Section Title (17 pt)
SECTION Iii
Social, Emotional, and Personality Development
CHAPTER 5: THE SELF, IDENTITY, EMOTION, AND PERSONALITY
INTRODUCTION
ADOLESCENTS’ SENSE OF SELF BECOMES INCREASINGLY COMPLICATED, YET STABLE AS THESE YOUNG ADULTS FORM A SOCIAL-COGNITIVE UNDERSTANDING OF SELF. SELF-UNDERSTANDING IS THAT WHICH AN ADOLESCENT BELIEVES ABOUT HIS OR HER SUBSTANCE AND CONTENT. A DISTINCT ASPECT OF SELF-UNDERSTANDING DURING ADOLESCENCE IS THE TENDENCY FOR ADOLESCENTS TO THINK ABOUT THE SELF IN IDEALISTIC AND DIFFERENTIATED WAYS. ADOLESCENTS RECOGNIZE THE DIFFERENTIATION AS A DICHOTOMY BETWEEN GOOD AND BAD, OR THE REAL AND THE IDEAL. IDEAS ABOUT POSSIBLE SELVES LEAD TO QUESTIONS ABOUT PERSONAL ACHIEVEMENT COMPARED TO THAT OF OTHERS. DIMENSIONS OF SELF-UNDERSTANDING INCLUDE:
( abstraction and idealism ( social comparison
( differentiation ( self-consciousness
( the fluctuating self ( self-protection
( contradictions within the self ( the unconscious self
( real and ideal; true and false ( self-integration
Changes in understanding of self are described as occurring during three phases: (1) early, contradictory self-descriptions; (2) middle, resolution of contradictions; and (3) late, integration of identity. Ethnically diverse youths have opportunities to transverse cultural settings and their success in doing so directly affects their opportunities to transcend racism, poverty, and other cultural barriers.
Self-esteem based on global assessments and self-concept based on domain-specific evaluations of self may be measured by assessing eight domains of competence described by Susan Harter (1989):
( scholastic competence ( behavioral conduct
( athletic competence ( close friendship
( social acceptance ( romantic appeal
( physical appearance ( job competence
A comprehensive assessment of self-esteem might include the self-report, ratings reported by others, and behavioral observations. Physical appearance appears to correlate highly with self-esteem. Relationships with parents measured through expression of affection, concern, and harmony contribute to high self-esteem in children and adolescents. Judgements and support by peers is more important for adolescents than children. Prolonged low self-esteem can result in depression, suicide, anorexia nervosa, delinquency, and other adjustment problems. Self-esteem may be improved by (1) identifying causes of low esteem, (2) increasing social approval, (3) rectifying achievement deficits, and (4) establishing coping mechanisms.
Erik Erikson discussed the adolescent dilemma he identified as identity versus identity confusion. During this stage, adolescents typically experience a period of time when they are undecided about their future roles, experiencing a psychosocial moratorium. During early phases of the moratorium, adolescents try many different roles and personalities before deciding which one reflects a clear sense of self. After actively searching, the individual successfully chooses an identity that fits.
Contemporary explanations of identity include the following points:
( Identity development is a lengthy process.
( Identity formation begins with attachment and is reviewed periodically until old age.
( Identity formation depends on establishing a balance between autonomy and connectedness.
( Identity formation decisions are small everyday events that are revisited time and again.
James Marcia described four statuses of identity including identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. Berzonsky proposed identity processing styles including informational, normative and diffuse/avoidant. Differing theoretical positions propose:
( Individuals periodically experience identity achievement and moratorium stages through life.
( Families influence identity by encouraging individuality——self-assertion and separateness; and connectedness——mutuality and permeability.
( Ethnic minorities experience identity challenges as a result of prejudice and discrimination.
( Helms’s model of ethnic identity describes preencounter——preference for the dominant culture, encounter——movement toward identity as minority, immersion/emersion——rejection of dominant culture, and internalization/commitment——recognition of values of each culture.
( Male and female roles, and thus identities, differ; identity formation may precede intimacy for males, while whereas females experience intimacy before identity.
Erikson discussed intimacy versus isolation; intimacy is characterized by finding oneself, yet losing oneself in another. Healthy relationships are necessary to develop successful intimate relationships. The inability to develop close personal relationships leaves the individual isolated. Styles of intimate interaction include: the intimate style–—forming and maintaining a long-lasting love relationship(s); the preintimate style—–mixed feelings of commitment by giving love without a commitment; stereotyped style—–superficial relationships typically offering friendship with friends; the pseudointimate style—–sexual attachment without depth in the relationship; and the isolated style—–withdrawal from social encounters.
Loneliness appears during adolescents to a greater extent than during any other period of development. Loneliness may be due to an individual’s sex, personal attachment history, self-esteem, and social skills development. Loneliness was identified as an important issue for college freshmen as they experienced separation from friends and family as well as shuffling of status and roles. Robert Weiss described social and emotional isolation as lacking intimate relationships, and lacking integrated involvement with a group as common situations in which college freshmen find themselves. Individuals may change their loneliness by reworking social patterns or personal expectations for companionship.
Experiencing emotions involves physiological arousal, behavioral expression, and conscious experience. Adolescents experience frequent emotional swings from high to low.
This is a normal aspect of development. These emotional fluctuations may be due, in part, to hormone levels. During this time adolescents are also becoming more emotionally competent.
The big five personality traits, openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, have not been found to be as stable during adolescence as they are in adulthood. Other traits, such as aggression and dominance, remain stable during childhood and adolescence. Temperament, an individual’s behavioral style, is related to personality. Like personality, some aspects of temperament are more stable than others. An easy temperament in childhood is related to better adjustment in adolescence and adulthood. In addition, goodness of fit, the match between an individual’s temperament and his or her environment, is also related to later adjustment.
TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE
CHAPTER 5: THE SELF, IDENTITY, EMOTION, AND PERSONALITY
|HEADING | |RESOURCE |
|I. THE SELF | |Lecture Topic: 5.1 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 5.6 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.1 |
| | |Short Scenario: 5.1, 5.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 1 |
| | | |
|Self-Understanding | |Learning Goal: 1 |
| | |Image Gallery: 98 |
| | |Lecture Topic: 5.1 |
| | |Short Scenario: 5.1 |
| | |Essay Questions: 1, 2 |
| | |WWW: Concepts of Person and Self; Recent and Forthcoming Books on the |
| | |Self; International Society for Self and Identity at |
| | |santrocka10 |
| | | |
|What Is Self-Understanding? | |Short Scenarios: 5.1, 5.2 |
| | |Research Project 5.2 |
| | | |
|Dimension of Adolescents’ Self-Understanding | |Short Scenario: 5.1, 5.2 |
|Abstraction and Idealism | |Research Project: 5.2 |
|Differentiation | |Essay Question: 2 |
|The Fluctuating Self | |WWW: Hazel Markus Talks About Selfways; Culture and the Self at |
|Contradictions Within the Self | |santrocka10 |
|Real and Ideal, True and False Selves | | |
|Social Comparison | | |
|Self-Consciousness | | |
|Self-Protection | | |
|The Unconscious Self | | |
|Self-Integrationed | | |
|Conclusions | | |
| | | |
|Self Understanding and Sociocultural Contexts | | |
| | | |
|Self-Esteem and Self-Concept | |Learning Goal: 1 |
| | |Image Gallery: 154 |
| | |Lecture Topic: 5.2 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 5.3. 5.5 |
| | |In-Class Activity: 5.1, 5.2 |
| | |Research Project: 5.1, 5.2 |
| | |Essay Questions: 1, 3 |
| | | |
|What Are Self-Esteem and Self-Concept? | |Lecture Topic: 5.2 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 5.5 |
| | |Video: Adolescent Self Concept at Age 16 (VAD) |
| | |Video: Adolescent Self Esteem (VAD) |
| | | |
|Measuring Self-Esteem and Self-Concept | |Image Gallery: 99 |
| | |In-Class Activity: 5.1, 5.2 |
| | |WWW: An Adolescent Talks About Self-Esteem; Exploring Self-Esteem |
| | |Research; Self-Esteem Websites at santrocka10 |
| | | |
|Does Self-Esteem Change During Adolescence? | | |
| | | |
|Are Some Domains More Closely Linked To Self-Esteem than | |Short Scenario: 5.2 |
|Others? | |Essay Question: 3 |
| | | |
|Social Contexts and Self-Esteem | |Lecture Topic: 5.2 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.3 |
| | |Research Article: 5.1 |
| | | |
|Consequences of Low Self-Esteem | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.3 |
| | |Essay Question: 3 |
| | | |
|Increasing Adolescents’ Self-Esteem | |Image Gallery: 92 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.3 |
| | |Essay Question: 3 |
| | |WWW: Building Self-Esteem; Improving Young Adolescents’ Self-Esteem at |
| | | santrocka10 |
| | | |
|II. IDENTITY | |Learning Goal: 2 |
| | |Lecture Topic: 5.3 |
| | |Discussion Topics: 5.2, 5.4 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.1, 5.2 |
| | |Essay Questions: 4, 9 |
| | | |
|Erikson’s Ideas on Identity | |Lecture Topic: 5.3 |
| | |Discussion Topics: 5.2, 5.4 |
| | |Essay Question: 4, 9 |
| | | |
|Revisiting Erikson’s Views of Identity | |Lecture Topic: 5.3 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 5.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 4 |
| | | |
|Personality and Role Experimentation | |Discussion Topic: 5.2, 5.4 |
| | |Essay Question: 4 |
| | |WWW: Exploring Identity; The Society for Research on Identity |
| | |Development; Identity Development in Literature at |
| | |santrocka10 |
| | | |
|Some Contemporary Thoughts on Identity | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.2 |
| | |Research Article: 5.2 |
| | | |
|The Four Statuses of Identity | |Image Gallery: 100, 162 |
| | |Learning Objective: 5.7 |
| | |Lecture Topic: 5.3 |
| | |Essay Question: 5 |
| | |WWW: Identity Status Research at santrocka10 |
| | | |
|Developmental Changes in Identity | |Essay Question: 6 |
| | | |
|Family Influences on Identity | |Essay Question: 7 |
| | | |
|Cultural and Ethnic Identity. | |Image Gallery: 130, 131 |
| | |Short Scenario: 5.3 |
| | |Research Article: 5.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 8 |
| | | |
|Defining and Exploring Ethnic Identity | |WWW: Exploring Ethnic Identities; An Adolescent Talks About Ethnic |
| | |Identity; Ethnic Identity Research at santrocka10 |
| | | |
|Helm’s Model of Ethnic Identity Development | |Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Identity Exploring |
| | | |
|Contexts and Ethnic Identity | |Video: Ethnic and Racial Identity in Adolescence (VAD) |
| | | |
|Gender and Identity Development | |WWW: Cultural Identity in Canada; Identity, Ethnicity, Religion, and |
| | |Political Violence; Research on Gender and Identity; Some Developmental |
| | |Models of Girls and Women at santrocka10 |
| | | |
|III. IDENTITY AND INTIMACY | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.1 |
| | |Research Article: 5.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 9 |
| | | |
|Erikson’s Stage of Intimacy Versus Isolation | |Discussion Topic: 5.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 9 |
| | |WWW: Intimacy at santrocka10 |
| | | |
|Loneliness and the Need for Intimacy | |Discussion Topics: 5.2, 5.7 |
| | |Research Article: 5.1 |
| | |WWW: Loneliness; Shyness at santrocka10 |
| | | |
|IV. EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT | |Learning Goal: 3 |
|THE EMOTIONS OF ADOLESCENCE | | |
|Hormones, Experience, and Emotions | | |
|Emotional Competence | | |
| | | |
|V. PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT | |Learning Goal: 4 |
|PERSONALITY TRAITS | |Essay Question: 10 |
|Temperament | | |
|Temperament Categories | | |
|Developmental Connections and Contexts | | |
| | | |
SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS
TOPIC 5.1—SELF AS KNOWER AND SELF AS OBJECT
William James (1842-–1910) might be considered the father of self-understanding. James recognized the differences between the “I” and the “Me.”
( I—self as knower ( Me—self as object (known)
( The ultimate thinker ( Mental capacities and achievements
( The spirit ( The object of concerns
( Active observer ( The social me
( Self-generation of thought ( The material me
( Self-referenced information ( Self-concept and self-esteem
James explained that self-understanding depends on recognizing two selves, or even multiples selves, as we organize personal information. Our self-understanding is based on the combined aspects of “I,” e.g., personal feelings, beliefs, or values, and “Me,” e.g., the material, the social, and the spiritual me. James explains that the “I” is difficult to grasp because it represents that which is conscious, and reflected in a passing state of consciousness. The “I” is always the same; it is the thinker, the “Soul,” “Transcendental Ego,” or “Spirit.” James explained that although distinct mental states cannot fuse, the “I” serves as an agent or combining medium. The “I” is the underlying spirit of the man on which ideas are combined and their effect tailored. The “Me” represents the externally influenced person defined by three categories of external factors: (1) The components of material goods the individual has, include including his clothes, house, family, and other items that reflect success; (2) the component of self-appreciation influenced by that these items that affect an individual’s feelings and emotions; and (3) the component of self-seeking and self-preservation that are reflected in the effort to maintain the self-fulfilling aspects of life. Briefly, the consciousness of self includes the “I” that mediates the external components of the “Me” influenced by external factors.
What distinct examples does our society provide for the multiple selves concept (e.g., celebrities, sports heroes)?
References
Honderich, T. (Ed.) (1995). The Oxford companion to philosophy. New York: Oxford University.
Myers, G. E. (Ed.) (1992). William James: Writings 1878-–1899. New York: Literary Classics of the United States, Inc.
