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A Systematic Review on High Conservation Value Assessment (HCVs): Challenges and Framework for Future Research on Conservation Strategy
G Areendran, Mehebub Sahana, Krishna Raj, Rajeev Kumar, Akhil Sivadas, Arun Kumar, Samrat Deb, Varun Dutta Gupta
Indira Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Centre (IGCMC), WWF-India
Dr. G Areendran,
Director, IGCMC, WWF-India, New Delhi, India (gareendran@)
Dr. Mehebub Sahana
Research Consultant, IGCMC, WWF-India, New Delhi, India (msahana@)
Dr. Krishna Raj,
Senior Programme Coordinator, IGCMC, WWF-India, New Delhi, India (kraj@)
Mr. Rajeev Kumar
Senior Programme Officer, IGCMC, WWF-India, New Delhi, India (rkumar@)
Akhil Sivadas
Project Officer, SECURE Himalaya, IGCMC, WWF-India (asivadas@)
Arun Kumar
Project Officer, SECURE Himalaya, IGCMC, WWF-India (arun@)
Samrat Deb
Project Officer, SECURE Himalaya, IGCMC, WWF-India (sdeb@)
Varun Dutta Gupta
Information officer cum GIS analyst, IGCMC, WWF-India (vgupta@)
Highlights
• A systematic review on case studies and technical reports on HCV Assessment.
• Research demands a regional standardized method to assess high conservation value areas.
• Stakeholder consultations and participation for identifying, managing and monitoring HCV areas.
• HCVs research opens a new dimension to conservation strategy.
Abstract
Various scholars and research institutions have attempted to assess High Conservation Values (HCVs) using different methodologies and approaches. Various countries have developed toolkits to determine High Conservation Value Areas (HCVAs) according to their needs and conservation strategies but there is no global agreement on them. The present study attempts to review research papers and assessment reports from 1999 until 2018 on approaches and methodologies used for HCVs all over the world and provide a review into HCV research systematically, with due consideration to the linkages between Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and Socio-Economic-Cultural values. We analyzed and examined the trends which are emerging and gaps present in HCV assessments evident from literature reviewed by experts, including the spatial spread of research, the evolving use and content of the concept, and consultation with stakeholders. A total, 80 articles were taken from Scopus and various reputed journals and reports using keywords like HCV and Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) to specifically focus on the application and evolution of the concept designed by FSC. The study was done in the hope to help in analyzing different HCV components as a conservation planning tool and guide new research in methodologies to fill the current gaps and enhance HCV assessments at different levels of application. The review result revealed that the HCV approach is an effective tool for delineating the conservation priority areas and reduce the uncontrolled extraction of natural resources. The findings display the focus area in HCV research that are surveying methods, fields of application and the dynamics between social and environmental components of HCV categories.
Keywords: High Conservation Value Assessment (HCVs); Biodiversity Conservation; Ecosystem Services; GIS and Remote Sensing; HCVs toolkits
1. Introduction
Over the last two centuries, conservation has grown from an ethic and aligned itself with modern ecological thinking and become a major driver in policy making (Klein et al., 2009; Keppel et al., 2015). Before the 20th century, conservation was mostly practiced in a more traditional avatar as part of a lifestyle which was directly dependent on its sustenance (Malhotra et al., 2007; Austin, et al., 2017). The industrial era led to the unchecked destruction of natural habitats, but also developed new tools to offset and control the damage (Buffa and Villani, 2012). In convergence towards Agenda 21 on Sustainable Development of the Rio Summit, 1992, a few international and regional initiatives led to the development of a set of standards to be complied with by forest-based industries and producers in order to gain forest certification (Cousins et al., 2003; McDermott, 2014; Upton, 2019).
1. Origin
Forest certification sought to give consumers of forest-based products a choice to source them from well-managed non-degraded forests (Silva, 2009; Sulistioadi et al., 2010). The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), an international independent non-profit organization established in 1993 designed the concept of “High Conservation Value Forests” (HCVFs) to promote responsible forest management by the forest-based industries (Rietbergen-McCracken, 2007). A definitive set of 10 Principles was laid down by them in 1999 for identification, management and monitoring of sustainable forest management operations to be carried out by forest owners (private/public) and the companies/forest producers managing the production activities, the ninth being maintenance and/or enhancement of High Conservation Values (HCVs) (Jennings et al., 2003). HCVs are ecological, biological, cultural or social values which are considered outstandingly or critically important, at the global, national, or regional level (HCV Resource Network, 1999). The definition of HCVs includes critical or exceptional ecosystem services, ecological attributes and social functions (Jennings, 2004). Thus, HCVFs, the forests that contain HCVs need to be managed well so that identified values are maintained or enhanced (Farber, et al., 2014; Senior, 2015). The major use of this approach was initially in RSPO (Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil) which adopted it in 2013 and FSC certification schemes, and is now prevalent in temperate, tropical and boreal zones (Senior, 2015).
2. Concept and Rationale
The HCV approach consists of six categories, namely Species Diversity, Landscape Level Ecosystems, Ecosystems and Habitats, Ecosystem Services, Community Needs and Cultural Values which cover social and environmental priorities shared by a range of stakeholders (Halmy and Salem 2015). The first 'HCV toolkit', a practical guide to identify, manage and monitor the values, was published by Proforest, a natural resource management consulting firm, in 2003 (Jennings et al., 2003). In 2005, the HCV Resource Network (HCVRN ) was formed and the scope of “HCV Forest” (HCVF) was widened from the concept of certifying a forest management regime as environmentally suitable, socially serviceable, and economically feasible, to High Conservation Value Areas (HCVAs), which are natural habitats of critical significance due to their high ecological, biological, social or cultural values. It is now a keystone principle of sustainability standards for sugar, palm oil, soy, biofuels and carbon, as well as landscape conservation mapping and natural resource planning (McGinlay et al., 2017).
