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The Patricians and the Plebeians

Sometime before the first surviving written historical account, Rome was controlled by the Etruscans, a brutal civilization from the northern part of the Italian peninsula. Etruscans kings rained terror for more than a century until the Romans rebelled and expelled their ruler in 509bce.

The early Romans were miserable living under a king, so they created a republic, a form of government in which elected officials share power.

In place of a king, the Romans elected two consuls with equal power. The counsels served for only one year and could not be reelected. The counsels held veto power over one another. Veto means “I forbid” in Latin, the language of the Romans. Neither consul could make a law without the consent of the other. The Romans never wanted power concentrated in one person again.

The Roman Senate advised the consuls. Senate is derived from a word meaning elder because many Romans considered the senators to be the oldest and wisest of their people.

The consuls and senators came from the patrician “order” – mostly wealthy landowning families believed to have descended from the leaders of the rebellion against the Etruscans.

The plebeians were the merchants, farmers, and craft workers of Rome. The patricians excluded the plebeians from the consulship and the Senate, so when the Senate declared war in 491bce, the plebeians refused to fight. A legend says the plebeians withdrew from the city until they were given the right to elect their own leaders. Historians later called this the Struggle of the Orders.

The patricians and the plebeians negotiated a settlement that allowed the plebeians a voice in Roman government. The plebeians elected tribunes, who represented their order against any mistreatment by the consuls or the Senate. Tribunes could veto a law passed by the Senate or the consuls. The Roman word for a chamber or a meeting room is camera. The Roman government was bicameral because both the patricians and the plebeians had representatives in the Roman Republic. The Struggle of the Orders ended in 287bce, when laws passed by the tribunes were binding for all Romans.

The patricians and the plebeians agreed on the Law of Twelve Tables in 449bce. The Twelve Tables were a legal code that everyone could see. Citizens could no longer be changed in secret, and even elected officials were required to follow the law, though an official could not be charged with a crime until after he left office.

The patricians and the plebeians shared power in Rome, but a third order had no voice in how they were ruled. They were the slaves. Many people captured in war became slaves. Some were former criminals. Others–very poor Romans –sold themselves and their families into slavery to keep from starving. Roman law considered slaves to be property, so slaves had no legal rights. As many as one-third of the Roman people were slaves.

The senate met in the Forum, a marketplace in the valley among the hills that surround Rome. The meetings usually took place outdoors and ended at sunset, so a senator could stop a law from passing by talking continuously until sunset.

In times of great emergency, the Romans would select a dictator to rule the Republic. The dictator had complete control over Rome, but the dictator could serve for only six months. The Romans were at war in 458bce when the Senate asked Cincinnatus to lead them as dictator. Cincinnatus organized the Romans and ended the war in just sixteen days. He could have stayed in power for the remainder of his term and used the office to enrich himself, but Cincinnatus returned power to the Senate and went back to his farm.

The Roman republic never officially ended. Powerful leaders such as Julius Caesar and Caesar Augustus began to take authority from senators and tribunes in the first century BCE. The Romans returned power to one person after about five hundred years as a republic.

America and the Roman Republic

More than two thousand years after the Romans formed their republic, a group of colonists in America rebelled against the English king and formed the United States of America. The founders of the new American nation wrote a Constitution that looked to ancient Rome as model for their new government.

Like the Roman model, the American government is bicameral. Each of the fifty states elects two Senators to represent them in Congress. The United States Constitution allots seats in the House of Representatives based the population of each state. Each state has at least one of the 435 seats in the House of Representatives.

The framers of the American Constitution borrowed the Roman idea of sharing power among many groups. The president can veto a law made by Congress, but under the American system, a vote of two-thirds of each house of Congress can override the president’s veto. Every elected official must follow the law. Even the president can be removed from office by Congress for what the Constitution describes as “high crimes and misdemeanors.”

Answer in complete sentences

*1. Use a dictionary to define “patri-,” the root of patrician. List at least two words with this root.

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*2. Why is the United States a republic?

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*3. Was every class represented in the Roman Republic? Explain your answer.

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*4. Explain what a veto was in ancient Rome?