Topic 5.2—Self Concept
A discussion of the development of self-concept could center around on Coopersmith’s (1967) work with 10- and 12-year-old boys. He identified four factors that contribute to self-concept:
1. significance——how much a person is loved and approved by others
2. competence——how well a person performs tasks he or she considers to be important
3. virtue——the extent to which a person feels he or she has attained the expected moral standards of his or her culture
4. power——how well and to what extent a person can control himself or herself and his or her influence on others
Coopersmith found that those who believed they possess these qualities had higher self-esteem than those who did not do so.
After defining the term and discussing the factors, students may want to know what they can do to ensure that their children develop a strong sense of self. Coopersmith suggests that to foster self-esteem, parents can do the following:
1. try to keep their own esteem high
2. communicate concern and interest to their child
3. encourage interaction with the child
4. engage in joint activities
5. use reinforcement rather than punishment to reinforce rules
6. encourage self-reliance and independent behavior tempered with protection from too much pressure
Reference
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: Freeman.
Topic 5.3—Erikson’s and Marcia’s Research on Identity
Erik Erikson’s ideas about identity development during adolescence represent standard concepts used to organize and integrate diverse aspects of adolescent social development. They form a complex conceptual network that Erikson himself admits is not transparent. However, textbook treatments are necessarily brief and often cursory overviews of concepts. Although Santrock’s treatment is accurate, it is brief, and a more detailed presentation may help clarify students’ understanding of the theory.
Describe Erikson’s writings collected in Identity, Youth and Crisis (1968). You will find that the first two or three essays give a full treatment of Erikson’s ideas about identity. Quote them liberally as you characterize the richness, complexity, and ambiguity of Erikson’s ideas. Notice how Erikson actually refuses to define the concept in a compact way, and explore his reasons for doing so. Notice the contrast in his pithy characterizations of identity. Other interesting observations include his original idea that the identity crisis was entirely an unconscious process, but that modern fascination with the idea has almost mandated that it be excruciatingly conscious.
As rich as Erikson’s ideas are, the problem with them is that they are not operationalized in ways that appeal to researchers. With publication of his doctoral thesis in 1966, James Marcia changed things. Marcia proposed and demonstrated that a valid and reliable interview could yield a four-way classification of identity status derived from Erikson’s theory. The textbook summarizes Marcia’s theory, linking the importance of Marcia’s work to the continued influence of Erikson’s theory. Highlight your lecture with a sampling of quotes from Marcia’s research report. You may also wish to informally explore your students’ identity statuses as part of an in-class discussion suggested below.
References
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity, youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E. H. (1998). Youth and the life cycle. In R. E. Muuss & H. D. Porton (Eds.), Adolescent behavior and society: A book of readings (5 th ed., pp. 252-–260). Boston: McGraw-Hill College.
Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551-–558.
Muuss, R. E. (1989). Marcia’s expansion of Erikson’s theory of identity formation. In R. E. Muuss & H. D. Porton (Eds.), Adolescent behavior and society: A book of readings (5 th ed., pp. 260-–270). Boston: McGraw-Hill College.
CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES
DISCUSSION TOPICS
Discussion 5.1—The Seven Best Things Teenagers Do
John and Linda Friel, authors of The 7 Seven Worst Things (Good) Parents Do, have written a book for adolescents, The 7 Seven Best Things (Smart) Teenagers Do. The book parallels Chapter 5 by including discussions of competence (e.g., Harter) and Erikson’s theory about identity versus identity confusion. Present these ideas to the class and discuss the implications of these points on adolescent development. How might an adult help adolescents follow these suggestions? Why might an intervention program for adolescents with low self-esteem be successful or unsuccessful?
The Seven Worst Things Teens Do
( Expect to have self-esteem without becoming competent
( Let your feelings run the show
( Silently scream instead of making yourself known
( Don’t learn about power
( Hide the really serious stuff
( Avoid the struggle to find yourself
( Live in the extremes
The Seven Best Things Smart Teens Do
( Become competent: You can’t get self-esteem from talking to yourself in front of the mirror or being smothered with praise
( Master your feelings: Don’t let the tail wag the dog
( Break the silence: It takes so much energy to silently scream
( Get healthy power: Learn to respectfully make things happen
( Face the serious stuff: Some things are too big to keep buried
( Find an identity: From accepting without question to discovering your own path
( Start learning to stake out the extremes: It’s the universal skill
Reference
Friel, J., & Friel, L. D. (2000). The 7 seven best things (smart) teens do. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, Inc.
Discussion 5.2—Erikson’s Identity Struggle
Erik Erikson’s own identity struggle provides an interesting example of identity crisis. Erikson was born in Frankfurt, Germany, in 1902 and never knew his biological father. When he was 4 years old, his mother (who came from a prominent Danish Jewish family) married a Jewish pediatrician named Homburger, who eventually adopted the boy. Growing up in Germany, the tall blond Erik Homburger was teased by his Hebrew school classmates for his Danish looks, while non-Jewish children teased him for being Jewish. When his mother and stepfather had children of their own, Erik felt that he was treated differently due to his status as a stepson. As a young man, Erik wandered around Europe as an artist, searching for himself and his work. Through a connection with a friend, he landed a job as a teacher in a school set up for children in therapy and children of parents in therapy or in training to be therapists with Sigmund and/or Anna Freud. While working at this school Erikson became a certified Montessori school teacher and a psychoanalyst. When the Nazi party began its persecution of Jewsa , Erik and his new wife Joan left for the United States (Joan’s home country). Several years later, after establishing himself as a teacher and a therapist, Erik Homburger took the final step in claiming his identity by adopting the name Erik Erikson: son of Erik.
Reference
Friedman, L. J. (2000). Identity’s architect: A biography of Erik H. Erikson. Cambridgem, MA: Harvard University Press.
Discussion 5.3—Physical Appearance
Have students write down their ideas about the physical characteristics of the ideal male and female, including height, weight, hair color and length, eye color, physical proportions, and amount of body hair. Some classes initially protest this exercise and, yet, when they go along with the instructor they have as many definite ideas about the ideals as do other classes.
Now ask students to rate themselves from 0 to 10, with 10 the ideal, on how closely they match the ideal for their own sex. Collect the responses and have a few students summarize the results (e.g., calculate average heights and weights and provide frequency distributions for the various physical characteristics). Have these students present the results to the class.
Do people tend to rate themselves high or low? Why? How do the physical ideals compare with the statistics of average physical characteristics in this country (e.g., taller, weigh less)? How does physical attractiveness affect the way we interpret another’s behavior (e.g., “beautiful is good’’ hypothesis)? How does physical attractiveness affect our interpersonal attraction levels? How have physical ideals affected our lives and our self-evaluations? How have physical ideals changed?
Reference
Simons, J. A., Irwin, D. B., & Drinnin, B. A. (1989). Instructor’s Manual to accompany Psychology: The search for understanding (1987) by J. Simons, D. Irwin, & B. Drinnin. St. Paul: West Publishing.