The rationale behind the concept and theory of HCVA and its assessment is that it presents a framework that can be used by forest managers, landscape conservation planners, consumers of forest products, certifiers, land owners, conservationists, policy makers, investors and donors (Ibie et al., 2016). It shifts the narrative from polarised digressive debates to informed constructive discussions on ways to maintain and/or enhance the special features of the site under study (Brown et al., 2013). Special consideration of the social milieu of the local community is integral to the HCV philosophy (Blattert et al., 2018; Rietbergen-McCracken, 2007). While the comprehensive and versatile nature of the HCV approach are strengths, being resource intensive and vulnerable to flawed interpretations due to error in assessment, are challenges (Wells et al., 2005; Jennings et al., 2003; Sulistioadi et al., 2010; Maesano et al., 2016). Scope of the HCVA concept is enhanced by the fact that firstly, it is scientific – derived from ecological and socio-economic information of the highest grade (Jennings et al., 2003, 2004; Silva, 2009). Secondly, it can be applied on a variety of scales. Thirdly, it can be applied to a wide range of ecosystems – natural or plantation, intact core or fragmented, boreal, temperate or tropical forests, cold deserts, wetlands and aquatic systems and fourthly, it is stakeholder-based involving a continuous process of consultations with a broad spectrum of experts during identification, management and monitoring, thus producing a holistic outcome (Austin et al., 2017).
3. Scope and Application
The HCVA concept can address economic, social and environmental issues, such as conservation of species and ecosystems, natural resources critical for the subsistence of local communities, valuable cultural heritage and identity; protection of people from natural calamities; valuation of ecosystem services (László et al., 2018; Tédonzong et al., 2018). The concept can guide governments to make balanced decisions for sustainable natural resource consumption, collect information for formulation of policy and allocation of resources, and implement global conventions, protocols and agreements (Moradi et al., 2019). It encapsulates a broad suite of the most critical attributes – social, ecological and economic, which can be measured against a universally recognised definition (Jennings, and Jarvie, 2003). The HCV approach can handle the complexity involved in making land-use choices and realize its potential as a climate solution (Avtzis et al., 2018).
In Canada, Bulgaria, Romania and Indonesia, the concept has been introduced national interpretations of the global HCVF toolkit after consultations among multi-stakeholder working groups (Sulistioadi et al., 2010; Pătru-Stupariu et al., 2013; Suzuki, and Parker, 2019). In Russia, Indonesia, Turkey and Georgia, HCVF principles were used to guide landscape management strategies and persuade governments into responsible land-use policy (Strohbach et al., 2015). Meanwhile, Japan and Indonesia made strides towards better purchasing policies and investment in the forest sector (Sulistioadi et al., 2010). The existing network of protected areas in Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania were evaluated for their sanctity and conservation status (Hirschberger and Brandlmaier, 2005). China, for setting their forest certification standards; Mozambique, in training work and for grading priority activities in several Eastern European countries, have all used the HCV approach (Ciais et al., 2008).
In the Americas, especially Canada, companies pursuing FSC certification for responsible logging, have driven the application of HCVF concept. In 2011, the HCV Assessment for Haida Gwaii highlighted that land use planning resulted in the protection of a large area from industrial activity (TaanForest, 2011). The study conducted in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania found that the State Forest lands provide various basic services for society like clean air and water, opportunities for recreation, products made from wood, and habitats for various animals and plants species ( Tédonzong et al., 2018). In Colombia, HCVAs were identified in Orinoco and Chocó ecoregions by WWF to plan the spatial distribution of palm oil plantations and improve land-use zonations. Bolivia boasts the presence of one of the largest areas of FSC-certified tropical forests with a HCVF guidance document of their own (Senior, 2015).
In Eurasia, the World Bank /WWF Alliance led a trans-boundary HCVF project in Northeast Turkey and Southwest Georgia, with an objective to map forests as zones for protection and commercial/community use in a prime Colchic forest tract (Thalmann et al., 2015). In the Baltics, the Baltic Forest Mapping (BFM) project identified significant concentrations of biodiversity values (HCV 1) using existing data sources and listed 15 criteria for the allocation of values to these forests (Kurlavicius et al., 2004). In Bulgaria and Romania, work mostly focussed on the certification of public and private forests (Ioras et al., 2009). The HCVF assessment in Russia led to the introduction of sustainable logging techniques whereas Portugal used it to conserve traditional cork oak forests (Bugalho et al., 2016). In Armenia, the study highlighted the identification of particular HCVF categories as a prerequisite for their conservation and protection (Galstyan et al., 2017).
The African HCV venture saw Liberia conducting an assessment in 2012, in Butaw District and Numopo County District using GIS for the identification and demarcation of farming reserves, sacred sites, cemetery, and environmental areas with regard to high conservation values (Wright et al., 2012). For Cameroon, various threats to HCVAs like timber harvesting, wild fire, firewood extraction and drying up of water points were identified (ProForest, 2015). The identification of HCVs in west and central Africa mentioned the maintenance of HCV species and habitats within oil palm plantations in agreement with RSPO (ZSL Living Conservation, 2015).
Down under in Tasmania, HCVF identification was supported by the Forest Stewardship Council HCV Evaluation Framework of Australia along with consultations with experts in the particular subject areas (Forestry Tasmania, 2014; Belmer et al., 2018). In Asia, the first draft of an HCVF toolkit was created at the end of 2004 for Vietnam in two State Forest Enterprises (World Bank, 2005; Katto, 2009). In Malaysian forest reserves and plantations, preliminary HCVF assessments have been conducted by WWF Malaysia, the State Forest Department and private companies (Colchester et al., 2009). The major purpose of the HCVF project in Indonesia was to predict and prevent forest conversion and biodiversity loss (Sulistioadi et al., 2010). Madang Province in Papua New Guinea investigated social and biological HCVs within a forest managed by an FSC-certified community forestry firm. The Ricoh Group formulated environmental standards for paper products to preserve ‘forests of high conservation value’ in Japan. In China, detailed mapping of HCVFs which could be potential nature reserves holding a significant growing stock of Korean pine, was taken up to push government policies against logging (Rietbergen-McCracken J., 2007). In the north east region of Dongbei, China, focus was on the definition and interpretation of the six values and mapping of areas which had potential HCVs (ProForest, 2008). Zooming in to India, the HCVA concept is new. The idea of forest certification was initiated in India with the establishment of Network for Certification and Conservation of Forests (NCCF) in 2015, aiming to develop a certification program for India aligned to global standards (Singh et al., 2009). The standards are India specific and involves key elements of existing models in India (Verma et al., 2014).
Examining the evolution of HCV assessments is thus an integral part of devising, understanding and practicing conservation management. Since a long time, various scholars and scientific organizations have been trying to adopt a holistic approach to identify such areas (Osborne et al., 2002; Bossart, and Antwi, 2016). This paper reviews HCV reports and research publications to make a comparative analysis on adopted methodologies, significant datasets used along with the conclusions and recommendations inferred. This review aimed at threading the path followed by the HCV concept in terms of the objectives pursued, methods used, geographical distribution and corresponding variations in the HCV interpretations, variation of significance of different components like biodiversity and human activity, limitations / challenges and opportunities to improve as a conservation strategy in the future.