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THE PUNIC WARS

Rome fought three wars with Carthage between 264 and 146bce. The wars established Rome as a world power and left the once powerful empire of Carthage in ruins.

Carthage was a city in North Africa originally founded as a trading post by the Phoenicians. Since historians have tended to label the conflicts by the Roman name, we know them as the Punic Wars. Punica was a Latin word for Phoenician.

By the time of the first Punic War, Carthage had created an empire that stretched across North Africa and into the southern coast of modern day Spain. Merchant sailors from Carthage traded with cities throughout the Mediterranean Sea. To protect its profitable sea trade Carthage developed a powerful navy.

The Romans completed their conquest of the Italian peninsula by 263bce. Rome’s economy depended on the plunder of their army. The Roman Senate had to keep the army busy, or the army might have turned against the Senate.

The first Punic War was fought over Sicily, a Mediterranean island off the coast of the Italian peninsula. Carthage controlled Sicily in 264bce, so the Romans declared war to defend a small group of Roman fortune seekers Carthage had captured.

Rome had a powerful army, but they had little experience with the sea. The Romans developed an innovative technique to win several naval battles. They lacked the naval skill to sink ships, so the Romans outfitted their vessels with a hinged bridge. Roman sailors used pulleys to lower the bridge to face an enemy ship. The Roman ship would ram into an enemy vessel. An iron spike at the edge of the bridge attached the two ships, allowing soldiers to cross over and attack in hand-to-hand combat—where Rome was more experienced than Carthage.

To try to close the gap in naval power, the Romans captured a Carthaginian warship and used it as a model to build their fleet. They won a few early victories and captured most of Sicily, but the inexperience of the Roman navy left them unprepared for a catastrophic storm that destroyed two-thirds of their fleet and killed thousands of Roman sailors. Rome raised a second and third fleet, but storms also destroyed most of the additional ships.

A Carthaginian general named Hamilcar Barca recaptured most of Sicily, but Carthage did not have the money or manpower to continue to engage in the conflict. In 241bce, Carthage surrendered Sicily to the Romans.

In 218bce, a generation after the first Punic War, Hannibal Barca—the son of Hamilcar—commanded an army from Spain. Hannibal led an army of 40,000 soldiers, 8,000 horses and 37 war elephants in a daring and difficult journey over the Alps. The Alps are a treacherous mountain range that stood between Spain and the Italian peninsula.

Hannibal expected some Italian cities to join his army, but the cities remained loyal to their conqueror. Hannibal’s army won three decisive victories against Rome in northern Italy despite being outnumbered more than two to one. In the Battle of Canae, Hannibal’s army surrounded the Romans, killing between 50,000 to 80,000 Roman soldiers—the most destructive battle in ancient history.

After their humiliation at Canae, Rome changed their strategy. The Romans sent a new army to northern Italy with instructions to withdraw. Hannibal spent the next twelve years destroying the Roman countryside, but his army had no opponent to fight. The antipathy, or bad feelings caused by Hannibal’s destruction would last for generations and would lead to the third Punic War and the downfall of Carthage.

A Roman army led by Scipio attacked Carthage in 202bce. Hannibal was ordered home to defend his native land. Without Hannibal in charge, the war on the Italian peninsula turned in Rome’s favor. Once in Carthage, Hannibal had a mercenary army in place of his loyal soldiers. Mercenaries are foreign soldiers hired to fight. The mercenary army was no match for Scipio's trained forces. Rome defeated Hannibal’s army and won the war.

Carthage was no longer in a position to hurt Rome after the second Punic War, but in 149BCE, Roman antipathy toward Carthage continued to linger. A Roman senator named Cato ended every speech with the cry, “Carthage must be destroyed.” Rome attacked Carthage and the two sides fought bloody battles in a war that lasted almost three years. After a siege in 146bce, the Romans broke through the city walls of Carthage. Once they subdued the Carthaginian army, Roman soldiers went from house to house slaughtering the people in their homes. After destroying Carthage, the Romans sold the remaining citizens into slavery, burned the city and destroyed Carthage’s harbor.