Discussion 5.4—Identity in Adolescence
Marcia (1980) expanded on Erikson’s description of the conflicts encountered at the identity versus identity confusion stage. Four types of resolution are described: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. The resolutions vary on two dimensions: the presence or absence of a crisis and the presence or absence of a sense of commitment to an identity. After describing each type of resolution, students should be able to give examples of people experiencing the different resolutions. To test their ability to do so, you may want to give them some examples and ask them to identify the status of the adolescent in the scenario.
1. Marsha is a 14-year-old who, when asked what she wants to do when she graduates from high school, replies, “Maybe I will get married and have some children, or maybe I will be a neurosurgeon, or a fashion designer.” (identity moratorium)
2. Seventeen-year-old Suzanne is questioning the tenets of the religion in which she was brought up. She is, for the first time, examining her beliefs and considering other belief systems. At the end of the period, she chooses to follow the same religion as her parents. (identity achievement)
3. Lorraine is 16 years old, and when asked what she wants to do when she graduates from high school, replies, “I never really thought about it. I guess I will decide when the time comes.” (identity diffusion)
4. After Bill graduates from high school, he plans to go into his father’s business. He has been talking this over with his parents since he was a preschooler and is eager to fulfill his parents’ expectations. (identity foreclosure)
5. Richard was asked to debate issues concerning premarital sex in his health class. His parents always taught him that premarital sex was wrong and that they would be very disappointed if they discovered that he had participated. After thoroughly investigating the consequences of premarital sex, Richard came out against it. (identity achievement)
References
Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley.
Temple, L. L. (1992). Instructor’s course planner to accompany Life-span development (4th ed.) by J. Santrock. Dubuque: William C. Brown Communications.
Discussion 5.5—Characteristics of Self-Esteem
Santrock discusses the developmental precursors of positive self-concept and self-esteem in adolescence. This activity addresses the topic by asking students to write a one-paragraph sketch of the low self-esteem adolescent. Following the completion of their papers, ask students to build a composite description of an adolescent with low self-esteem. After discussing the characteristics they identified, provide students with the following clinically and empirically derived portrait:
( distrusts others ( blames others for her problems
( responds inappropriately to flattery ( hypercritical of others
( overreacts to criticism ( tries to appear big in others’ eyes (fronting)
( feels like a loser ( poor self-disclosure
( feels rejected and mistreated ( bluffs and cons people
( negative about competition ( refuses to try new things
Reference
Walraven, M. G. (1993). Instructor’s course planner to accompany Adolescence (5th ed.) by J. Santrock. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark Publishers.
Discussion 5.6—Why the Self is Empty
Do people have one self as suggested by Erik Erikson or many selves as suggested by William James? Do we have one identity or many identities? Historically, the answer for most of mainstream American psychology has been “one” to both questions. Indeed, when the answer is “two or more” the predominant view is that such an individual is mentally ill or under extreme stress. Nevertheless, there is a growing movement that suggests that people’s selves are not necessarily composed of one integrated entity, but rather that people may in fact be whole collections of several relatively unintegrated selves. Try this idea out on your students as a counter to Erikson’s ideas. Have them discuss it; have them share experiences that have suggested to them that they are less integrated than they thought they were supposed to be.
References
Cushman, P. (1990). Why the self is empty: Towards a historically situated psychology. American Psychologist, 45, 599-–611.
Gergen, K. J. (1991). The saturated self. New York: Basic Books.
Sampson, E. E. (1990). The decentralization of identity. American Psychologist, 45, 1203-–1211.
In-Class Activities
Activity 5.1—Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory
Battle’s Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) was developed to assess the affective needs of students demonstrating difficulties in school. The inventory was designed to measure an individual’s perception of self, and to help consumers gain insights into their own subjective feelings. The Culture-Free SEI for Adults was standardized initially with a group of male and female college students enrolled in educational psychology. The inventory can be administered to groups or individuals, and requires about 20 minutes to administercomplete. In-class scoring may require 10 minutes since most students do not have experience in using standardized tests.
Give the test to the students as in regular conditions for group testing. Assure students that they will be turning the protocols in to you for disposal only. They should not put their names at the top of the page, to ensure confidentiality. Allow students ample time to complete the test. Then explain the subscales: general self-esteem, social self-esteem, personal self-esteem, and lie items (indicating defensiveness). Ask students to score their own inventories. Suggest how the inventory might be used in, for example, research, clinical evaluations, or assessing domains of competence.
Reference
Battle, J. (1981). Culture-free SEI: Self-esteem inventories for children and adults. Seattle: Special Child Publications.
Activity 5.2—Q-sort of Self-Concept
The Q-sort method of self-concept assessment is another classroom activity that you can use to distinguish between the real and the ideal self-concept. Using this method, you hand out 50 cards containing adjectives to each student and instruct them to sort the cards into piles describing themselves as they are today (e.g., pile 1 = very characteristic of me; pile 2 = very uncharacteristic of me). Then ask them to sort the cards, as they would like to be. The results of the two sorting processes are then compared. You can point out to students that this technique can be used to evaluate the stability of self-concept and to evaluate the efficacy of therapeutic outcomes. (See Figure 10.4: What Gender-Role Orientation Will You Present to Adolescents? for a list of adjectives with which you might begin.)
Reference
Walraven, M. G. (1993). Instructor’s course planner to accompany Adolescence (5th ed.) by J. Santrock. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.
Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 5.1—Research Methods
An important theme of Chapter 5 is that it is possible to intervene in the lives of adolescents in ways that will help teenagers form integrated self-concepts, acquire positive self-esteem, and develop clear senses of identity. An important step toward justifying this claim is evaluating the kinds of research that support such a claim. Which type of research appears to define the bulk of research reviewed in Chapter 5? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each other answer is not as appropriate.
A. case studies D. experimental research
B. observational studies E. It is not possible to tell from the text.
C. correlational research
Exercise 5.2—Characteristics of Erikson’s Theory
Erikson’s theory of identity development is a tour de force of developmental thinking. It illustrates virtually all of the developmental issues outlined in the final two thirds of Chapter 5. Which of the following statements represents Erikson’s position on these issues least well? (You may wish to review relevant material in previous chapters to do this exercise.) Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each other answer is not as appropriate.
A. Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes contribute to identity development.
B. There are stages in the development of identity.
C. Identity development results from both maturation and experience.
D. The development of identity is gradual and continuous.
E. Early experience plays a role in identity development.
Exercise 5.3—Explanations of Self-Esteem
Chapter 5 describes several of the causes and correlates of self-esteem in adolescents. Which of the following appears to be an assumption most researchers in this area make, as opposed to an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each other answer is not as appropriate.
A. High self-esteem is associated with parental expression of affection.
B. Peer support influences self-esteem in adolescents more than it does in children.
C. Some youths with low self-esteem come from conflicted families.
D. Intervention must occur at the level of causes of self-esteem.
E. The causes of self-esteem are experiential rather than genetic or maturational.
Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 1
A. This is not the best answer. Santrock does rely on a few case studies to illustrate the material. For example, Erikson’s analysis of Ghandi is a case study. But the majority of work appears to come from systematic assessment of large numbers of youths in comparative or experimental research.