2. Methodology
To review the work carried out so far on HCVs, assessment reports and research papers were filtered from a wide range of journals globally. We have chosen google scholars, web of science, ResearchGate search engine to scan articles relevant to HCVs. This was followed by a data screening and cleaning process to remove duplication, greater authenticity and improving the quality of the literatures selected (Fig. 1). A time slot from the launch of the HCV concept until now (1999-2018) was considered for reviewing the works on HCVs (Fig. 1). The literature was reviewed and analyzed extracted quantitative data and qualitative content analysis of the existing literature on HCVs. Spatial extent and distribution of HCVs studies over the worlds formed the basis of the present review (Newig et al., 2009; Luederitz, 2015). Though our review cannot be regarded exhaustive, it has covered an important part of the literature available online, as we scanned English articles from Scopus and ISI web of databases, leading to 125 scientific research documents. Using these criteria, we came down to 50 case studies and 30 project reports for our review. Review followed the stages illustrated in Figure 1. Empirical information’s were converted to the statistical data using R studio and Tablueau software (R Development Core Team, 2010). Statistical analyses and infographics tools were used to represent the spatial and non-spatial data of this review. Ggplot2 a data visualization package of R software was used to visualized the model and methods used for assessing the HCVs. ‘Dplyr’ tool in R studio was used to evaluate the interlinking distribution of keywords, models, methods, primary and secondary databases that were used in various HCV studies. The spatial distribution of HCV studies was mapped using Arc GIS 10.5 software. Keywords identified were used to recognise different approaches and methodologies and their frequency helped understand the topic in focus. From a total of 400 keywords identified, a final list was skimmed out and depicted graphically. Analysis of keywords helped in estimating the multi-dimensional nature of the concept. A list of Scopus journals and the year of publication from 1999-2018 was prepared (Appendix A). Most-cited scholars and methods used for High Conservation Value assessments were demonstrated using Gephi (version 0.9.2) network analysis.
Figure 1. Overview and methodological framework of the review process for High Conservation Value (HCVs) Assessment
A chronological and geographical analysis aided in understanding the evolution and operationalisation of the scope and application of the concept. Different focus areas in HCV research and surveying methods used were also examined. When findings are analysed stage-wise (HCV identification, management and monitoring), a few results are derived specifically from the identification process while the rest of the findings reflect at each stage and those seen at the management or monitoring stage are often a result of the gaps in the former. Thus, this review has not specifically focussed on the latter stages and portrays a picture of the HCV process in totality.
3. Results and Discussion
The study revealed emerging trends in HCV assessments and research. We have represented the review result focusing on the interactions between the social and environmental components of HCV categories in terms of the significance given to the concept as a conservation tool. The summarised analysis led to the collation of challenges faced and future framework for HCV research and application. The result of our empirical review on HCV is discussed in the following sections.
3.1. Evolution of the Concept of High Conservation Values
From the literature review, it is found that the HCV approach was initially meant not to prevent all deforestation, but to maintain or enhance social and environmental values in production landscapes by identifying HCV Forests in them (Brown et al, 2013). With time, concept of HCV Areas (HCVAs) evolved which looked into the larger landscape and conservation planning in critical ecosystems. Thus, the focus shifted from ecologically responsible and sustainable consumption of natural resources to a rather direct application of conservation of species, ecosystems and landscapes threatened by various natural and anthropogenic forces. Hence the criticality of HCVs 5 and 6 and stakeholder consultations gained importance over time. The need for capacity building within the local community, scientific groups and policy makers to meet these broader, long-term sustainability goals has increased the scope and significance of the concept drastically.
Figure 2 depicts the operational role of major components assessed while identifying High Conservation Values present in an area. HCVs are broadly categorized into Biodiversity (HCVs 1, 2, 3), Ecosystem Services (HCV 4) and Socio-Cultural-Economic (HCVs 5,6). The trilateral synergistic relationship between Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and Socio-Cultural-Economic Values is assessed and adapted to their conservation value based on the context of the landscape. The study of human utilization of natural resources is the most important linkage as it is expected to expose most of the threats and priorities relevant to conservation planning and corresponding decision making.
Figure 2. The operational components of High Conservation Value (HCV) assessments within landscape planning and management regimes.
2. Geographical Distribution
Our study demonstrates that HCV assessments were clustered spatially around the world (Appendix B). Out of the 80 case studies and technical reports reviewed, 35% were conducted in the USA and Canada. A good share of the studies remained focused on European countries, with 30% conducted in Hungary, Greece, Italy, Romanian, Sweden and Czech Republic. Globally, Canada has conducted the highest number of high conservation value assessments. After the USA and Europe, the South African countries have the maximum contribution to the HCVs study count. East Africa, Egypt and Ghana have the highest landscape level analysis of HCVs (Beck et al., 2018). Few studies have been conducted in Indonesia and China, one in Bangladesh among Asian countries. In the case of Australia, one important HCV assessment was conducted in Tasmania.
For research papers, authors were mostly linked to the USA, European or China based universities or research institutions. In total, peer-reviewed high conservation value assessment case studies were found in 23 countries. With time, the distribution of studies spread spatially to more continents and countries. In the process, different types of ecosystems spread across international borders have also adopted the HCV approach to recommend long term management plans of the values identified. Many cases did not demarcate the exact size of the study area, and some international, transboundary cases have been found in Europe (Kuhmonen et al., 2017; Kurlavicius et al., 2004). It is important to note that the limitations of the analysis is limited to the publications in English and this may create some bias in the analysis as well.
3. Operationalization of High Conservation Value approach worldwide
The HCV approach has been applied to different ecosystems and across different geographies all around the globe as a safeguard against the depletion of the values identified (Boyle and Martin, 2015; Akhter et al., 2017; Suzuki and Parker, 2019). The six categories of HCVs until now have been principally applied to land-based production systems like forestry, plantations, agriculture, aquaculture etc as well as in the modification of natural cover for land use. The process of assessing HCVs begins with the interpretation of the basic Toolkit in accordance with the features present in the landscape under study (HCV Resource Network, 1999; Jennings, 2004). Some countries have extrapolated them to a National Interpretation (NI) integrated with the conservation values previously identified within the legal, scientific and traditional knowledge framework of the country. Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Russia, Romania, Slovakia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Poland, Caucasus region (Turkey-Georgia), Canada, Cameroon (partially developed), Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Ghana, Liberia, Mozambique, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia, China and Vietnam have formulated their own HCV National Interpretations (Ioras et al., 2009) (Fig 3). It is necessary to update and maintain these as living documents through comprehensive stakeholder consultations with scope for fine interpretations of the assessor.