Rome annexed Carthage by making the city a part of a Roman province they called Africa. Africa probably comes from a Latin word that means “sunny land without cold.” The Punic Wars established Rome as a powerful nation and the wars were an indication that Rome would develop into one of the most powerful empires in history.

Answer in Complete Sentences

1. Explain why the three conflicts between Rome and Carthage are remembered as the Punic Wars.

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*2. Why do you think Hannibal led his army through the treacherous Alps instead of engaging his enemy at sea?

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*3. Why does the author suggest that the Romans treated Carthage with such brutality after the third Punic War?

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Spartacus

Rome needed workers to maintain its wealth. The first people conquered by the Roman army were welcomed as citizens, but after 265BC, many conquered people were auctioned off as slaves. Many of the great architectural achievements of ancient Rome were created with the grueling labor of slaves.

A slave named Spartacus led a slave revolt that threatened the stability of the Roman Republic. Spartacus was likely from Thrace, a land northeast of Greece, but we don’t know much about his early life. Spartacus may have been a soldier in the Roman army, but was condemned to slavery. He was forced to train to be a gladiator. In ancient Rome, most gladiators were armed slaves who went into battle with other slaves or wild animals for the entertainment of the Roman people. In 73bc, Spartacus and a group of other gladiators escaped captivity by seizing kitchen knives and fighting their way to freedom. The Romans sent a small force to capture the escaped gladiators, but the slaves killed most of the Roman soldiers and took their weapons.

The Roman army believed they cornered the escaped slaves on Mount Vesuvius by blocking the only path from the mountain. Spartacus and his soldiers secretly climbed down a steep cliff using vines as ropes. The slave army then attacked the Romans from behind, killing most of the unprepared soldiers. The slaves continued to win battles with Roman armies and became folk heroes for many of the poorest people of ancient Rome. Folk heroes are popular with common people, but not with people in power. The ranks of the slave army grew as they liberated other slaves, and as word of their success grew, as many as 120,000 of the poorest people of Rome joined the revolt. Spartacus’ powerful army plundered the Roman countryside for more than two years.

The slave revolt ended after a bloody series of battles near the southern tip of the Italian peninsula in 71bc. Two Roman generals, Crassus and Pompey, led a force 40,000 soldiers. The slaves were no match for the superior weapons of the Roman armies. Spartacus was killed in battle, but six thousand of his soldiers were taken prisoner and crucified. Crucifixion is a form of execution where the prisoner is nailed to a cross and left to die a slow, painful death. The crosses were placed along the Apian Way, one of Rome’s most traveled roads. The sight of the crucified slaves served as a gruesome reminder of the strength and the brutality of the Roman army.

Crassus and Pompey returned to Rome as heroes. The Senate selected them to be consuls, but Crassus and Pompey were soon to come into contact with the greatest general in Roman history: Julius Caesar.

Answer in complete sentences

*1. Why do you think the slave revolt led by Spartacus was successful for two years?

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*2. The text says, “The powerful slave army plundered the Roman countryside for more than two years..” What do you think countryside means?

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*3. Spartacus was a folk hero to many people in ancient Rome. Who might be considered a folk hero in today?

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Julius Caesar

Rome was growing and quite wealthy after the second Punic War, but the republic faced serious problems.

Many Roman politicians took bribes and often encouraged violent mobs to help them rise to power. Soldiers returning home from years at war could not find work because rich landowners used slaves to do the work once done by poor Romans.

The republic also became embroiled in several civil wars. A civil war is a war within a nation. Many Romans wanted a strong leader, and the ambitious Julius Caesar was an obvious choice.

Gaius Julius Caesar was a patrician and popular general when he was first elected consul in 59bce. Marcus Biblius was Caesar’s co-consul, but Caesar paid no attention to the wishes of Biblius and the Senate.

Caesar ordered the redistribution of lands to the poor, a decision that made him very popular with the Roman people but angered angered many wealthy landowning senators. Biblius attempted to veto Caesar’s act, but Caesar’s mob attacked the co-consul. The terrified Biblius retired to his home and left Caesar in control of the Roman government.

