the task, in this case, learning. They were there to study and learn and were dressed appropriately for that task.

Some wrongly believe that creating a school uniform policy will automatically serve as a “silver bullet,” remedying all ills within a school system, including low test scores, poor discipline and unsafe campuses. The most successful uniform policies are not implemented in isolation, but rather as part of a larger school reform effort, (Buesing, 2011/2012, p. 36) such as increased teacher enforcement and involvement with students as well as parental involvement with the school process and system (Firmin, Smith, & Perry, 2006, p. 143). The support system for the student was more than wearing a uniform, but included family and friends that were actively involved in the daily lives of the individual student. This is a solid premise since I can attest from personal experiences of wearing a school uniform, as well as the overall effect of the differences, primarily regarding conduct of those students who did not have an actively involved support system of discipline within the home.

In his 1996 State of the Union Address, Bill Clinton challenged schools “to teach character education, to teach good values and good citizenship. And if it means that teenagers will stop killing each other over designer jackets, then our public schools should be able to require students to wear school uniforms.” This often-quoted remark is cited by advocates as a primary argument for uniforms in public schools. But whether – or – how much – uniforms promote safety remains a subject to debate. “It is not true that there has been no empirical research conducted to access the effectiveness of school uniforms on student behavior and educational outcomes, yet there is much to be done, ‘David Brunsma, a sociology professor at the University of Missouri, wrote in The School Uniform Movement and What It Tells Us About American Education (Boutelle, 2008, p. 3, 4). The President was drawing on the common sense reality of becoming products of our own environments as it was relating to gangs and the peer pressures faced by many school districts, primarily those in the urban culture. However, we must realize that the schools can only do so much because the common sense again is that students are in the home and neighborhood environment for a greater part of the day than they are in school.

Hard evidence that proves the wearing of uniforms provides a direct link to better academic achievement is not conclusive, however, there is evidence that supports there are fewer discipline problems/referrals and violence as well as higher attendance rates since the implementation of a uniform policy (The Principals’ Partnership, 2007, p. 1). Intruders that are not uniformed can be readily identified and removed from the school campus is not only a behavioral advantage for all students, but is a safety benefit for the entire school campus. This is a deterrent to disruptions within the student body as well as, providing a sense of belonging to the student body.

Furthermore, it was found that student and teacher perceptions of school climate did not differ across uniform policy and that total self-perception scores reported by students from schools without uniforms were higher that those of students from school with uniform policies, although the overall effect size was small (Wade & Stafford, 2003, p. 1). Self identity or personal liberties were proportional to how the student felt about themselves. Again I would argue that if a person is dressed for an event perhaps wearing formal wear for a social event, their behavior would reflect proper etiquette for the event. Even with my perceived contention and belief that when a person dresses for an event, or even dresses in a costume, they are empowered to mimic or personify the character they are emulating, data does not support the argument and perception based on real data, which in this case was measured as “small.”

If the direction and magnitude of correlation between uniforms and test scores for Catholic and public school sectors were similar, indicating the same processes might be operating in both, it could be appropriate to use the Catholic sector as an exploratory model for effects of uniforms in the public sector, particularly because the number of public school 10th graders in NELS: 88 who wore uniforms might have been too small to achieve statistical significance, even with large correlation. When the correlation was in the opposite direction in the Catholic and public sectors, as in NELS: 88, obviously the Catholic sector could not be used a model for the public sector (Bodine, 2003, p. 5). The initial research showed that 10th graders in particular scored higher in achievement with uniforms, it was concluded that there was a smaller sampling of 10th graders overall which may have skewed the research.