One of the earliest works from the perspective of responsible timber consumption was the Candidate HCVF Assessment in 2005 for Invermere Timber Supply Area (TSA), British Colombia, and Canada concentrating on HCVs 1-3. This project assessed and identified HCVFs in the Invermere TSA based on the approaches formulated by Proforest and Criteria & Indicator (Suzuki and Parker, 2019). The indicator-based approach premises itself on the ambiguities related to the sustenance of biodiversity richness (Bunnell et al., 2003), thus demanding an adaptive approach to identification, management and monitoring of HCVs. The Proforest methodology employs four main elements: assessment, identification, management planning and monitoring of HCVs (Jennings, 2003; 2004).
The HCV assessment exercise was progressively reviewed, revamped and refined using an iterative process along with a workshop series with inputs from a collaborative group. The Criteria and Indicator approach enhanced the Proforest method, especially in including habitat elements and ecosystem representation. The decision support proved the importance of collaboration group in identifying candidate HCVFs, though the process of balancing between HCVs and ranking draft candidates remains a challenge (Wells et al., 2005). Another work in Canada was to detect the presence of HCVs on the English River, Black Spruce, Dog-River Matawin and Caribou Forests (Suzuki et al., 2019). Principle 9 of the FSC National Boreal Standard, Version 3 and the HCV Checklist with the Common Guidance document published by HCVRN was used for the assessment process. The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (MNRF), environmental NGOs were consulted along with numerous peer-reviews, commentaries, FSC auditor comments (Resolute Forest Products, 2016). The HCVF assessment in Haida Gwaii archipelago, Canada identified HCVFs under 13 of the 19 criteria used in the study (HCV Resource Network, 1999). The management strategies for Haida Gwaii were aligned to the Forest Stewardship Plan and the FSC Management Plan document with scope for further modifications (Boelk and West, 2016). In 2010, another HCV study was done in Central Canada for a forest management unit in the Ottawa Valley Forest (Dyke, 2012). Precautionary and adaptive approaches were used in the identification and management of HCVs in the Ottawa Valley Forest (Dyke, 2012; Suzuki and Parker, 2019). Desk research into the sources provided in the HCVF National Framework, helped in determining the presence of HCVs in the DFA. The HCV Assessment Committee used stakeholder inputs and expert knowledge for developing management strategies for the identified HCVs which was subject to a credible, external review and revised accordingly (Hearn, 2017). Mazinaw-Lanark Forest (2012) under a license grant by the Government of Ontario, Canada, assessed HCVs guided by the “High Conservation Value Forest National Framework”. Based on the responses to a list of 19 questions in the National Framework and expert consultation, values were marked as HCV, HCV - no special prescription required, not HCV or possible HCV. The company implemented the management plan along with the evaluation of its effectiveness and monitoring (Clark, 2012). In the state of Pennsylvania, USA, when it came to the management of HCVAs, the sensitivity factors for most of the values prompted to create example maps which were visualized to describe the delineation and definition of the areas (Boyle and Martin, 2015). Focus Areas for their conservation areas were delineated and assessed using the data from PA Natural Heritage Program for identifying species occurrences (DCNR Forestry, 2011).
Moving into Africa, HCV concept was applied in the context of assessing the environmental impacts on a 33,000 ha. area spread across Butaw district, Numopo County district and Kpanyan Statutory District in Sinoe County which the Government of Liberia awarded to Golden Veroleum Liberia Inc for oil palm plantation (Wright et al., 2012). Green Consultancy Inc assessors approved by RSPO evaluated the presence of HCVs 1-6 in two phases, one in 2010 and then in 2012 (Esipova et al., 2015). A grievance redressal mechanism was put in place and actions taken to correct those (Wright et al., 2012). Fauna & Flora International along with the ProForest Initiative published a “High Conservation Values – Draft National Interpretation for Liberia” (ProForest, 2012). In 2007, Form Ghana, a reforestation company commissioned Form International to study the presence of HCVFs in the Afrensu Brohuma Forest Reserve in Ghana to aid in sustainable reforestation of the forest. Proper management by the security team that patrols the area and prohibition of hunting was expected to protect animals (Tollenaar, 2013). In the case of Cameroon, HCV assessments recorded undisturbed ecosystems like savannah, mangroves, primary and old secondary forests, found within the forests under management and threats they face like timber harvesting, wildfire, firewood extraction and drying up of water points (Mbolo et al., 2008). HCVF assessment in Gabon in the year 2017, was conducted in the backdrop of rapid unchecked sprawl of oil palm plantations (Austin et al., 2017). For assessing HCV 2, Intact Forest Landscapes were studied and mapped, while HCV 3 Rare Ecosystems were mapped which characterized 30 land types based on such as geology, rainfall and topography (Austin et al., 2017).
Advancing towards Eurasia, the HCV concept was used within the framework of the Russian-Finnish project “Gap Analysis of the Protected Area Network in Northwest Russia” in an area (including inland waters) of 869,200 sq. km. Moreover, 15 types of HCVAs were used to estimate the representativeness of the existing protected area network, which analyzed the percentage of protected area which is designated as HCVA (Abell et al., 2015; Roleček et al., 2017). Latest digital spectro-zonal satellite images of high and medium resolution and semiautomatic image interpretation led to the creation of large-scale vegetation maps (Galstyan, 2017; Suzuki and Parker, 2019). Besides threat evaluation, HCVAs in need of urgent protection were prioritized. The gap analysis led to practical recommendations at multiple levels: from planned spatial schemes for conservation, to plans for immediate protection of priority sites (Esipova et al., 2015). Conservation gains analysis was undertaken while identifying HCVFs in Bosnia and Romania (Ioras et al., 2009). The study found that Romania’s forests consist of old growth as well as natural forests and these form part of valuable natural resources. Among all HCVs, habitat protection of Rare, Endangered and Threatened species was the most identified HCV (Ioras, et al., 2009). HCV concept was applied to Southern Portugal’s Cork Oak landscape in a WebGIS platform with Pareto optimization for identification of various areas which are significant in terms of biodiversity conservation, sustainable forest management and ecosystem services ( Vila-Viçosa et al., 2012; Bugalho, et al., 2016; Maesano et al., 2016). Forest inventories were prepared for assessing the timber’s commercial value (Ciais et al., 2008). The HCV framework integrated into the HABEaS WebGIS platform provided a simple method of making systematic data on ecosystem and biodiversity services (Pardalos, et al., 2008). In the Barents Euro-Arctic Region covering parts of Sweden, Finland and Russia, a project-specific approach to the concept of HCVFs was applied in the period of 2011-17 (Cousins et al., 2003; Jansson et al., 2009). In 2004, the Baltic (Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia) forests located in the zone of transition between temperate deciduous forests and boreal coniferous forests were mapped for HCVF distribution. An average of 17% of the Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian forests fulfilled at least one Baltic Forest Management selection criteria and hence they were mentioned under the HCVF in the BFM database (Kurlavicius et al., 2004). Among HCVFs, the most were broad leaved forests, dry pine forests and wet deciduous forests. The study found that there are biologically valuable forests which are found outside the Protected Areas. Various discussions were held and they found that there were great opportunities to improve the PAs in the Baltic States (Kurlavicius et al., 2004).
