UNIT 3C: PEOPLE AND POWER: RUSSIA 1914 -1941



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RUSSIAN SOCIETY KP1

BACKGROUND

In 1894 when Tsar Nicholas II came to the throne Russia was a vast empire with a population of around 120 million. The climate and geography of Russia made transport and communications difficult and the severe winters meant many parts of the country could be cut off for months at a time. There were more than 200 different nationalities each with their own language, religion and culture. Compared to the other Great Powers Russia was very backward. About 80% of the population were poor, uneducated peasants who worked the land using primitive farming methods. Industrial workers made up only 15% of the population and they lived in the cities. The remaining 5% of the population were the landowners or middle class businessmen. The Russian people were the poorest in Europe and suffered from high taxes, high rents and low wages.

• The Tsar and his close relatives were the richest and most powerful people in Russia. They filled all the most important posts in government, the army and the civil service. They owned huge areas of land and lived in luxurious palaces.

• The Nobility were the Tsar’s most loyal supporters and were rewarded with well paid posts in the government army and the civil service. They were also exempt from taxes and owned most of the best farmland in Russia. The nobility lost some of their power when serfdom was abolished in 1861. By 1900 the nobility were generally seen as lazy, greedy and only interested in protecting their privileges and exploiting the peasants.

• The Middle Class were a very small part of Russia’s population and lived in the cities making a living as civil servants or in industry, trade and professions such as law, medicine etc.

• The Peasants made up 80% of the population. In 1861 serfdom was abolished and although peasants were free they were poorer than ever by 1900. This was due to population growth and the heavy taxes and redemption payments for their land. Most peasants lived in small villages communes (mirs) which controlled their lives. Peasants lived in constant fear of famine.

• Industrial Workers were a growing class from 1890 onwards when Russia began to develop new industries. They were concentrated in cities such as St Petersburg and Moscow. Life for the workers was very hard with low wages, long working days and unhealthy working conditions. Most factories had barracks for workers to live in and conditions were terrible with no water supply or toilets and severe overcrowding.

• National Minorities made up around 40% of the population. These people lived in lands that had been conquered by Russia and had their own languages, religions and cultures. The central government tied to destroy the religion and customs of the minorities by a policy of ‘Russification’. Minorities were not allowed to use their own language in schools or in books and newspapers and their religions were attacked. This often led to unrest and rebellion.

• The Intelligentsia was made up of students, teachers, university academics and other educated groups. Most were from the middle class and lesser nobility and were the group most interested in changing and modernising Russian society. They were strongly influenced by foreign political systems and ideas such as the parliamentary system in Britain and the revolutionary socialism of Karl Marx.

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THE TSARIST STATE KP2

BACKGROUND

In 1894 Nicholas II became Tsar of the Russian Empire. He was a weak and indecisive man who had little understanding of politics and preferred to spend time with his family. Russia was an AUTOCRACY. This meant that the Tsar had total power. He appointed the ten members of the Council of Ministers and could dismiss them when he chose. He also had the right to choose the sixty members of the Council of State. Nicholas lived in isolation from his people and had no understanding of the changes which were happening in Russia. His answer to anyone who questioned his policies was to assert his right to absolute power and claim that as emperor he was appointed by God and should be obeyed without question.

• As well as being ruler of Russia the Tsar was also head of the church and the army. The Russian people were told that it was God’s will that they should obey the Tsar.

• In order to govern the country the Tsar relied on the support of the nobility. In return they did not have to pay tax and the top jobs in the government, civil service, the army and the church were given to noblemen.

• Opposition was banned and the Okrhana (secret police) arrested opponents of the Tsar. There was strict censorship and rebellions and protests were crushed by the Cossacks.

• The Tsar governed the country through the BUREAUCRACY (civil service). This was corrupt and inefficient and many officials were simply interested in making as much as possible from bribes.

• In farming areas and towns local councils known as zemstvos gave people some control over local affairs. Only a small number of people had the right to vote but the zemstvos did a lot of good work building schools, hospitals and roads and encouraging new farming methods.