B. This is not the best answer. The only indication that observational research figures in the study of the self and identity is Table 5.1, which lists behavioral indicators of self-esteem. The rest of the chapter describes questionnaire and interview measures of this and other constructs.
C. This is the best answer. Most of the work described in the chapter compares the self-concept, self-esteem, or identity of adolescents who inhabit different situations (e.g., families, peer relations) or have other different characteristics (e.g., achievement, gender, ethnicity). This work is essentially correlational.
D. This is not the best answer. Little if any experimental work seems to be cited in Chapter 5.
E. This is not the best answer, though one might make an argument that it is the second best answer. The phrase (or words of similar meaning) “research shows” appears often in this chapter. That is, findings are summarized with too little information to indicate what type of research generated the results. Nevertheless, over the whole chapter, there is enough information to suggest that correlational research is the dominant type in the study of self and identity.
Exercise 2
A. This is not the best answer. (Remember, we are looking for the least accurate statement!) Erikson specified genetic bases of identity development, which is based on an active cognitive processing of socioemotional experience.
B. This is not the best answer. The development of identity begins at birth, even though it is not the focus of personality development until adolescence according to Erikson’s theory.
C. This is not the best answer. As indicated in (A) above, nature and nurture both have a role in Erikson’s theory.
D. This is the best answer. Erikson’s account indicates that identity has precursors in earlier developmental stages, but that these precursors are qualitatively different in kind, complexity, and organization. Prior to adolescence, a child’s sense of self is a mix of identifications with other people in the child’s life. The formation of an identity results in a sense of self that is not a quantitative refinement of these previous identifications, but a new integration and organization of them.
E. This is not the best answer. As indicated above, the nature of an individual’s identity depends on resolutions of all of the previous four crises in the life cycle of an individual.
Exercise 3
A. This is not the best answer; it is an inference. This statement expresses the finding of a correlation between parenting characteristics and adolescents’ self-esteem, but no data are presented.
B. This is not the best answer. This is an inference about the presumed reason that peer support is more highly correlated with self-esteem in adolescents than it is with self-esteem in children.
C. This is not the best answer; this is an observation. Correlational research is cited as having noted this fact in assessments of children and adolescents from conflicted families.
D. This is not the best answer. This is Susan Harter’s conclusion based on research concerned with attempts to improve self-esteem and, hence, it is an inference.
E. This is the best answer. Santrock does not discuss the possibility that biological factors play a role in self-esteem directly, and it seems that researchers do not look for biological factors as possible causes. For example, when Susan Harter looks for causes of self-esteem, she looks for them in the areas that adolescents themselves regard as most important to their senses of self. Thus, she and other researchers do not address biological factors except in the case of appearance as it relates to self-esteem among adolescents. Harter refers to this as “perceived” appearance, which appears to emphasize the subjective rather than the objective evaluation of this dimension.
Short Scenarios
Scenario 1
Jamie will be 16 years old by the time school is out in the spring and plans to have a good paying job this summer. She has been doing small jobs like babysitting and yard work since she was 12 and feels confident that she will be able to handle the job at the hardware and home store. Jamie doesn’t mind school. In fact, she enjoys writing essays in English class and easily works through algebra and geometry problems. School is the best place to see her friends during the week, too. But since she took the retail job she feels like a traitor to the older people in her neighborhood who have depended on her to clean up their yards in the spring or get groceries for them in foul weather. She will miss spending time with them. Jamie has promised to help her neighbors find other support and to check on them to make sure everything is going okay. But Jamie is not sure how she will balance her time. She plans to ask her family to take phone messages and to help the neighbors learn her work schedule at the store. All of a sudden she isn’t feeling very confident about her decision.
( Jamie is grappling with an understanding of self.
( Jamie has concluded that her success with previous work suggests that she will be able to move into a complicated retail setting. (abstract and idealistic)
( Jamie describes her personal success across a variety of work, educational, and personal roles.
( Jamie seems to realize that although she is competent, she will need the continued support of her family to take phone messages and manage her schedule (real and ideal selves)
( Although she is confident, Jamie recognizes a sudden loss of self-assurance after reviewing the entire scenario of her summer. (fluctuating self)
( In spite of her good intentions and promises to help her older friends, Jamie is experiencing some discomfort about abandoning them.
( Jamie’s self-descriptions may be self-protective as she builds her confidence to respond to the upcoming demands for the summer.
Scenario 2
It is at times like these that Carol wishes she had a brother. Mowing the lawn just seems like something a brother should do! As the oldest of three girls, Carol has many responsibilities that sons have in other families. Most of the kids at school don’t know that she can change the oil in a car, fix just about anything mechanical around the house, and prepare a meal for five. Her friends know her as a quiet but interesting, bright and attractive volunteer junkie. A few of them know that she has a strong commitment to her family. Even though Carol sometimes resents the fact that almost everyone looks to her for assistance, she knows deep down that she feels a sense of peace because she has the competence and confidence to cope with any problem that may come her way.
( Carol describes her personal competence in several domains as a demonstration of her self-concept.
( Domains in which Carol has provided a self-assessment include academics, personal appearance, friendships, and competence at home.
( Although Carol regrets that she doesn’t have a brother with who she can share responsibilities, she demonstrates a high self-esteem and responsibility toward her family.
( The social approval and confirmation that she receives from her friends and family who depend on her apparently reinforce Carol.
( Carol’s overall self-esteem appears to be very high as she reviews her ability to cope with any problem.
Scenario 3
Maria appreciates the opportunity to collect herself as she waits to talk with a social services worker. In Eastern Europe, lines are a large part of everyday life. It is different here because there are far fewer people and they have benches on which to sit down.
Maria is still learning how to use the bus system in America and finds that getting herself and her mother to appointments is doubly stressful: First, she must negotiate their way through the maze of schedules and get directions from people she can barely understand. Second, she must prepare to translate and negotiate between the social service workers and her mother to get what they can for her family. Although her father and mother have jobs at a local factory, they have professional backgrounds. They need credentials and documents to regain professional positions. Maria is trying to learn English as quickly as possible so she can speak English at home; her parents must learn English too. It will also help Maria to do well at school. After all, her education and life opportunities were an important part of their leaving Europe.
Maria and her parents intend to become citizens as soon as they can. Since they could not bring anything to America from their country, their apartment looks American already. It is so amazing how the appliances, water, and electricity work all of the time and the stores always have lots of food to purchase! Maria feels so lucky to come to America when so many others were turned down. She intends to do everything necessary to be a good American.
( Maria’s identity formation is complicated by the family’s move to America.
( Maria’s parents are as important to her as they are to her as they are to her. They probably have a lot to do with the formation of positive self-esteem.