The Senate tried to block Caesar’s decisions, so he formed a partnership with his former enemies, Crassus and Pompey. Historians often refer to this alliance as the First Triumvirate. A triumvirate is a partnership of three equal rulers. Neither Crassus nor Pompey were consuls, but the three generals were so popular with the Roman people that they were able to ignore the wishes of the Senate.

Under Roman law, an official could not be arrested while he was in power. Knowing the Senate would have him jailed as soon as he left the consulship, Caesar arranged to be appointed governor of a Roman province in Gaul. Gaul was a territory northwest of the Italian peninsula.

Upon taking office in Gaul, Caesar used his personal fortune to raise a private army. For the next nine years Caesar led his troops across western Europe, killing or enslaving millions and conquering lands that added to the Roman Republic.

In 49bce, the Senate ordered Caesar to disband his personal army and to return to Rome as a private citizen. Caesar once again feared arrest, so he ignored the order and marched his army back to Rome. Caesar’s orders clearly told him not to bring his troops across the Rubicon River. When Caesar reached the river, he knew he faced an important decision. Caesar knew that if he obeyed the Senate and disbanded his army, his career would be over; but if he marched his troops across the river, the Senate would order Pompey and his army to retaliate. Today when people say they are “crossing the Rubicon,” they refer to a very significant decision that cannot be undone.

As Caesar’s army approached Rome, many frightened senators fled the city. Pompey announced that “Rome cannot be defended,” and retreated south with his army. The remaining senators named Caesar dictator. For the next several months, Caesar and his army pursued Pompey throughout the Mediterranean until Pompey led his army to Egypt.

When Caesar arrived in Egypt, he met Ptolemy XIII, the ten-year-old ruler of the ancient land. Hoping to gain favor with Rome, Ptolemy presented Caesar with Pompey’s decapitated head. Caesar then met and fell in love with Cleopatra, the older sister of Ptolemy XIII. Caesar spent a year with Cleopatra, and then returned to Rome as a conquering hero.

The Senate elected, then re-elected Caesar consul, breaking the Roman tradition that a consul serve only one year. While in power, Caesar settled 80,000 of his soldiers in colonies, built buildings and monuments throughout the city, and reformed the calendar.

When Caesar came to power, the calendar was out of alignment with the seasons. Caesar instituted the Julian calendar of 365¼ days. Caesar added a month to the calendar and named it July for himself. Caesar’s calendar is closely related to the calendar we use today.

In 44bce, Caesar arranged to be named dictator for life. A dictator is a ruler with complete control. The Senate had appointed dictators in the past, but only in great emergencies and for a period of no more than six months.

Caesar ignored the Senate and ruled without their consent. Many Senators became enraged because Caesar broke with Roman tradition and behaved as if he were a king. On March 15, 44bce, a mob of sixty senators stabbed the dictator to death in the Roman Forum. Ironically, Caesar fell to his death at the foot of a statue of Pompey, the general who Caesar defeated.

With Caesar dead, Rome fell into a period of civil wars that would lead to the end of the Roman Republic and the creation of the first Roman Emperor.

Answer in complete sentences

1. Why did many Roman people feel the need for a strong leader in 59bce?

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2. What is a dictator?

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3. Why did the senators kill Julius Caesar?

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4. Was Julius Caesar a good or bad leader for Rome? Use at least two facts from the article to support your statement.

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Caesar Augustus

Octavian was the son of Julius Caesar’s niece. The first eighteen years of Octavian’s life were unremarkable, but a surprise in Julius Caesar’s will eventually resulted in him becoming Caesar Augustus, the ruler who transformed Rome into the greatest empire of the ancient world.

Julius Caesar was so popular with the Roman people that the Senate named him dictator for life. For five hundred years, the Roman government relied on two consuls serving one-year terms and taking advice from the Senate. But as dictator, Julius Caesar ruled without considering Roman tradition or having to consult the Senate. Finally, in 44bce, a group of enraged senators stabbed the dictator to death.

Caesar’s will decreed that Octavian would be his heir and was to be treated as his adopted son. Caesar’s decision made Octavian one of the richest men in Rome. It also provided Octavian with something even more valuable: the right to call himself Caesar.