However, more recent and better designed longitudinal research, also from the United States, has punctured these claims. In a large, national survey, Brunsma and Rockquemore report that, when other factors were taken into account, school uniforms had no impact upon substance use (cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana), school attendance, or behavioral problems (in-school suspensions for skipping classes and getting into trouble). (FN7) Intriguingly, they also report that a uniform policy seems to have a suppressive effect upon educational attainment. They proffer no explanation for this important reversal of the usual argument about the benefits of school uniforms. Perhaps it is because, as in the case of my own school days, young people object to a uniform policy, and that objection translates into a weakened commitment to schooling (Tanner, 2009, p. 2). The author of the research being from England and who also wore a school uniform takes the research to the level beyond parental influence and school authority to the level of civil enforcement, namely uniformed police officers at school campuses. Since the tragedy at Columbine, the schools campuses have to consider whatever means are necessary to enforce a proper code of conduct and behavior even to having a police presence, which in the research, help deter problems within the school campus.

A study examined the effect of school uniforms on student achievement in the American system of education. Data were obtained from the National Center of Education Statistics. Findings did not indicate any significant correlation between school uniform policies and student achievement. Although findings so not definitely support or reject either side of the debate on uniforms, they do strongly suggest that uniforms are not the panacea to all the problems in U.S. education (Yeung, 2009, p. 1). The “panacea” philosophy was that schools alone can teach values and prepare students for becoming decent and good citizens. The reality is that schools can only do their part, but students are a product of the home environment, and that parental influence is a key in the overall behavioral development of the individual.

A study investigated students’ reactions to a high school uniform policy. Participants were 22 African-American adolescents attending a high school in a large urban area in the Midwest. The results suggested that an overwhelming majority of students were opposed to and non-compliant with the school uniform policy, that these responses were unrelated to school performance, and that students developed oppositional strategies designed to undermine the policy and to retain some semblance of freedom and dignity (DaCosta, 2006, p. 1, 2). Resistant to authority within the school environment was the evidence that supported the students from developing their own strategies for non-conformance to school rules regarding uniforms. Reading between the lines again purport to a disconnect of and with parental or home authority to finding identity among peers within sub-groups within and outside of the school setting.

A 1997 study by David L. Brunsma, an associate professor of sociology at the University of Alabama in Huntsville, and Kerry A Rockquemore, and assistant professor of sociology at Pepperdine University in Malibu, Calif., however, says school uniforms “have no direct effect on substance use, behavioral problems or attendance.” And, contrary to other studies and hundreds of anecdotal accounts, the authors find a negative effect of uniforms on academic achievement (White, 2000, p. 3). No real, actual hard data of positive effects can be drawn on or concluded in which to support the use of school uniforms as a way to solve the social problems or substance abuse, behavior or attendance. However, in their studies, the authors concluded that school uniforms resulted in negative student achievement due to resistance of students and perceptions of having to wear the uniform.

In conclusion, the actual empirical research does not support the basic claim that a uniform transforms a student into having better behavior. The consensus of the research material that I studied was that in some cases where school uniforms were used, the uniform alone did not accomplish better conduct just by the wearing of it by the student. Parental influence and in home parenting through advice, discipline and direction allowed for an overall better school conduct climate. I can again draw on my personal experiences of wearing the school uniform and my parental guidance and discipline within St. Basil School in East Detroit, Michigan. The majority of the students in my grade level were of the same persuasion regarding respect for adults and authority in the home, at school, church and in society at large. My deduction would be 70% of the students were well mannered. The 30% that were not did account for challenges affecting the overall school environment in the classroom and primarily during recess. In spite of the fact that we were dressed for the business of school and learning, recess became a time to vent frustrations regarding the classroom and its authority, on fellow students.

In spite of the fact that we were dressed for the business of school, learning for me was especially difficult. The uniform did not translate me from mediocre to superior; it just magnified my incapacity to catch on to most material at the same pace and rate of my fellow classmates. Class sizes were large by today’s standards, having 50 in each classroom did not allow for personalized help by the nun. The remedy was to attend summer school, where a uniform did not have to be worn and the class size was considerably smaller. In that environment, I excelled, most likely it have nothing to do with the wearing or not wearing of the uniform, but rather because I did not have the peer pressure present and the amount of personalized attention I received was considerable to that of the normal class.