In 2016, Italy entered the picture where HCV identification focused on important habitats, protected areas, endangered ecosystems. It was found that HCV 1 and HCV 3 corresponded to 40% of the Forest Areas of Italy (Maesano et al., 2016). Apart from the Protected Areas many sectors with high priority as well as importance are located within many unprotected and productive areas (Maesano, et al., 2016). In the identification of HCVFs for Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia, their selection was committed using so-called “intact natural areas (with forests)” as defined by national experts (Kuhmonen et al., 2017). In Norway, 1: 100000 CORINE Land Cover 2006 (CLC2006) was used in the first phase, with only the forest classes used in the second. For Sweden, the preliminary version of the Exhaustive Biotope Mapping of Sweden (Metria, 2014) was used. Russian land cover data was produced by the project “Ecological Gap Analysis of Northwest Russia” (Kobyakov, 2011; Kobyakov and Jakovlev, 2013), and later updated for other projects (Aksenov et al., 2015). Many HCVFs were found unprotected and hence would need consideration in conservation planning and forestry operations. The HCVFs identified by this study could be the basis for applying integrated views in future conservation initiatives (Kuhmonen et al., 2017). In the mixed broadleaf coniferous forests of Primorsky Kray in Russia, which are among the last remaining habitats of species such as the Amur Tiger and the Far East Leopard, mapping of HCV Forest territories which was less fragmented was undertaken in several steps. The total HCVF area which was analyzed was 2.94 million hectares as mentioned above and this area comprised around 17.8% of Primorsky Kray which is enough for helping sustain the biodiversity of plant species but not sufficient to preserve the species in its entirety ( Aksenova. et al., 2006). The study conducted in Armenia in the year 2017 highlighted the prerequisites for identifying the categories of HCVFs as the foundation for their preservation (Galstyan, 2017). In the forests of Georgia, the aim of the HCV research was to study those areas where species of Colchic Forests namely Osmanthus and Greek Strawberry tree were present and included diversity estimation and conservation planning measures (Fig 3). It was found that rising anthropogenic influences and global climate change had caused damage to the species as well as their habitats (Goginashvili et al., 2016).
A study was conducted in Estonia in 2005, which analyzed the ecological, social and economic implications of FSC forest certification led to the identification of HCVFs (Hirschberger and Brandlmaier, 2005). In 2008, Mersey Woodlands Operations conducted Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Forest Management Certification for Medway District, Nova Scotia, England. The area included 92,130 ha of crown coniferous, mixed wood and deciduous forests. The 2015 update to the plan included the broader land management and conservation objectives of the Province. A landscape scale management system is being contemplated to enhance conservation and sustain resource use. This approach is expected to maintain and/or enhance HCVFs in the Medway District (BMPCL. 2016).
In South East Asia, Central Kalimantan Province in Indonesia was assessed for HCVs in 2014-16 using the Indonesian HCV Toolkit (2008). The initial phase of study preparation covered training the team on HCV categorization process. It also prepared a spatio-temporal database to assess HCVs. Following methods defined in the Toolkit, ecosystem types were mapped using the Regional Physical Planning Program for Transmigration (RePPProT, 1990), a map based on ecosystem proxy principles. The study concluded that HCV areas, covering over half the entire province, need to be incorporated into sustainable development planning since nearly 62% of identified HCV areas are threatened. Reclassification of identified areas of forests from convertible production forests to limited production or protection forest which make way for sustainable forest management and protection was a major recommendation (Ibie et al., 2016). The use of the HCV concept in China was driven by WWF-China and the initial focus of the work was on the definition and interpretation of the six HCVs for the north-east region of Dongbei and mapping potential HCV areas at the regional level. For further clarification & study, a report entitled, “Research on Classification and Mapping of HCVFs in Northeast China and Inner Mongolia” was completed in 2005. In 2014, the potential of the HCV concept for Landscape Conservation Planning was tested in the Pawan watershed, Ketapang District, West Kalimantan Province. The watershed covering an area of about 14,171 sq.km, had undergone a drastic change from forests to oil-palm plantations. The planters in the area had identified HCV areas. The method revised the HCV Toolkit for Indonesia with sub-values - biodiversity (HCV 1, 2 and 3); ecosystem services (HCV 4); and social and cultural values (HCV 5 and 6). The study began by assessing potential HCVs, especially HCVs 1 to 4. The proportion of HCV areas were extrapolated to the 24 oil-palm concessions (623,228 ha) and 16 forest concessions (450,947 ha) in the catchment, using the results. It was proposed that such HCVFs prioritized according to their significance and threats faced, could form the basis for delineating natural corridors at a landscape level before issuing permits for forest land diversion (Purwanto, 2014).
In Australia, an assessment was done in 2014 by Forestry Tasmania in Tasmania on Permanent Timber Production Zone land according to the Australian HCV framework (FSC Australia, 2013), listing down the HCVs under each category in the context of Australia (Fig. 3). The Common Guidance for the Identification of HCVs (Brown et al. 2013) was used to interpret the approach in the Australian framework (Wright et al., 2017). An HCV Management Plan was published by the Forestry Tasmania in October 2014 for the first time informed and guided by expert advice and broad stakeholder consultations. FT engaged Natural Resources Planning Pty Ltd (NRP) to identify conservation priorities using a GIS-based Regional Ecosystem Model (REM) developed by them (Knight, 2014). The framework for this analysis was placed at the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) level. With this approach, HCV 1, 2, 3 and 6 (Aesthetic, Historic, Scientific, Socio-economic and Spiritual) were identified while 4 and 5 went undetected (Forestry Tasmania, 2017).
