Research on Organizational Communication

Nordicom Review 28 (2007) 1, pp. 93-110

Research on Organizational Communication

The Case of Sweden

CATRIN JOHANSSON

Abstract Swedish research on organizational communication is characterized by empirical, qualitative research. The tradition of holistic and profound case studies is strong. In this article, a wide definition of organizational communication is employed, including research focusing on both internal and external communication. Research themes and methods are reviewed and discussed. The majority of the studies concern public information, including health communication and crisis communication. Particularly, scholars have studied planning and evaluation of information campaigns concerning health, traffic and environment; and more recently, authority communication during major crises in society. Research focusing on organizations' internal communication includes topics such as superior-subordinate communication, organizational learning, sensemaking, communication strategies and communication efficiency.

Strengths and weaknesses following from this empirical case study research tradition are highlighted. Finally, the contribution of Swedish research in an international perspective is discussed. Key Words: organizational communication, public relations, research review

Introduction Societies and organizations are continuously constructed by their members through communicative processes. In Weick's terms, communication is the core process of organizing (Weick 1979). Organizational communication as an academic discipline embraces the study of symbols, messages, media, interactions, relationships, networks, persuasive campaigns, and broader discourses within an organization ? be it a corporation, governmental agency, religious institution, social movement, or the like (cf. Cheney et al. 2004). In some respects the field is broad as the area of media and communication science in a confined setting.

However, organizational communication could also be used as a general term to cover public relations, public affairs, investor relations, labour market communication, corporate advertising, environmental communication and internal communication (van Riel 1995). This holistic view seems to be more advocated by European researchers. Moreover, since organizations both influence and are influenced by the larger social, political, cultural, economic, and technological contexts in which they operate, organi-

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zations, and their internal and external communication, are important research objects for media and communication researchers.

In an international perspective, organizational communication is a flourishing field of research. Its breadth and diversity makes it impossible to review as a whole, according to Jones et al. (2004: 723). Within International Communication Association, ICA, organizational communication is the fourth largest group (July, 2005). At the turn of the twenty-first century many countries are pursuing the study, although it has had a U.S. base as well as a U.S. bias for most of its 50-year history (Cheney et al. 2004).

Some years ago Dalfelt, Heide and Simonsson argued that in Sweden, scholars seem to have missed the fact that organizational communication is a field that in an international perspective receives widespread and steadily increasing interest (Dalfelt, Heide and Simonsson (2001). Likewise, Flodin (2004), Dalfelt and Falkheimer (2001) comment on the scarcity of Swedish research in public relations. During the last decade, we have in fact seen a number of publications in this area, which gives the impression that this picture is no longer relevant. There is therefore a need for a research review, which traces out the recent developments.

These arguments were taken as the starting point for the following review of the Swedish research, which aims to give an overview of research topics, methods and perspectives.

Swedish research on organizational communication can be traced back to the 1970s. The area with the longest tradition is public information of non-profit organizations. From the 1980s onwards a number of studies in governmental organizations' external communication during major crises in society have appeared. During the last fifteen years, research focusing on organizations' internal communication has developed.

On the Scope of the Definition In the paper, a wide definition of organizational communication is used, including internal, external, informal and formal communication with processes ranging from intraindividual to mass mediated communication. Research focusing on organizational communication, public relations, and public information is reviewed. A rationale for this decision will be given here.

Definitions of organizational communication traditionally employ dividing lines between internal/external and formal/informal communication (c.f. Kreps 1990, Heide, Johansson & Simonsson 2005). Dalfelt, Heide and Simonsson (2001; c.f. Cheney & Christensen 2001a, 2001b) present a detailed discussion on the definition of organizational communication and the relationship to public relations.

Broadly speaking, organizational communication researchers study internal formal communication, and public relations researchers study external formal communication. Research focusing on informal communication is still largely non-existent.