In retrospect, I believe I would have done much better in a public school setting. I was a compliant child and my behavior was not an issue at home. I attended private or Catholic school primarily because it was what was expected at the time within our parish and community. Having the battle lines drawn as public versus private education and then having to contend with the battle within the ranks of undomesticated fellow students who lacked parental influence and guidance; I was continually anxious and tense in the quandary of fitting in to please my parents and the nuns to peer pressure with learning somewhere in the middle. Oh well, that is only my perspective based on solid experiences of life. As I read and analyze data based on the research for my topic, I can relate to both the proponents of the why and why not, of the reasons for and against and get the gut wrenching reality of focus on the reasons for uniforms for kids today as I put myself in the position of having been there as a kid.

Interview dissemination of information:

Having interviewed one private school administrator and one public school administrator, I derive the only reason and consensus of the two interviews for defending school uniforms is either submitting to authority or dressing for the occasion which will dictate behavior. In both scenarios, the student knows they have to dress the way they do and are expected to act in a certain way when in the uniform.

Both interviewees agree that research does not produce any measurable results toward achievement or better grades on test or overall academics. Both interviewees agree that as the student becomes older in higher grades, resistance grows or would grow toward school uniforms. Clothing costs versus fashion and personal liberties of expression was disputed among private and public school administrative thought, however, peer pressure reduction was considered to be common ground in reduction of problems with conduct or gang related incidents.

The questions presented and discussed, as well as, the individual answers are as follows:

Questions for school administrator – school uniform use

1. What are the primary intents of using the school uniform?

2. How do you answer questions or objections to the intents of the uniform policy

3. As an administrator, how do you deal with any challenges to the policy?

4. Are there ever any inconsistencies in the enforcement of the policy? How/why?

5. Regarding the student – what results are achieved by wearing the uniform?

a. Does it relate in any way to achievement?

b. Is this a measurable assessment?

6. Regarding the parent – what results are achieved by their student/child wearing the uniform?

a. Costs?

b. Distractions removed?

7. When the student population is categorized as:

a. K - 6th

b. 6th – 9th

c. 10th – 12th

8. As an administrator in a private/public school environment do you have any thoughts regarding your results that you feel could translate and benefit into success in a public/private school setting?

9. If research shows no results in test scores or conduct as it relates to the wearing of the school uniform, why do you continue to have uniforms as a school policy?

INTERVIEW – Lila Place – Principal - Parkway Christian School – Sterling Heights, MI – answers in italics

Questions for school administrator – school uniform use

What are the primary intents of using the school uniform?

Submit to authority – primary reason

Reduce costs to parents for “fashionable” clothing

School climate – dressed up – students feel differently – act differently

How do you answer questions or objections to the intents of the uniform policy?

Business acumen- dressed for work

As an administrator, how do you deal with any challenges to the policy?

Some parents think the policy is too lack

Cite research to parents explaining that the priority remains to allow students to submit to authority as primary reason

Are there ever any inconsistencies in the enforcement of the policy? How/why?

Shoes – parents/students stretch the defined policy of black and brown to include athletic shoes even though athletic shoes are banned as uniform dress

Casual day – allows Friday to relax the uniform policy through paid and earned incentives

Regarding the student – what results are achieved by wearing the uniform?

Research – none

Perception of the whole package as it relates to the overall environment of the school experience

Does it relate in any way to achievement?

Research proves that wearing a school uniform does not increase academic performance or achievement

Secondary – benefit in positive treatment toward fellow students and teachers at school level – not proven by research

Is this a measurable assessment?

Conduct perception only in reduced peer pressure

Regarding the parent – what results are achieved by their student/child wearing the uniform?

Parents are happy and have the perception that all students are better behaved in wearing a school uniform

Costs? Reduced costs in having to purchase fashion clothing versus a school uniform

Distractions removed? No bullying or fighting among students related to ethnic colors/gang association

When the student population is categorized as, what are the noticeable/measurable observations you have as an administrator:

a. K – 6th – K – 3rd - love to wear the uniform – part of the “fun” of attending the school

b. 4th - 6th – 9th – want casual days

c. 10th – 12th – pay to have casual days apart from wearing the school uniform

As an administrator in a private school environment do you have any thoughts regarding your results that you feel could translate and benefit into success in a public school setting?