In the year 2015, the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) guided the maintenance and enhancement of HCV species and habitats in oil palm plantations of Indonesia in partnership with RSPO. A study conducted in the Amazon forests suggested that buffer zones with a natural vegetation belt of 100m were critical in order to prevent edge effects and protect HCV habitats (ZSL Living Conservation, 2015). Among scientific research papers that explored the scope of the HCV concept, Austin et al., (2017) study, examined current trends of plantation permits to evaluate the location and extent of suitable sites for oil palm cultivation, in Gabon. For minimizing adverse environmental impacts, they used suitability map and two different approaches; High Carbon Stock and HCV approach. They overlaid the HCS and HCV maps to identify suitable sites for oil palm cultivation (Austin et al., 2017; HCS, 2018). Study suggested that commercial oil palm cultivation in Gabon was expanding.
From among HCV research articles, Senior et al., (2015), emphasized on the need for a scientific evidence base in the HCV approach (HCV) to successfully protect social and environmental values and manage tropical landscapes (Senior et al., 2015). Robin et al., (2015) study explored the importance of freshwater features of high conservation value. They quantified a set of freshwater elements for each value to identify HCV sites. In this study, initially they identified the main ecological features to cognize whether the recent HCV framework could adapt to freshwaters.
Thus, it can be seen that this concept has been applied differently worldwide, across major continents, with time to aid ecologically responsible consumption of natural resources, sustainable development and agriculture as well as conservation planning and research has focused on the study of HCVs in different ecosystems.
Figure 3. Layout of HCV assessment study areas reviewed under this study
Table 1. Key fields of application of the HCV concept
4. Different Dimensions of High Conservation Value Assessments
HCV assessments were previously designed as a generalized conservative strategy to identify important environmental and social values in forest management units worldwide. But the concept is being used diversely in different aspects of landscape level ecosystem management recently. As the HCV concept is gaining in bandwidth of application, the yearly frequency of publications and research level documents in high conservation value assessment have also increased recently (Fig 4). In HCV assessment, researchers used 8 important dimensions namely: HCV Forest (HCVF); HCV of Birds; HCV Forest & Freshwater; HCV of Butterflies; HCV of Grassland; HCV of Mammals; HCV Landscape and HCV of Fish. Nevertheless, the different dimensions of HCVF studies still dominated (more than 50 studies) and the frequency showed a steep and continuous increase during the study periods. After HCVFs, High Conservation Value Birds and High Conservation Value Forest & Freshwater are the important perspectives of HCVs studies. Slowly with the maturity of the concept, perspectives were diversely and specifically used for different biotic and abiotic elements (Fig 4).
Figure 4. Chronological progress of case studies and their main dimensions over time.
Keywords are an important part of any area of research. We evaluated keywords from various HCV research papers and assessment reports based on their frequency of occurrence. Conservation, biodiversity and forests are the most used important key words in the concept of HCVs. However, certification, modelling and management are the key areas in the methodological part of HCV studies. Further, keyword densities and connectivity among case studies and reports were generated using network analysis to demonstrate key factors and methods for HCVs assessment (Fig. 5). The concept of HCVs has largely been expanded by various important factors including ecological connectivity, risk assessment, species distribution models and sustainable forests. These HCVs are critical for social as well as environmental values in the landscapes and these key ecosystems are to be managed as protected natural systems. For this, cultural landscape, forest landscape, forest certification, biodiversity are the most connected features in the HCV studies over time.
The effectiveness of managing HCV areas for protecting biodiversity is unclear due to data deficiency. HCV assessors require additional information to aid the identification of HCVs and develop management strategies (Meijaard and Sheil, 2012). However, the scientific forum is unaware of the methodologies used and constraints faced by assessors which force them to identify these values and recommend strategies without sufficient data due to rapid field surveys and consultations which compromises its scientific veracity (Hirschberger and Brandlmaier, 2005; Edwards and Laurance, 2012; Knight, 2014). Streamlining knowledge exchange and sharing would help scientists, HCV users, policy makers and managers to communicate their findings, concerns and management challenges thereby improving the whole process. The information derived from the experience of managing HCV Areas could inform and improve the direction and quality of scientific research. Sharing of data in this regard is important to the HCV assessment process and HCVRN is playing a lead role here, in the development of HCV screening for jurisdictions or landscapes, and maintaining a global database of HCV national interpretations, common guides to identify, manage and monitor HCVs and reports.
Figure 5. Keyword density and connectivity across case studies and reports.
The cascade of HCV assessment is growing and moving towards developing countries and small-scale forest areas lately. The concept of HCV assessment is now appearing in policy documents and in the management plans of government agencies. HCV areas need to be adequately and properly managed so that maintenance and enhancement of the identified HCVs is possible. While there has been considerable interest as well as curiosity into this concept, as an HCVA might occupy a small part of a larger homogeneous landscape, the current scenario provides very little statistics or guiding factors on how it can be used. Broad-based governance changes with stakeholder cooperation and confidence are key to deal with the practical challenges involved in the management and maintenance of identified values, while maintaining that a strong foundation of scientific evidence is paramount for the HCV approach (Sulistioadi et al., 2010; Dyke, 2012). In this review, we thus emphasize the need for scientists to pitch in, in order to enhance the quality of the evidence base through knowledge exchange so that improved articulation of research needs and findings could lead to effective results on ground.
Table 2. Chart showing different journals and the number of HCV case studies they carried out year-wise.
3.5 Different approaches and methodologies for assessing HCVs
The HCV process so far has evolved from sustainable production systems to a landscape and jurisdictional level conservation planning mechanism through a collaborative feedback process. Going forward, several measures can be taken to make High Conservation Value assessments more resilient and purposive. The story so far has still employed a wide range of methods. Figure 6 explains the spread of methodologies followed for assessing and identifying HCVs in various landscapes. Field survey by random sampling forms a major component. Ground Truthing was part of around 7% of methodologies applied and plays a major role in HCV identification. Some of the specific survey types followed were quantitative macro invertebrate surveys, purposive field surveys (which comprised around 5% of the mix), phytosociological surveys, nest surveys, interviews and observations, household sample surveys, geometrid moth samples, water quality sample surveys, focus group discussions, community level field surveys, species habitat based archaeological surveys and reconnaissance surveys. In the Others category which forms around 30%, targeted surveys, tissue samples of known populations, transect surveys, trap sampling, window and pitfall trapping, Y-field surveys and stakeholder consultations were most prominent (Fig 7).