( Maria’s parents are experiencing a transformation in identity as they experience a loss of professional status, an example of MAMA, moratorium—achievement—moratorium—achievement.
( It is not clear whether Maria has thought about their ethnic identity, but her strong desire for self-change suggests a high discrepancy between real and ideal selves.
( Maria is at the pre-encounter stage as described by Helms’ model of ethnic identity.
( The change in location will probably have an impact on Maria’s identity formation, gender identity in particular.
CURRENT RESEARCH ARTICLES
ARTICLE 5.1—ATTACHMENT TO PARENTS IN ADOLESCENCE
Most attachment research has been completed with infants and young children. Theory suggests, however, attachment relationships and well-being influence internal working models in adolescence and adulthood. Previous research suggests parental separation results in modest increases in the likelihood of underachievement, psychological maladjustment, low self-esteem, and interpersonal difficulties through adulthood. Parental separation also has been correlated with early independence from family, increased opportunity to interact with antisocial groups, and increased engagement in antisocial activities. Hetherington (1989) found that adult children from separated homes report feeling less affection toward parents, spending less time with parents, and engaging in less cross-generational assistance than adult children of intact families. This research was completed to determine (1) the effect of child age at separation, (2) the effect of child gender, and (3) the effects of confounding factors (changes in family structure and/or family climate before the divorce).
Participants were children selected from 1,265 children (635 male; 630 female) participating in the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS) longitudinal assessment. Participants were born during mid-1977. The children have been studied annually for 16 years.
Children were studied through direct assessment, parent interviews, teacher interviews, and medical records. At age 15, participants received the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) to determine adolescents’ perceptions of attachment to their parents. The IPPA contained three subscales to assess parental communication, trust, and alienation.
Parent attachment. A three-point Likert-type scale ranged from doesn’t apply (0) to definitely applies (2), and was used to assess participants’ perceptions of questions such as, “I tell my parents about my problems.” The scale did not distinguish between perceptions of mothers or fathers.
Parental bonding. As participants became age 16, they were questioned about their relationships with mothers and fathers. The care and overprotection subscale of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), used for analysis of parent bonding, contained 25 items asking participants to recall the attitudes and behavior demonstrated by parents during respondents’ childhood. The parent characteristics investigated on the care scale included supportive, affectionate, and nurturing (e.g., “was affectionate to me”). Characteristics measured on the overprotective scale were both overprotection and controlling (e.g., “tried to control everything I did”).
History of parental separation. The longitudinal data collected for families provided comprehensive records of families. The information was used to determine exposure of children to parental separation. A parent separation was defined as a period of more than six months during which a child’s parents separated with the intention of dissolving the marriage. Based on child history, children were assigned to a group based on their age at the time of their parents’ separation: preschool (< 5 years), middle childhood (5-–10 years), and adolescence (10-–15 years).
Confounding factors. Additional measures were gathered to determine the associations between parental separation and measures of subsequent parent-child relationships at 15 and 16 years of age. Family background factors at birth were measured by evaluating family social background and socioeconomic resources. Maternal age and education, socioeconomic status at participant’s birth, total number of children in home at birth, family composition, and planning of pregnancy were considered.
Interparental conflict (0-–15 years) was measured be by determining whether (a) parents had extended conflict, (b) mother reported assault by partner, and (c) mothers’ reports of sexual difficulties.
Early child behavior (3 years) determined whether the participant demonstrated either internalizing or externalizing behavior difficulties. Mothers rated children across behavioral characteristics (e.g., aggression, tantrums, tension) and developmental characteristics (e.g., eating, sleeping, language development).
Mother-child interaction (birth-–3 years) was assessed based on reports of developmental records, observations of mothers’ frequency of punitive responses, and observations of mothers’ frequency of positive responses.
The results for the relationship between parental separation and attachment and bonding to parents in adolescence showed prevalent linear relationships between the age at which children were exposed to parental separation and adolescents’ perceived attachment to parents. The younger the child at the time of his or her parent’s separation, the greater the likelihood that the child perceived decreased levels of attachment, parental care, and parental overprotection during adolescence. Even after adjusting for confounding variables, the data show that mean attachment and care scores were .35 to .51 standard deviations below, and overprotection scores were .33 standard deviations above children in intact families. Remarriage did not seem to have an effect on these results.
The results clarify the position that parental separation at younger ages of children are is likely to have demonstrate weaker parental attachment and increasingly negative perceptions of parental care and protection. These results suggest that the early separation by parents leads to increased risk for lowered quality of interpersonal relationships, psychological well-being, the quality of intimate relationships, family formation, and stability.
Reference
Woodward, L., Fergusson, D. M., & Belsky, J. (2000). Timing of parental separation and attachment to parents in adolescence: Results of a prospective study from birth to age 16. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 162-–174.
Article 5.2—Perspective-Taking and Ethnic Socialization
Social perspective-taking ability represents an area of personal, social, and cognitive development that has become increasingly important for harmonious cross-cultural interaction. An underlying assumption serving as part of the foundation for cognitive-behavioral theory suggests that children and adolescents develop an increasing ability to engage in role-taking and perspective taking. These abilities are highly correlated with increasingly mature forms of ethnic identity and attitudes.
An outline of levels of ability as discussed by Quintana (1994) based on Selman (1980):
( Level 0: Physical appearance and surface characteristics of ethnicity
( Level 1: At about 5-–9 years, recognition of differences in language, social interaction, treatment
( Level 2: Approximately 7-–12 years, role-taking skills, recognizes that others judge their social actions, awareness of ethnic prejudice
( Level 3: About 10-–15 years, youth develop a recognition of ethnic influence on life experiences
( Level 4: From 12 years through adulthood,) increasingly aware of differences and commonalties between ethnic groups; recognizes the contribution of diversity
The current research was based on the hypotheses that (a) ethnic perspective-taking ability (EPTA) related to ethnic identity, social perspective-taking ability (SPTA), and ethnic socialization; and (b) recognizable distinctions in EPTA related to SPTA.
Participants included 43 Mexican American adolescents (23 girls and 20 boys) averaging 16-1/2 years of age. Youths Participants lived in neighborhoods that were predominantly Mexican American (12), Anglo (21), or evenly mixed Mexican American and Anglo residents (10). FYouths' families represented a range of SES. Parents’ education was diverse; as 14 had at least one parent with a grade school education, 14 had both parents with a high school education, and 15 had at least one parent with some educational experience beyond high school (3 had two parents with a college education). In order to qualify for the study, parents verified that youths were Mexican American.
Four instruments were used to assess social and ethnic perspective-taking characteristics of youths, ethnic identity characteristics of youths, and socialization processes by parents.
Social perspective-taking interview. The interviewer read a short story and administered a short, semi-structured interview to assess youths’ level of social cognition.