In many countries, there is a sharp dividing line between the two research traditions. According to Botan and Taylor (2004: 646) public relations has developed its own specialized journals, professional and scholarly associations, publishers, and network of collaborative relationships. This phenomenon might be one cause of the divide.

Cheney and Christensen are certain that both arenas are to blame for this lack of interaction, networking, and cross-fertilization of ideas (2001b: 170).

However, in my opinion the divide is not defensible, but instead counterproductive. Firstly, it is difficult to separate internal from external communication. Internal communication expands beyond organizational borders and external communication receives

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great interest from organizational members. On occasions, news on internal processes is first provided to members from external sources such as media organizations.

Secondly, most communication departments are responsible for both internal and external communication, and practitioners work with communication in its entirety. Concepts like "total communication" and "integrated communication" surface in the popular literature (Erikson, 2002, Lesley, 2004). There is growing awareness that activities of internal organizational communication, often managed by managers, are important to public relations practitioners and scholars (c.f. Cheney & Christensen 2001b: 177).

Thirdly, both research traditions can benefit from each other's strengths. Swedish research is limited in both areas. In this country, there is no reason to divide the two traditions. On the contrary, a more holistic approach gives us advantages when we want to understand complex communication processes where internal and external communication processes are intertwined. I agree with Dalfelt, Heide and Simonsson (2001) that researchers in organizational communication and public relations need to cooperate more closely. In addition, we need to traverse traditional academic borders, since this research area has important common interests with other theoretical traditions.

On the basis of these arguments, I have chosen to use a wide definition of organizational communication research. A similar usage of the definition of organizational communication including public relations, public affairs, investor relations, market communication, environmental communication and internal communication is found in van Riel (1995).

Another question of delimitation is the different academic subject fields where organizational communication research is undertaken. Organizational communication traditionally comprises a number of subject fields such as media and communication science, organizational psychology, sociology of organizations, linguistics and business administration. In this review I will emphasize studies within communication science.

The remainder of the article is divided into research topics, methods and perspectives. Finally, I will discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the Swedish research tradition and the contribution of this research in an international perspective.

Topics from Micro to Macro The most prominent topic within research focusing on internal communication issues is leader ? co-worker communication. In addition, studies are treating communication and learning, sensemaking and communication efficiency.

Within research focusing on external communication issues, studies consider organizations' risk communication and communication strategies.

Topics within the areas that have attracted the largest number of studies include: public information and crisis communication, governmental organizations' communication on health issues, environmental issues and the European Union. Among the crises examined are the sinking of the ferry "Estonia", the murder of foreign minister Anna Lindh, the fire in a disco in Gothenburg and the 11th September attack.

Studies integrating internal and external communication were not found.

Leader ? Co-worker Communication Starting on a micro-level, with internal communication, the first topic covered is superior-subordinate communication ? or as I prefer to name it leader-'co-worker' commu-

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nication.1 Some of these studies depart from a micro-perspective, and focus on interpersonal communication. A few of them belong to the academic field of linguistics, for example Adelsw?rd's study on employment interviews (1988) and Lindgren's study on performance reviews (2001). A couple of studies focus on meetings. Milles studied interaction and gender differences in meetings at work (2003) and Gunnarsson (1995) gender and interaction in research seminars at a university.

In a case study at Volvo Cars, Simonsson (2002) studied communication between department managers and employees in meetings. Simonsson concludes that the managers she studied at Volvo to a large extent are caught in an informative and distributive communication role. Examples illuminate managers' transmission of information, without placing news in context or relating it to employees' work.

Communication between managers and employees has not changed, in spite of organizational changes towards more decentralization and self-managed groups. New theories on leadership emphasize the important role of sensemaking, and both managers and employees speak of the importance of dialogue. However this rhetoric is not put into practice, concludes Simonsson (2002). Instead, leadership in this organization is permeated with the transmission view of communication. Communication problems are defined in structural and technical terms. Concepts such as meaning, understanding and interpretation are rarely mentioned when interviewees express their views on communication and their communicative roles. Noone states that managers ought to create a common understanding and a common basis for values. In other words, important aspects of leadership are overlooked.