• In 1905 following a year of widespread unrest and violence the Tsar was forced to agree to a Duma (parliament). As soon as the unrest was over he removed those who opposed him and changed the voting system to make sure that his own supporters were in a majority. However the Duma did lead to stronger and better organised opposition parties.

• Opposition Party.1 -The KADETS were liberals who wanted the Tsar’ powers to be limited and the autocracy to be replaced by a strong parliament similar to Britain.

• Opposition Party.2 – The SOCIAL REVOLUTIONARIES were the peasants’ party. Their main aim was for the land to be given to the peasants and they often used violence and terrorism.

• Opposition Party.3 – The SOCIAL DEMOCRATS were a Marxist party who aimed to win the support of industrial workers. In 1912 the party split into the Mensheviks who believed in winning power gradually and the Bolsheviks who believed in revolution.

• In 1914 the Tsar’s position seemed secure. The nobility, the church and the army remained loyal. The Duma was weak and did not dare oppose the Tsar. Many of the most dangerous opposition leaders were in prison or had fled to other countries.

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THE 1905 REVOLUTION KP3

BACKGROUND

At the start of the 20th century an economic depression led to widespread unrest and violence in Russia. In many peasant villages there was famine and starvation and the government did nothing to help. In the cities prices rose quickly and wages fell by 20 per cent. Peasants began to seize land and workers organised large strikes and demonstrations. In the universities students demanded greater freedom and national minorities campaigned for self-government and freedom to follow their own religions and customs. The Minister of the Interior was assassinated in 1902 and his successor, Plehve, tried to turn the anger of the people away from the government by organising attacks on minorities especially the Jews. He also persuaded the Tsar that a successful war would turn attention away from Russia’s problems. In 1904 Russia deliberately provoked a war with Japan expecting a quick, easy victory. In fact the war was a disaster and made the situation in Russia even worse.

• Russia suffered humiliating defeats at the hands of the Japanese. The Russian fleet was destroyed and the army suffered huge losses. There were widespread protests and demands for an end to the war.

• The Revolution was sparked off by Bloody Sunday when troops fired on peaceful marchers in St Petersburg on 22 January 1905. Led by Father Gapon workers and their families were trying to present a petition to the Tsar asking him to grant improved working conditions and greater freedom. A general strike was called and soon spread to other Russian cities.

• In the countryside violence increased and hundreds of landowners were murdered and their property burned. There were many political assassinations – Grand Duke Sergei, the Tsar’s uncle was murdered. Nationalist uprisings broke out in Poland, Finland, Ukraine etc. The middle class Union of Unions was formed and demanded a constitution and a parliament. Many of the Zemstvos also rebelled and demanded a constitution.

• The sailors of the Battleship Potemkin mutinied. In St Petersburg a workers Soviet was set up and workers in other cities followed their example. Even the Tsar recognized that the war had to be brought to an end and Prime Minister Witte was sent to make peace with Japan.

• Prime Minister Witte told the Tsar there were not enough soldiers and police to put down such widespread unrest. Soldiers would soon return from the terrible conditions they had suffered during the war against Japan and might join the revolution.

• The revolution ended when the Tsar promised reforms in the October Manifesto. These included freedom of speech, the right to hold meetings and form trade unions, no imprisonment without a trial and a Duma (parliament). Peasants were offered an end to redemption payments which had been a major source of discontent.

• The Tsar regained control by seeming to agree an end to autocracy. His opponents were divided. The middle classes worried that the revolution was too extreme. They believed the Tsar’s offer of a Duma was a great victory. Workers protests and the St Petersburg Soviet continued for a few months longer.

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THE DUMA KP4

BACKGROUND

The granting of a limited constitution divided the opposition to the Tsar. Middle class Liberals formed the Kadet Party and turned against the workers. In December 1906 the Tsar ordered the arrest of the leaders of the St Petersburg Soviet. Unrest in parts of the countryside continued for some months but eventually ended when the army was sent in. Before the Duma even met Nicholas II broke the promises he had made in the October Manifesto. He set up a State Council of which half the members were to be appointed by him and he kept the right to declare war, control of the church and the power to dissolve the Duma. Ministers could only be appointed or dismissed by the Tsar and the Fundamental Law of 1906 stated that the Tsar remained an autocrat and was answerable to God alone. It soon became clear that Nicholas was unwilling to share his power with the Duma.