Ethnic perspective-taking ability interview. A semi-structured ethnic interview was used to assess youths’ perspective on Individual, Friendship, Group, and Family aspects of ethnicity. The Individual section determined how youths interpreted “ethnicity” and their multiethnic background. The Friendship section determined participants’ individual preference for friends of various ethnic origin. Preferences for Group membership, Mexican American, Anglo, or mixed group, were identified with explanations about why the preference occurred. The Family section assessed participant’s perspective, based on an imagined overnight stay with an Anglo-American family, of differences or similarities between ethnic groups.
Ethnic socialization. Parents of participants completed a paper-and-pencil questionnaire with a 5-point Likert-type scale, to determine the ethnic socialization influences in the home. Question topics included language(s) spoken in the home, instruction on cultural heritage, and cultural objects in homes.
Ethnic identity subscales. Adolescents completed this 23 23-item assessment to determine ethnic identity achievement, identity exploration, and identity diffusion. Scores were believed to be related to ethnic self-concept.
Student participants were identified through school records, followed by a letter soliciting student and family participation with an overview of the study.
The reported results were averages of assessed scales or categories of behavior. The average scores on social perspective-taking ability and ethnic socialization were about Level 3. Ethnic perspective-taking ability was somewhat higher at 3.27. Ethnic identity achievement was 3.35 and other group orientation was highest at 3.81. The results showed that social perspective-taking ability (SPTA) predicted ethnic perspective-taking ability (EPTA). Statistical analyses showed that grades in school was were significantly related to SPTA and EPTA. The research results supported Hypothesis 1: The predictive variables of SPTA, ethnic socialization, and grades were highly were responsible for about 30 percent of the variance (measured outcome) for EPTA. Further, SPTA alone was a highly reliable predictor of EPTA. The distinctions assessed to support Hypothesis 2 indicated that EPTA and ethnic socialization variables were significant predictors in relation to other variables. As a result, ethnic socialization and EPTA are comparatively independent predictors of ethnic identity achievement (p. 176).
Reference
Quintana, S. M., Castaneda-English, P., & Ybarra, V. (1999). Role of perspective-taking abilities and ethnic socialization in development of adolescent ethnic identity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9, 161-–184.
STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS
RESEARCH PROJECT 5.1
Objective. Following completion of this project, students will be able to describe the effects appearance has on personal self-esteem.
Type/Length of Activity. outOut-of-class activity; a minimum of two weeks in duration .
Directions.Instructions. Begin the project by carefully defining ways in which you can use clothing, cosmetics, hair styling, and so on to create an attractive, an unattractive, or a stereotypical personal appearance. Then randomly choose which day of each week that you will make yourself attractive or unattractive according to your own specifications. Specify also that on the following week you will exactly reverse the days on which you will be attractive or unattractive.
Before you begin your experiment, make up fourteen 4 (x 6 cards on which you have typed the 10 positive and 10 negative indicators of self-esteem listed in Chapter 5 of Adolescence. These cards will be your measure of self-esteem over the two-week period during which you carry out your self-experiment.
Begin your experiment according to the schedule you have planned. Maintain an attractive appearance on “attractive days” and an unattractive appearance on “unattractive days.” At the end of each day, take a moment to check which of the indicators of positive or negative self-esteem you have experienced that day. Then subtract the negative indicators from the positive and call the result your daily self-esteem score. Do this for all 14 days of your experiment.
When you have collected all your data, enter your daily self-esteem scores in a table that compares attractive days to unattractive days. Indicate in your table descriptive statistics such as the mean and standard deviations of your scores (you may need help from your instructor to calculate these).
When you have created a table, write a brief report that answers the following questions.
1. What did you expect to find out? Explain your expectations.
2. What did you do to test your hypothesis? Indicate your plan, and summarize your procedures.
3. What did you find out? Indicate your table of data.
4. Did you confirm your expectations? Why did or didn’t you?
5. Do you believe the results of your self-experiment? Why or why not?
Wrap-Up. In either small or large group settings, examine each other’s work. Your instructor might want to tally the various mean self-esteem scores in a grand table on a whiteboard or overhead. You may then calculate means and standard deviations for the results to see whether the class as a whole demonstrated that making oneself attractive leads to improved self-esteem.
Discuss several features of this project: It represents an experimental attempt to manipulate self-esteem, thereby testing the hypothesis of a causal relationship between appearance and self-esteem. It promotes a critique of students’ measures and procedures in pursuit of a deeper understanding of the difficulty of doing self-esteem research. Finally, you may want to assess the validity of this sort of self-experiment and test the hypothesis that appearance is causally related to self-esteem.
Research Project 5.2—Creating A Home Page
Objective. Students will become more familiar with the dimensions of self-understanding as they relate to self-esteem and self-understanding by developing a representative web site home page.
Type/Length of Activity. outOut-of-class activity; variable, 6 or more hours.
Directions.Instructions. Your text defines self-understanding as “the adolescent’s cognitive representation of the self, the substance and content of the adolescent’s self-conceptions” (p. 169). For this assignment, you will construct a personal Web page that represents dimensions of self-understanding and your personal identity. Based on the description of self-understanding in adolescence, create a page that reflects your current thinking about yourself and the sociocultural environment that influences you. Use the section “Dimensions of Adolescents’ Self-Understanding” to guide the choice of topics, links, examples, or icons that are representative of your identity. The Web page should include dimensions of self-understanding that are particularly appropriate to a representative composite of images that reflect your personal characteristics.
Get Set up a Web page through the college or set up one of your own through a commercial server. The page should be of your own design, but may include links to other websites. Be sure to create a site that is aesthetically pleasing and represents dimensions of self-understanding discussed in the text. Be sure to place the greatest amount of effort in creating material for your page. The total number of pages that you create and links that you include will depend on the date the project is due and the specifications made by the instructor. After the project is completed, write a one- to two-page paper that explains what you learned about yourself from the project. Students also may write an explanation about experiences they have had as a result of their personal characteristics.
Be sure to ask for this specific information from the instructor:
Due Date: ______________
Length of Home Page: ___________
Number of Links: _______________
Items that must be included:
Items that must not be included:
Wrap-Up: . Prepare to present the Web page during a class discussion.
Reference
Adapted from Halonen, J. S. (1999). Expressing your identity. In L.T. Benjamin, B. F. Modine, R. M. Ernst, & C. B. Broeker (Eds.) Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 359-–360). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
PROVIDE STUDENTS WITH THE GUIDELINES FOR “ANSWERING ESSAY QUESTIONS” BEFORE THEY RESPOND TO THESE QUESTIONS. THEIR ANSWERS DEMONSTRATE AN ABILITY TO COMPREHEND AND APPLY IDEAS DISCUSSED IN THIS CHAPTER.
1. What is self-understanding compared to self-esteem and self-concept? Give personal examples of each that you have experienced in the last week.
2. Identify and describe changes in the understanding of self during adolescence, and explain how self-understanding is influenced by sociocultural contexts.
3. Describe the variety of ways developmentalists measure self-esteem,, and explain how the strategies might be used to conduct research on self-esteem.