There are similarities between this study and Johansson's study (2003) on the communication of mission statement from managers at group level to employees in a company. Both are case studies with ethnographic influences, combining observations and interviews, and in the Johansson study, discourse analysis. The fieldwork extended over a relatively long period, of one and a half years, in both studies. Theories on sensemaking and dialogue are conspicuous and analyses depart from an interpretive framework.

In the Johansson study, managers also showed their shortcomings in communication. In general, their views on communication processes were old-fashioned and simplistic. Even in this organization the transmission view of communication predominated. Managers expressed in interviews that they tried to solve their communication problems by repeating the message.

However there were modern features in the communication of the misson statement as well. The communication process consisted of workshops in smaller groups, where elements of dialogue and discussion were considerable.

In both studies, managers at different hierarchical levels did not have enough knowledge of co-workers or other managers work situations, conditions and opportunities. In both studies, managers were the main actors. Public relations practitioners were not partaking and active in the communication processes. Simultaneously, a number of managers strongly needed support and knowledge in communication issues (Simonsson, 2002: 247; Johansson, 2003: 338).

A third study focuses on internal communication within a local police organization (Ekman 1999). There are clear parallels between the results obtained here and the previously mentioned studies. Ekman departs from the conception that texts govern and steer actions in organizations and analyses how they function as means of control in daily practice filled with numerous and often contradictory demands. Findings clearly display the significance of informal leaders and small talk in connection with daily work.

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Ekman concludes that leaders must take an active part in the small talk even though this causes a dilemma. Participation in small talk presupposes trusting relations between people. At the same time leadership in itself contains sanction powers, which gives leaders and managers an outsider role (1999: 207).

Even Ekman's study is a case study where ethnographic methods (including a combination of interviews, observations and document analyses) are employed.

Rhetoric in strategic change is the subject of another study, comparing two cases (M?llern & Stein, 1999). The authors characterize leaders' rhetoric in these organizations with the help of some antitheses. It is leader- centered rather than decentralized. It involves one-way communication rather than dialogue, and it is abstract rather than concrete. The rhetoric focuses on high praise rather than unattractive descriptions and it is distanced rather than in close proximity (M?llern and Stein, 1999: 172).

Dialogue is desired both by managers and co-workers, but the authors see that this wish is not fulfilled. On the contrary, they give examples of one-way communication, little developed feedback often in the form of leader-centered audits of co-worker attitudes. This situation gives co-workers little means of having any influence. The authors also conclude that the rhetoric undergoes changes through the hierarchy of the organizations. It becomes more concrete and co-worker-centered at lower levels, where it likewise is more characterized by proximity and to some extent, dialogue.

Common features of the results of the referred studies, that could be subject to further research are:

? Managers' communicative competence does not meet the needs

? A transmission view of communication is common among leaders

? Informal communication between leaders and co-workers is important

? Communication from leaders to co-workers is far more developed than upward communication

? Managers at different hierarchical levels in organizations do not have enough knowledge of co-workers or other managers working-terms and conditions

? Public relations practitioners are conspicuous by their absence in internal communication processes

? Leaders and co-workers are, on a rhetorical plane, aware of the importance of and need for dialogue, but in practice, one-way communication still dominates

Communication and Learning Two studies focused on communication and learning. Heide studied the role of ICT, particularly the Intranet, for learning in Ericsson Mobile (2002) and Jimes analyses the relation between communication and learning in two case companies (2005).

Both authors depart from a social constructionist view on organizations and communication, and they clearly employ an interpretive perspective.

Jimes dissociates herself from the view that communication is a learning tool, and that learning is a communication product. In return, she emphasizes sensemaking processes. Her purpose is to find concepts to explain the relation between communication and learning, and she highlights two: local conversations and text negotiations. Her results concur with the results of Ekman (1999), previously mentioned above. Jimes

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