• In the elections to the first Duma most male householders were allowed to vote. This resulted in a big majority for opponents of the Tsar. Between them the Kadets, Social Democrats and Social Revolutionaries had over 300 seats while supporters of the Tsar had only 32 seats.

• The First Duma drew up a list of reforms which they called an ‘Address to the Throne’. They demanded votes for all men, the break up of large estates, and dismissal of the Tsar’s ministers. Nicholas rejected this and the Duma refused to back down. Troops were sent to surround the Tauride Palace where the Duma met. The elected Deputies fled and the Tsar dissolved the Duma after only two months.

• The second Duma met in February 1907 and once again the Tsar’s supporters were in a minority. The Tsar dissolved this Duma when a Social Democrat Deputy called on Russian troops to mutiny and refuse to obey orders.

• The Tsar’s new Prime Minister, Peter Stolypin, changed the law so that only landowners and rich people from the towns could vote. The third Duma, which met in October 1907, was packed with supporters of the Tsar. The third and fourth Duma did as they were told by the Tsar and his Ministers.

• Although the promises made in the October Manifesto were broken the Duma made some political activity possible for the first time .It gave people hope that they would have a say in government. It also led to stronger and better organised political parties..

• Led by Stolypin the third Duma persecuted opponents of the Tsar and many were executed or exiled.

• Agricultural reforms gave peasants more freedom and allowed them to buy and sell land. The peasant Land Bank was expanded and gave loans to peasants to buy land and machinery. Land Captains had their power over the peasants taken away. By 1914 these changes led to improved farming methods and the growth of a new class of wealthy peasants (kulaks)

• Government led industrial development continued with growth in coal/iron and steel/ railways. Although the third Duma obeyed the Tsar’s wishes they did have the right to examine all government spending and this helped reduce at least some waste and corruption.

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RUSSIA AT WAR 1914-1917 KP5

BACKGROUND

In August 1914 Russia declared war on Germany. At first the war was very popular. There were parades and marches in the big cities and millions of men volunteered to join the army. There was great support for the Tsar who was seen as the ‘little father’ who would lead his people to victory. In the first few weeks of the war the Russian army broke through into East Prussia, but this was a short-lived victory. The Germans soon recovered and defeated the Russians at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. By December 1914 the Russians had lost over one million men. Although they had many more soldiers than the Germans the Russian army suffered one defeat after another and lost huge areas of land. The German army was much better trained, equipped and led. The hardship and suffering caused by the war eventually led to the collapse of the Tsarist system of government.

• The Russian army was defeated because of poor leadership. Most officers were noblemen who had no real knowledge of modern warfare. Most of the soldiers were poorly trained peasants.

• Russian soldiers suffered from serious shortages of weapons and equipment. They did not have enough artillery, rifles or machine guns. Even boots, coats and medical supplies were scarce.

• In 1915 the Tsar took command of the Russian army. This was a serious mistake as he could now be personally blamed for defeat and the hardship caused by the war.

• By 1916 over 30% of Russian men were in the army. This led to shortages of workers in industry and agriculture. Food shortages began to affect people in the cities and the price of bread increased by 300%. This caused strikes and demonstrations.

• The Russian transport system was not able to meet the needs of the army and civilians. Food rotted in the countryside as the people in the cities starved. In winter there were also shortages of fuel.

• While he was at the front Nicholas left Alexandra in charge of the government. In two years 21 Government Ministers were sacked and replaced by friends of Rasputin. The Tsarina was very unpopular and was even accused of being a German agent.

• Rasputin the so-called holy man used his influence over the Tsarina to gain power and even interfered in military matters. He was a drunken womaniser whose behaviour shocked Russian society.

• Many Russian noblemen lost patience with the Tsarina and in December 1916 a group led by Prince Yusupov murdered Rasputin. The Tsar refused to replace the Tsarina.