Two months after Julius Caesar’s murder, Octavian came to Rome to claim his inheritance, but Marc Antony dismissed the young man. Octavian spent the next several months gaining support with the Roman people. He also raised an army. Soldiers throughout the empire were loyal—not to Rome—but to the name Caesar. By the end of 44bce, both Marc Antony and Octavian commanded armies, but the two men avoided civil war by making a deal.

In 43bce, Octavian joined Antony and another general named Lepidus in a partnership historians call the Second Triumvirate. The triumvirate raised money by branding more than 300 wealthy Romans as enemies. They seized the property of the newly designated outlaws and offered rewards to anyone who would kill them. The enemies of Octavian and Marc Antony who could not escape from Rome were killed.

Octavian and Antony forced Lepidus into retirement in 36bce. Five years later, Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome upon the death of Marc Antony.

Octavian earned the loyalty of the Roman soldiers by providing the men with land. The soldiers retired, but because Octavian was Caesar, he knew he could count on their support if the Senate challenged his authority.

Octavian lived a modest life to avoid the fate of Julius Caesar. He lived in a small house and traveled without bodyguards. Unlike Julius Caesar, Octavian was respectful to the senators. Later in his career, Octavian allowed other men to serve as consuls, but the Senate knew that Octavian controlled the military, so he was the actual ruler of the Roman Empire.

In 27bce, Octavian arranged for the Senate to grant him the honorific title Augustus, which means “respected one.” During his rule, the Roman people knew Octavian only as Caesar, but historians, to avoid confusion with his famous granduncle, generally refer to him as Octavian before 27bce and Caesar Augustus after that.

Caesar Augustus ruled for 41 years, a period that saw Rome develop into a military empire, so historians consider him to be the first Roman Emperor. He restored peace and order to Rome after years of civil war, made sure the lands throughout the empire were well run and that taxes were fair. He built roads and bridges, government buildings and massive public baths. “I left Rome a city of marble,” Caesar said, “though I found it a city of bricks.”

The armies of Caesar Augustus conquered most of Western Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. The Romans claimed all of the land surrounding the enormous Mediterranean Sea, which they nicknamed “a Roman lake.”

Rome’s army was so powerful that it protected citizens from attack from the tribes who lived beyond the empire. Historian Edward Gibbon later described the two hundred-years of peace that began with the rule of Caesar Augustus as the Pax Romana, or the “Peace of Rome.”

Answer in complete sentences

1. How did the Second Triumvirate raise money without imposing higher taxes on the Roman people?

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*2. How was Octavian’s relationship with the Senate different from that of Julius Caesar? Use facts from the article to defend your answer.

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*3. Do you think Caesar Augustus was popular with the Roman people? Use facts from the article to defend your answer.

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The Roman Empire after Caesar Augustus

Caesar Augustus showed great respect for the Senate, but later emperors made no secret of their power. The Senate continued to exist after the reign of Augustus, but senators had little say over the affairs of the empire. Some of the emperors who followed Augustus ruled wisely. Others were foolish and cruel.

Nero was perhaps the most notorious emperor in Roman history. Nero became emperor at the age of seventeen after his mother conspired to kill his stepfather.

Once Nero came to power, he ordered his mother’s execution. He also killed two wives and a stepbrother. Not only did Nero rule the empire ruthlessly by day, at night he prowled the streets of Rome assaulting women.

Nero believed himself to be the most talented person in the Roman Empire. Never before had an emperor performed on a stage as an actor or singer. Many Roman nobles considered Nero’s performances to be outrageous and lacking talent, but no one would risk torture or death by criticizing the emperor.

In ad67, Nero toured Greece. He participated in many games and contests, but no rival dared to beat the emperor. As Nero devoted himself to his outside pursuits, he lost ruling power. A year after his tour of Greece, Nero faced an attack from his soldiers. His guard claimed Nero cried out, “What an artist the world is losing,” as he stabbed himself in the neck.

It was under the emperor Trajan that, by ad117, the Roman Empire reached its greatest size. The empire extended from Britain and Spain, across France, southern Germany, and the Balkan Mountains. The empire also included North Africa and stretched as far east as the Caspian Sea. By that time, the empire completely surrounded the vast Mediterranean Sea, which later historians described as being a mere “Roman lake.”