Costs as related to having to purchase “fashion clothing”

Reduction of gang color and ethnic associations that create peer pressure and potential violence

If research shows no results in test scores or conduct as it relates to the wearing of the school uniform, why do you continue to have uniforms as a school policy?

It is primarily a tool or apparatus by using different methods primarily as a way to help develop a respectful school environment which teaches submission to authority not only to the student, but also the parent alike. Dress for the job you want instead of dressing for the job you have – the student has a better perception of themselves which will help in a positive image of themselves and the work they are doing while in the uniform.

INTERVIEW – Brent Bohlinger – Assistant Administrator - Utica School District – Secondary Education Northern Area - Shelby Twp., MI - answers in italics - Questions for school administrator – school uniform use

Research interview conducted over lunch at 11:30 am at Shamrock Pub on Cass Ave. in Downtown Utica

What are the primary intents of using the school uniform?

Reduce costs to parents for “fashionable” clothing

Business dress – students are to feel differently similar to dressing up for a social event

How do you answer questions or objections to the intents of the uniform policy?

We do not have a uniform policy – own thoughts it would create issues of enforcement since students and parents would not agree with the policy in a public school setting

As an administrator, how do you deal with any challenges to the policy?

Currently we already have issues of skirts too short and jeans hanging down exposing underwear which we enforce as providing temporary clothing for the day if we cannot reach the student parent or guardian in order to provide a suitable change of clothing

Are there ever any inconsistencies in the enforcement of the policy? How/why?

An administrator has to be notified by a teacher or the administrator has to observe a wardrobe problem. Since some teachers don’t report the problem for a variety of reasons, not all students are following the dress code for the building

Regarding the student – what results are achieved by wearing the uniform?

PASS - We do not participate in a uniform policy in that all students wear the same clothing

Does it relate in any way to achievement?

It is his understanding that there is no research to prove that wearing a school uniform increases academic performance or achievement

Is this a measurable assessment?

Only those students would try to get away with more if the current administrative pressure does not continue to enforce the current dress code policy

Regarding the parent – what results are achieved by their student/child wearing the uniform?

PASS – I can only state that most parents are irritated to receive a call that their child is not properly dressed for school since they are usually at work when the call is received

Costs? There would be a perception that not having to buy fashion clothing versus a school uniform, but usually t-shirts and jeans worn properly would be more economical

Distractions removed? I understand that clothing related to ethnic colors/gang association would be reduced

When the student population is categorized as, what are the noticeable/measurable observations you have as an administrator: Can only address student population within my building which is 9th-12th in Utica School District

K – 6th

6th – 9th

10th – 12 – only some students have challenges to dress code – less than 1% of total school population of 893 students

As an administrator in a public school environment do you have any thoughts regarding your results that you feel could translate and benefit into success in a private school setting?

Costs to have acceptable clothing within a dress code would be less expensive than uniforms

Freedom of choice to both parents and students not having a regulated school uniform policy which would be extremely difficult to enforce in large school populations

If research shows no results in test scores or conduct as it relates to the wearing of the school uniform, why do you continue to have uniforms as a school policy?

Since we don’t have the uniform policy, additionally there is no benefit since research doesn’t support any academic benefit and little behavioral benefits. The challenges to enforce a school uniform policy would be more disruptive than dealing the few students that need adjustment in the dress code violation

References

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Wade, K. K., & Stafford, M. E. (2003, August 2003). Public School Uniforms: Effect on Perceptions of Gang Presence, School Climate and Student Self-Perceptions. Education and Urban Society, 35, 399-420.

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Yeung, R. (2009, November 2009). Are School Uniforms a Good Fit? Results from the ECLS-K and the NELS. Educational Policy, 23, 847-874.

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