• The suffering of Russian troops at the front and the shortages of food and fuel reached crisis point in the severe winter of 1916/17. In St Petersburg queues for bread grew longer and the people grew angrier.

• By 1917 support for the Tsar was rapidly disappearing and many of his former supporters among the nobility and in the army believed that he was leading Russia to defeat and disaster.

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THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION AND THE PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT KP6

BACKGROUND

By January 1917 there was chaos in Russia and the Tsar had lost the support of almost all sections of Russian society. The war was going badly with thousands of casualties each day. The nobility and the Duma believed Russia was heading for defeat and destruction and demanded the removal of the Tsarina’s powers. In the towns there were bread riots, strikes and anti- war demonstrations. In the countryside peasants were refusing to do military service. Most important of al the army were beginning to question the Tsar’s authority. Russia’s leading general, Brusilov declared - ‘If I have to choose between Russia and the Tsar, I shall choose Russia.’ In the Duma liberals and socialists began to cooperate and form a serious opposition to the Tsar.

• On the February 23rd the workers at the giant Putilov factory in Petrograd went on strike demanding a 50% pay rise. This was refused and the workers were locked out.

• The Putilov workers took to the streets and were joined by thousands of people demonstrating about food and fuel shortages. Three days of demonstrations with over 200,000 people on the streets took place.

• At first the police and army used force to disperse the crowds and over 60 people were shot. By the third day the government lost control. Police stations and prisons were attacked and public buildings set on fire.

• The President of the Duma informed the Tsar of the situation and the need for a new government. The Tsar refused to listen and ordered the demonstrations to be put down by force. He also ordered the Duma not to meet again.

• On February 27th the Vilinski Regiments mutinied and decided to join the demonstrators. The Duma met in the Tauride Palace to set up a Provisional Government. A few hours later the Petrograd Soviet was set up.

• On the 28th February the Tsar offered to share power with the Provisional Government but this was refused. Russian Generals told the Tsar that the army no longer supported him. The railway workers prevented him returning to Petrogad.

• On march 2nd the Tsar abdicated in favour of his brother, Grand Duke Michael, but he refused to accept the throne. The autocracy and the four hundred year rule of the Romanovs were at an end.

• The new Provisional Government was made up of mainly middle class liberals. They intended to govern Russia until elections to a Constituent Assembly could be held.

• The Petrograd Soviet had a majority of Social Revolutionary and Menshevik Deputies and some Bolsheviks. The Soviet was a rival source of power and could make it difficult for the Provisional Government to run the country.

• This situation of ‘dual power’ could not last for long. Either the Provisional Government or the Soviet would be the sole source of government and authority in Russia

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THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION KP7

BACKGROUND

The Provisional Government ruled Russia from February to October 1917; it was led firstly by Prince Lvov and then by Alexander Kerensky. It immediately dismissed all Tsarist governors and abolished the Okrhana, freedom of speech was allowed and thousands of political prisoners were released. The Provisional Government was forced to work with the Soviet which controlled the industrial workers, railways, postal and telegraph services and the armed forces. The government could not enforce its policies unless the Soviet agreed. The Provisional Government made a number of serious mistakes which led to its downfall.

1. It attempted to continue the war and failed to end the hardship which it was causing.

2. It did not give the peasants land and many began to seize it by themselves.

3. It did not hold elections for a Constituent Assembly and thus had no popular support.

• In 1917 Lenin returned he demanded a second revolution to set up a workers state.

Using Lenin’s propaganda slogans, ‘All power to the Soviets’ and ‘Peace Bread and Land’, the Bolsheviks worked to destroy the Provisional Government.

• In July 1917 soldiers in Petrograd mutinied and were joined by workers and sailors. The Bolsheviks gave their support but when loyal troops crushed the revolt Lenin and other Bolshevik leaders were forced to go into hiding. (The July Days)

• In August 1917 General Kornoilov attempted to overthrow the Provisional Government. The Government gave the Bolsheviks weapons to help defend Petrograd. Kornilov’s soldiers refused to follow him and the revolt ended.

• By September 1917 the Bolsheviks were in a strong position. They were given credit for saving Petrograd and they now had many well-armed Red Guards. They also had a majority of Deputies in the Petrograd Soviet.