Figure 6. Pie chart showing different models/methods used for HCV identification and assessment
Figure 7. Figure illustrates various methodologies, their associated models, primary and secondary data which were used for analysis and identification of HCVs in a detailed manner. The hexagon depicts the methodology, with different colours showing modelling techniques used. The small concentric circles denote the presence or absence of the use of primary data, with green and red respectively. The second small circle demonstrates various secondary data types that were used in the analysis.
From the analytical point of view, various methodologies were applied, the prominent ones being HCV toolkit, Biodiversity and Conservation Assessment, Prioritization for Conservation, ProForest HCV Toolkit, FSC National and Regional Standards and HCVF Manuals and Assessment Toolkit (Jennings and Jarvie, 2003). Some of the prominent modelling techniques used were simulation modelling, species distribution and habitat suitability model, Digital Elevation Model etc. The major secondary datatypes used were satellite imagery (Landsat Data, DEM-SRTM), secondary literature and CORINE Landcover Data. Most of the literatures indicate the use of primary data for analysis (Fig 7).
In spite of wide use, the HCV concept is discussed rarely in academic literatures and few existing papers (Hirschberger and Brandlmaier, 2005; Edwards and Laurance, 2012; Knight, 2014; Edwards et al., 2010, 2011, 2012) make a case to suggest less protection for biodiversity in tropical landscapes with agricultural practices. Thus, there still exists a yawning gap between those who promote and use this approach and academics. One has to probe the effectiveness of the HCV concept as a conservation tool, scientifically by engaging with conservation biologists, ecologists and social scientists in a more profound manner.
6. Components of HCV Concept
The HCV components are social and environmental in nature primarily. They are further classified into Biodiversity (1,2,3), Ecosystem Services (4) and Socio-Economic-Cultural values. Prioritizing conservation goals from such a broad perspective that can often recognise unsustainable exploitation of natural resources by humanity raises a challenge to mitigation of threats faced by each HCV type. Figure 8 is a Venn diagram of the frequency of HCV Components - the Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and Socio-Cultural Values identified individually, in combination with others or none. 2 studies did not identify any HCVs, 9 studies identified HCVs 1, 2, 3, 4 studies identified HCVs 5 and 6 and 15 studies identified HCV 4. 3 studies identified HCVs 1,2,3,5 and 6, 5 studies identified HCVs 1, 2, 3 and 4, 6 studies identified HCVs 4, 5 and 6. 19 studies identified all HCVs.
Figure 8. Venn diagram of the frequency of each HCV component (Ecosystem Services, Biodiversity and Socio-Cultural Values) identified in the studies reviewed
It is noted that in some places the identification of HCVAs can be attained without gathering and interpretation of large quantity of new data. Also, it is important to note that much progress needs to be achieved by reviewing as well as incorporating studies done earlier that have already distinguished areas of priority for individual values. In some scenarios, new studies may be needed to fill gaps that exist, so that the complete social as well as environmental values are covered, studied and assessed. This ensures the maintenance of HCVs, even while status of activities or the values themselves are mostly unknown. Research to broaden the concept into habitats such as grasslands, inland wetlands and remote ecosystems like cold deserts is picking up pace. The HCV approach is especially important in supporting local self-governing authorities where the national legal framework is weak or where relevant data are insufficient and hence prove useful to study the challenging conditions of larger landscapes like the Himalayas, most vulnerable to the effects of global warming (Silva, 2009).
Organisations with international interests, working on trans boundary landscapes can use it consistently to link critical natural resources to their management strategies (Boyle and Martin, 2015; Akhter et al., 2017). From the landscape perspective, HCVs can thus be swiftly studied using secondary data sources, tools and approaches, making it particularly significant. This in turn leads to greater clarity in resolving conflicts with other land-uses and placement of HCVs in spatial plans and regulations. Landscape-level HCV analysis thus better informs and expedites decisions about protection and restoration, for example as part of a National Biodiversity Strategy (Jennings and Jarvie, 2003). Conservation organisations can use these to advocate and influence policy formulation, investment from various sources and sharing of scientific knowledge across national borders. Another aspect of such a scale covering large areas is that analysts cannot create detailed inventories of small constituent units to determine the presence of HCVAs within, for the need of a generalised perspective that is spatially explicit which would provide relevant guidance at a macro-level (Senior et al., 2014). In some studies, the findings of HCV 5 and 6 have led to the conservation of historical, cultural and religious sites along with sites critical to meeting the basic needs of local communities which were then managed more responsibly to take care of the other components (Ioras et al., 2009).
7. Stakeholder Involvement
HCVA identification and assessment can aid forest owners and users in enabling best management practices and key to realise this is stakeholder engagement. Stakeholders are consulted to identify HCVs and create management plans that prescribe the amount and rate at which resources are to be harvested, species to be protected and enable monitoring of forest product flow (Hirschberger and Brandlmaier, 2005). Final decisions on which HCVs are present and their management and monitoring is guided by consultations with stakeholders and considers the larger landscape affected by the development. Consultation with scientific experts is integral to the HCV assessment process.
The most important aspect of community engagement is the principle of “Free, Prior and Informed Consent” (FPIC) which prescribes a set of mandatory practices to be followed while engaging local communities in the identification of HCVs and implementation of management strategies. Especially while dealing with the Socio-Economic-Cultural component that usually involves livelihood regulation and reform of harmful cultural practices, the rights, dignity and the community’s cultural identity need to be respected based on principles of natural justice. Thus, the principle is critically significant from an ethical point of view as well as for the effective implementation of management plans (Brown et al., 2013).
The study exposed a gap between approaches and methods for assessing HCVs which could be filled by comprehensive research, improvements in data quality and sharing, working in collaboration with stakeholders in multiple stages over time, better implementation and monitoring of management plans and prioritization of values that face threat from others, especially human use.