4. What is the definition of Erikson’s psychosocial moratorium? Explain how and why it is beneficial to adolescents.
5. Define James Marcia’s terms—crisis and commitment—and list and describe the four statuses of identity that he described.
6. Explain the criticisms of Marcia’s theory, and describe Berzonsky’s alternative conceptualization of identity processing styles.
7. How do family, culture, ethnicity, gender, and identity influence developmental changes in identity formation during early and late adolescence?
8. List and describe the stages of ethnic identity described by Helms. How might context influence an adolescent’s progression through these stages?
9. Compare and contrast the developmental processes Erikson identifies as identity versus identity confusion and intimacy versus isolation. Discuss the research on gender in relation to Erikson’s explanation.
10. List and describe the big five factors of personality, and explain the stability of these traits across the life span.
Additional References
Cohen, J. (Ed.). (1999). Educating minds and hearts: Social emotional learning and the passage into adolescence. New York: Teachers College Press.
Côté, J. E., & Levine, C. G. (2002). Identity formation, agency, and culture: A social psychological synthesis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
McGraw, P. C. (2001). Self matters: Creating your life from the inside out. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Pipher, M. (1995). Reviving Ophelia: Saving the selves of adolescent girls. Ballantine Books, Inc.
videos
ADOLESCENT SELF CONCEPT AT AGE 16
Overview
Two 16-year-old Latina females and one 16-year-old White female discuss the influences of family and friends on their self-esteem. They describe how their self-esteem fluctuates and is more influenced by the opinions of friends than family. However, the largest boost to their self- esteem can be a compliment from a boy.
Pre-Test
1. What domain of self-esteem is most important to an adolescents’ self-concept?
a. social acceptance.
Incorrect. According to Harter, social acceptance is the second most powerful contributor to self-concept in adolescents.
b. physical appearance
Correct. Physical appearance correlates most strongly with self-concept.
c. athletic competence
Incorrect. Although athletic competence may be important for some adolescence, it is not the strongest contributor to self-concept for most.
d. scholastic competence.
Incorrect. Although scholastic competence may be important for some adolescence, it is not the strongest contributor to self-concept for most.
Post-Test
1. For these girls, what people in their lives most strongly influence their self-esteem?
a. parents
Incorrect. The girls indicate that parents are not the most important. The girls believe that parents have to encourage you because they are your parents.
b. teachers
Incorrect. Teachers are not mentioned by these girls as contributing to their self-esteem.
c. friends
Correct. They believe that friends are the most important influence on their self-esteem because they are the same age and are experiencing similar things.
d. siblings
Incorrect. Siblings are not mentioned by these girls as contributing to their self-esteem.
2. Which dimension of self-understanding is most evident from this video clip?
a. the fluctuating self
Correct. These girls mention how easily they can go from feeling up to feeling down simply from a comment made by a friend.
b. self-protection
Incorrect. These girls did not deny negative characteristics they may have in this video clip.
c. self-integration
Incorrect. These girls did not discuss or integrate different aspects of their self-descriptions.
d. self-conscious
Incorrect. Although these girls talk about the importance of peer acceptance, they did not expression being overly self-conscious in the presence of their friends.
Adolescent Self-Esteem
Overview
Adolescence is an important time for the development of the self. Dr. Susan Harter of the Department of Psychology at Denver University discusses the importance of self-concept. She describes how in adolescence, unlike childhood, the necessity of multiple selves emerges. Although normatively appropriate for adolescents, it poses challenges for them and ultimately bears on their self esteem.
Pre-Test
1. Who developed a measure for adolescent self-esteem and self-concept?
a. Erik Erikson
Incorrect. He developed a theory of identity development.
b. Carl Rogers.
Incorrect. He believed that when there is a discrepancy between the real and ideal selves is too large, it is an indication of maladjustment.
c. Susan Harter.
Correct. She development a measure for adolescent self-esteem and self-concept that taps eight domains of self-esteem.
d. James Marcia
Incorrect. He developed a modern theory of identity development.
Post-Test
1. What develops in terms of the self during adolescence?
a. Nothing, adolescence is not an important time for the development of the self.
Incorrect. How adolescence think about themselves changes in many ways during adolescence.
b. consistency.
Incorrect. Adolescents do not think about themselves consistently across situations.
c. multiple selves.
Correct. Adolescents feel and think differently about themselves when they are with different people such as family or friends.
d. concrete thinking.
Incorrect. Adolescents start thinking in more abstract ways.
2. Why is relational self-concept important to understanding self-concept?
a. Because relationships are important to self-concept.
Incorrect. Relational self-concept does not refer to relationships during adolescence.
b. Since adolescents are developing multiple selves, self concept in one context may be higher than in other contexts.
Correct. Adolescents may feel better about themselves in certain domains, thus affecting their global self-concept.
c. Although adolescents are developing multiple selves, they tend to be very consistent in how they view themselves across contexts.
Incorrect. Adolescents may feel better about themselves in some contexts and not very good about themselves in others.
d. Relational self-concept is not important.
Incorrect. It is important to understand that self-esteem is not consistent across domains and some domains of self-esteem may have a larger effect on self-concept than others.
Ethnic and Racial Identity in Adolescence
Overview
Two African-American girls, age 16, candidly discuss their feelings about being Black. Monica describes herself as having many ethnic backgrounds and that she feels she can click with anyone because of it. Ashley says it’s difficult to be African-American among other adolescents with varied backgrounds.
Pre-Test
1. Whose theory says ethnic minority groups have struggled to maintain their cultural identities while blending in with the dominant culture?
a. Erik Erikson.
Correct. He discusses this theory along with his identity development theory.
b. James Marcia.
Incorrect. His more modern theory conflicts with Erikson’s theory stating that the complex process of identity development neither begins nor ends with adolescence.
c. Jean Phinney
Incorrect. Phinney believes the process of identity formation for adolescents from ethnic minority groups has an added dimension: the choice between two or more sources of identification—their own ethnic group and the dominant culture.
d. Janet Helms
Incorrect. Helm proposed a model of ethnic identity development consisting of four stages: preencounter, encounter, immersion/emersion, and internalization/commitment.
Post-Test
1. How do these adolescents view their ethnic background?
a. with indifference
Incorrect. Neither girl spoke negatively or with indifference about her ethnic background.
b. positively
Correct. Overall, each girl was very positive about her background and how others perceive her.
c. negatively
Incorrect. Neither girl spoke with any negativity about her background.
d. as a burden
Incorrect. Each girl was proud of certain aspects of her ethnicity and were positive about it.
2. Why does Ashley feel it is difficult to be African-American?
a. She wants to be another race
Incorrect. Ashley likes being African-American.
b. She finds it hard to relate to others because she doesn’t have her own culture to relate to
Correct. Ashley finds it hard to be herself when she doesn’t know what her own background means.
c. She conflicts with people other than African-Americans
Incorrect. Ashley does not discuss that in this video.
d. She finds that others don’t accept her
Incorrect. Ashley does not discuss that in this video.
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