• The war was going very badly for the Government, thousands of soldiers were deserting, peasants were seizing land and there were strikes and food shortages in the cities. Lenin persuaded the Bolsheviks the time was right for revolution.

• Trotsky was put in charge of the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC). The army was instructed not to obey orders unless they were signed by the MRC. Bolshevik Commissars were sent to all army units in Petrograd.

• On October 24th Red Guards occupied important Government buildings, the post office, telegraph and telephone exchange, railway stations, bridges and the main streets and squares of Petrograd.

• By the night of October 25th only the Winter Palace was in Government hands. It was defended by young officer cadets and soldiers of the Women’s Battalion. The cruiser ‘Aurora’ fired blank shells and the Red Guards easily overcame the defenders.

• Kerensky fled the city and on October 26th Lenin announced to the All Russian Congress of Soviets that the Provisional Government was ended and that the Soviets (Bolsheviks) would govern Russia.

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THE BOLSHEVIK STATE KP8

BACKGROUND

After the October Revolution Russia was ruled by the Council Of People’s Commissars (SOVNARCOM). Lenin was chairman and their were 14 other Bolshevik Commissars. The Bolsheviks were still the smallest party in Russia and many people were opposed to them. The liberals were organising an army to overthrow them and the Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries wanted to replace them as the party of government. Lenin believed the revolution had to be followed by a ‘ dictatorship of the proletariat ‘. He was determined to take harsh and often cruel action against ‘ counter-revolutionaries ‘. By this he meant anyone who opposed the Bolsheviks.

• Lenin closed all newspapers which were not controlled by the Bolsheviks. The KADET party was banned and the CHEKA (secret police) was set up. Thousands of people were arrested and jailed or executed. This was the start of the ‘Red Terror’.

• On 26th October Lenin announced the Peace Decree which brought the war to an end. This increased Bolshevik support amongst soldiers who were tired of war. On the same day the Land Decree gave the peasants land (most had seized it already).

• In November workers were promised unemployment insurance and later factories were put under the control of workers committees. All banks were nationalised.

• Other new laws included equal rights for women, the abolition of all titles and ranks, a new calendar was introduced, church property was confiscated and religious teaching forbidden.

• In January 1918 elections to the Constituent Assembly were held. Only 161 Bolsheviks were elected compared to 267 Social Revolutionaries. The Assembly met only once before Lenin ordered it to be closed by armed Red Guards.

• By the summer of 1918 the Bolsheviks had banned all other political parties and Russia was a one-party state.

• In March 1917 Lenin agreed to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Its terms were very harsh. Russia lost Poland, the Baltic States, Finland and the Ukraine. This was 30% of Russia’s population, 30% of her farmland and 50% of her industry.

• Even many Bolsheviks did not want to accept German peace terms but Lenin believed peace was essential if the Bolsheviks were to stay in power. He also thought that there would soon be a world revolution and Russia would regain her losses.

• Many Russians were opposed to Brest-Litovsk. Peasants would lose the land they had gained and industrial workers would lose their new rights. Liberals, supporters of the Tsar and many businessmen claimed the Bolsheviks were traitors.

• Opponents of the Bolsheviks began to gather their forces for war and they were supported by Russia’s former allies Britain and France who were anxious to keep Russia in the war.

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THE RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR KP9

BACKGROUND

The Russian civil war broke out in 1918 and the fighting continued until 1922. The war was a direct result of the Treaty of Brest Litovsk which many Russians saw as a betrayal of the country. The rebellion of the Czech Legion signalled the start of the war and soon Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, Liberals, landowners, businessmen, supporters of the Tsar and Cossack regiments were gathering their forces to destroy the Bolsheviks. Britain, France and Japan sent troops to assist the Whites. The Red Army was led by Trotsky. The White Armies were led by General Yudenich, Admiral Kolchak and General Wrangel. The Whites had more experienced officers from the Tsarist army and controlled most of the food producing areas. The Reds controlled central Russia and most of the railways which meant they could move troops quickly. Two things were necessary for a Bolshevik victory – to create a loyal Bolshevik army and to keep it supplied with food, weapons and equipment.