In ad121, the emperor Hadrian built a wall across northern England to keep out invaders from Scotland. The Romans called the Scots “barbarians,” possibly because their Celtic language reminded the Romans of the sounds made by sheep. In time, the Romans used this term for any civilization they considered uncultured. Eventually, another group of barbarian warriors—from Germany—would lead to the end of the Roman Empire.

Answer in complete sentences

*1. Based on the test, do you think that managing the Roman Empire in ad117 was easy or difficult? Defend your answer.

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Roman Technology

Caesar Augustus had complete power in Rome, but he showed great respect for the Senate. Later emperors made no secret of their power. The Senate continued to exist, but senators had little control over the affairs of the empire. Some of the emperors who followed Augustus ruled wisely. Others were foolish and cruel.

Nero was perhaps the most notorious emperor in Roman history. Nero became emperor when his mother conspired to kill his stepfather. Once Nero came to power, he ordered his mother’s execution. Nero also killed two wives and a stepbrother. Nero ruled the empire by day, but at night he prowled the streets of Rome assaulting women.

Nero believed himself to be the most talented person in the Roman Empire. Never before had an emperor performed on a stage as an actor or singer. Many Roman nobles considered Nero’s performances to be outrageous and lacking talent, but no one would risk torture or death by criticizing the emperor. In ad67, Nero toured Greece. He participated in many games and contests, but no rival dared to beat the emperor. As Nero devoted himself to his artistic pursuits, he lost ruling power. In ad68, Nero faced an attack from his soldiers. His guard claimed Nero cried out, “What an artist the world is losing,” as he stabbed himself in the neck.

The Roman Empire reached its greatest size in ad117 under the emperor Trajan. The empire extended from Britain and Spain, across France, southern Germany, and the Balkan Mountains. The empire also included North Africa, and stretched as far east as the Caspian Sea.

In ad121, the emperor Hadrian built a wall across northern England to keep out invaders from Scotland. The Romans called the Scots “barbarians,” possibly because their Celtic language reminded the Romans of the sounds made by sheep. In time, the Romans called all of the people they felt were uncultured “barbarians.” Barbarian warriors from Germany would later lead to the end of the Roman Empire.

The Romans used great public projects to make their capital city the most advanced of the ancient world, and to create the largest empire of the era. The Romans particularly excelled at building roads. The roads made it easier to travel, move troops, collect taxes and trade with faraway provinces. The expression, “All Roads Lead To Rome” refers to the fact that Rome was the center of the ancient civilized world. Many of the roads, bridges and aqueducts of ancient Rome are still used today.

Roman engineers brought water into the city by building water bridges called aqueducts. Nine aqueducts provided the Roman people with 38 million gallons of water every day. Parts of the Roman aqueduct system still supply water to fountains in Rome.

The Romans built many huge stadiums called amphitheaters. People would gather in amphitheaters to watch shows with clowns, jugglers and acrobats.

Some Roman entertainment was very cruel. People would watch fights between wild animals and gladiators. Gladiators were usually slaves or criminals who fought with swords against animals or one another. A skillful gladiator might win his freedom by defeating an opponent. More often, the gladiators lost their lives.

The greatest Roman amphitheater, the Colosseum, still dominates the Roman skyline. Only a portion of the Colosseum remains standing. Earthquakes destroyed some of the structure. Some of the stone used to build St. Peter’s Basilica, the church in the Vatican where the Pope resides, came from the Colosseum.

Perhaps the greatest Roman engineering achievement was the sewer. Because Rome is in a valley among seven hills, there is nowhere for dirty water to go. The sewer system made it possible for Rome to become the largest city in the world. The population of the city of Rome swelled to more than one million people at the height of the empire.

Answer in complete sentences

1. List four examples of Roman technology.

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*2. How do you think Rome’s many roads eventually helped lead to the downfall of the city?

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*3. Roman leaders encouraged some of the more bloodthirsty elements of Roman entertainment. Do you think this type of entertainment is good or bad for a society? Explain your answer.

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*4. What problems would have occurred in Rome if the city that large did not have an adequate sewage system?

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