8. Challenges and Framework for Future Research on HCVs
Many conservationists believe in the HCV approach as an effective mechanism to understand and negate the ill impacts of unregulated natural resource extraction. However, along with the widening and diversification of its scope, its suitability for biodiversity conservation has been subject to speculation, scrutiny and critique (Edwards et al. 2010) from HCV users and assessors (e.g., Paoli and Harjanthi, 2011). This led to dialogue and recognition of bridging the gaps and addressing the issues by collaboration between the private sector and environmental/social NGOs which resulted in the launch of HCV Resource Network. The HCV concept is transitioning from a heuristic model of learning by experience to a holistic management tool that enables better prioritization of components like ecosystem services, biodiversity and socio-economic-cultural values. This stresses the need to understand how the HCV concept is adapted and linked to contextual practice (Dyke, 2012; Senior et al., 2015). In this direction, our review has identified five key challenges for research:
1. Comprehensive spatio-temporal, contextual and specific coverage of primary and secondary research
The six categories identified as HCVs are very broad-based and dynamic which can often be in a state of flux, across space and time and hence needs contextual description and quantification over a period of time. This is often compromised due to the workload it entails and time constraints in collecting field data about factors which are not easily tangible. This can be resolved by providing more time and funds to ensure data quality during HCV identification and well-informed holistic planning for effective implementation.
2. Formulation of National/Regional/Local Interpretation of HCV components, categories and definitions
The HCV concept was framed at a global level and adapting it to the management area can often weaken the definition and scope of HCV categories identified for a particular site, due to loss in translation from a general macro-level perspective to a specialist micro-level view for a landscape / ecoregion / management unit.
3. Challenges in Implementation of Management Plan at Landscape Level
Due to insufficient and incorrect data collected from the initial stages of interpreting HCVs for the study area, the scale and scope of implementing the management plan, monitoring and evaluation of its effectiveness taking all stakeholders into confidence, is a major challenge. The scale or range of activities to be managed at a landscape level is often compromised due to factors like time, and resistance due to conflict of interest among stakeholders.
4. Stakeholder engagement and practice of FPIC
HCVs 5 and 6 directly and 1-4 indirectly can be identified, threats understood from the perspective of human use and conservation and proper implementation enabled only with continuous and constructive collaboration and consultation with all stakeholders, especially the local communities. But often, the Free, Prior and Informed Consent of local communities is a major challenge which raises rights issues making the whole exercise counterproductive to the project objectives. Hence, there is a need to establish and maintain a functional feedback and grievance redressal system.
5. Prioritization of HCVs to be conserved based on Threats and Human Utility
Since threats faced by one HCV category could be identified as another HCV, the challenge to prioritise them based on their relative significance from the perspective of human development and conservation could produce conflicts among different stakeholders. It is critical to find the right balance without compromising any of them so that each HCV is maintained or enhanced.
The HCV approach has been promoted by social and environmental NGOs and private parties. This network of collaborators shows the significance of the HCV approach to a wide spectrum of stakeholders and forms a balance between environmental, social and economic considerations (Meijaard and Sheil 2012). However, it has often been misapplied in the context of agriculture, leading to HCV assessment poor in quality (Paoli and Harjanthi 2011). This further magnifies the challenge of isolating the approach’s drawbacks from those due to misapplication. We make the following suggestions: to identify gaps in knowledge, conduct research to fill the gaps, and distribute and decentralise knowledge centres and management decision making among the stakeholders. We hope that a holistic understanding of the assessment process for HCVs will inspire fruitful exchange of knowledge, strengthen the scientific evidence for HCV assessments, and increase scientists’ awareness of key management issues.
3. Conclusions
This study has provided an overview of the trends emerging and gaps in existing research on HCVs and highlighted five important challenges for research to focus on in future for resolution. The fact that confidential HCV reports in the custody of companies could not be included in the study is a key limitation of our review. Outcomes showing focus areas in HCV research, surveying methods, fields of application and the dynamics between social and environmental components of HCV categories in terms of the trend developing in significance given to each as the concept evolves into a conservation tool, need for greater stakeholder participation and knowledge exchange between them are major topics of academic interest. The challenges faced and future framework for HCV research and management are proposed to improve this concept as a conservation tool.
The exercise presents an insight into the different indicators, models and datatypes used and the rationale behind the modifications made to the original HCV concept / toolkit to enhance the objectives of the project in hand. The findings revealed that HCV forests were analyzed primarily by case studies and technical reports. However, conservation values of grasslands and temperate forests are accorded priority especially in developing countries (Zou et al., 2016). Review has revealed that discrepancies in methods and approaches do crop up in different regions according to changes in the scope of the study. Advancement in geospatial techniques particularly remote sensing data, GIS and three-dimensional modelling techniques have revolutionized HCV identification, mapping process and display on web portals for real time analysis and decision making.
This study also pointed out that data deficiency often leads to difficulty in HCV threat analysis and managing identified areas for which detailed collection of primary data through well planned field surveys is suggested. Gaps between methods, approaches, outputs and outcomes can be minimized by expanding the HCV assessment methodology to use generalized conservation protocols more conducive to methods already practiced by the implementing agency and local communities. Thus, a multi-dimensional approach working towards a shared vision based on stakeholder engagement is proposed at the landscape level.
As the prime outcome of our analysis, we propose the following recommendations for further research in the concept of HCVs:
1. The contextual coverage of research into this field should produce a robust knowledge base that throws light on the use of the concept for landscape conservation planning in different situations.
2. To elevate the HCV concept to function as a bridge between diverse disciplines, further research should explicitly focus on addressing challenges in conservation and human development policy making.
3. Though detailed research on components like Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and Socio-Economic-Cultural values is valuable, scientists should aim to cover all stages holistically from identification to effective management of HCV areas.
4. Here onward, research should engage strongly with stakeholders to improve the contextual quantification of benefits without compromising the scientific and practical aspects, and consider ways to strengthen it institutionally in different stages of identifying, managing and monitoring HCV areas.
4. Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest among the authors.
5. Acknowledgements
The authors are incredibly grateful to the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), Government of India and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) for their support for conducting the review work under the SECURE Himalaya project. We would also like to acknowledge UNDP based research grant to IGCMC, WWF-India (UNDP project number: #000966606) for necessary help during the preparation of the manuscript. We are grateful to Dr. Ruchi Pant (Energy and Environment Unit, UNDP India) and Dr. Abhishek Ghoshal (Conservation ecologist, UNDP) for their help, guidance and support for this project. We are thankful to Mr. Ravi Singh (Secretary general and CEO, WWF-India) and Dr. Sejal Worah (Programme Director, WWF-India) for providing us valuable support for conducting this study. Last but not the least, we would like to thank all WWF-India staff for all of their cooperation during the study.
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