• The Whites were fighting for different reasons. Their forces were scattered and they did not cooperate.

• Communication between the White Armies was difficult and their leaders often could not agree. In 1919 foreign troops left Russia.

• The Whites lost the support of the peasants because of their cruelty. The Bolsheviks told the peasants that the Whites would return their land to landlords.

• The Reds were united and many dedicated Bolsheviks enlisted. Each unit had a political Commissar. The CHEKA shot opponents and deserters in Bolshevik controlled areas. The Tsar and his family were shot in 1918.

• Trotsky was a brilliant organiser and used railways to move troops quickly to areas threatened by the Whites. Discipline was strict and the death penalty was restored. The Reds also had most of the weapons and equipment of the old Tsarist army.

• War Communism was introduced to keep the Red Army supplied and to establish the communist system. This involved government control of all aspects of the economy.

• All factories with more than 10 workers were nationalised. Workers were told where to work and there was strict discipline. Strikers could be shot. Workers were given Work Books which were needed to buy food. All private trade was forbidden.

• Peasants had to sell grain to the government at a fixed price. Armed requisition squads were sent to seize grain by force. The peasants grew less grain and in 1921 there was a terrible famine in Russia.

• War communism was very unpopular. More than 50% of industrial workers left the cities for the countryside. Sailors and workers in the Kronstadt naval base rebelled in protest at the hardships caused by war communism.

• By 1922 the civil war was over and Lenin replaced War Communism with the NEW ECONOMIC POLICY which allowed small traders, businessmen and peasants to trade for profit.

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LENIN KP10

BACKGROUND

Lenin’s leadership was essential to the success of the Bolsheviks between 1917 and 1922. He believed that it was possible for a small group of dedicated revolutionaries, operating in secret could overthrow the Tsarist system. His main strength as a leader was his willingness to abandon communist principles in order to gain and hold on to power. He was a brilliant propagandist and encouraged the Bolsheviks to infiltrate workers organisations and organise strikes and demonstrations to undermine the government. Lenin recognised that the war was an ideal opportunity for the Bolsheviks. When the Tsar abdicated Lenin accepted German help to return to Russia and immediately began to work for a second revolution.

• When the Tsar abdicated Lenin was in exile in Switzerland where he wrote propaganda leaflets and edited the Bolshevik newspaper Iskra. He accepted German help and money to return to Russia.

• In his April Theses he argued that there should be no cooperation with the new Provisional Government and that Bolsheviks should work for a second revolution to set up a true workers state.

• Lenin used the slogans ‘Peace, Bread and Land’ to attract support from soldiers, workers and peasants. Another slogan ‘All Power to the Soviets’ was used to undermine the authority of the Provisional government.

• Between February and October 1917 Lenin was in charge of propaganda, he edited the party newspaper and spoke at many meetings. He also ordered Bolsheviks to spread propaganda amongst soldiers. Thousands of new members joined the party.

• By September 1917 the Bolsheviks had a majority in the Petrograd Soviet and Lenin persuaded the party that the time was right to size power. A Bolshevik military Revolutionary Committee was set up under Trotsky’ leadership.

• After the October Revolution Lenin was ruthless in dealing with opponents of the Bolsheviks. His dictatorship of the proletariat, the Red Terror, and the abolition of the Constituent Assembly enabled the party to hold on to power.

• Lenin also introduced measures to gain support such as The Peace Decree, the Land Decree, Workers control of factories and equal rights for women.

• Lenin agreed to the Treaty of Brest Litovsk despite opposition even from Bolsheviks. He believed there would soon be a world revolution and in any case Germany would be defeated and Russian losses would be restored.

• When the Civil War broke out Lenin recognised Trotsky’s organisational abilities and put him in command of the Red Army. Lenin took the lead in establishing War Communism which was vital if the Red Army was to be kept supplied.

• In 1922 Lenin persuaded the party to end war communism and replace it with his New Economic Policy. This was a retreat from communism but was essential to keep the Bolsheviks in power and restore the production of food and industrial goods.

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