Study Guide for the National Latin Exam



Study Guide for the National Latin Exam

All levels

Historical Time Periods:

-Monarchy: April 21, 753 B.C. – 509 B.C.

-Republic: 509 B.C. – 27 B.C

-Empire: 27 B.C. – 476 A.D

Social Classes[i]:

Early System in early Rome:

-Patricians(Patrēs or Patrēs Conscriptī): Highly privileged, aristocratic class, membership was hereditary until the end of Republic, 3% of population

-Plebeians/Plebs: All Roman citizens that are not patricians, 97% of population, had fewer rights, large numbers, not slaves, the working poor

-“The conflict of orders” refers to the struggle of the plebs to gain rights and a possibility for advancement in society. Originally movement between the two groups was impossible, for patricians were forbidden marriage to plebs. Over time, the aristocracy of birth was replaced by one based on political offices and on wealth.

These earlier systems evolved into:

Upper Classes:

-Senatorial class (senatores): The class basis was political, including men that served in the Senate and their families. Dominated by nobles, people whose ancestors included a consul. Had to have property worth 1,000,000 sesterces. Prohibited from engaging in nonagricultural business, trade, or public contracts

-Equestrian class (equites): The class basis was economic. Had to have stable minimum of property worth 400,000 sesterces. Were involved in types of businesses prohibited to senatores. Family included.

Lower Classes:

-Commons (plebs/vulgus): Included all other freeborn Roman citizens. Were common workers, bulk of army.

-Latins (Latini): Freeborn residents of Italy. Were granted full citizenship in 89 B.C. (By the Lex Iulia)

-Foreigners (peregrini): Subjects of foreign provinces. Originally, mostly included Greek traders.

-Freedpeople (liberti/libertini): Those who had been slaves, but bought their freedom or were manumitted. Had various restrictions on rights. Owed duty to their former master, (now their patron) Next generation became full citizens.

-Slaves (servi): Were the property of their owners. Not racially based. Could possibly buy freedom or be manumitted. (In the late republic and early empire, 30-40% of population)

-Movement between classes occurred.

-In the third century A.D. the emperor made 2 separate groups, the honestiores (senators, equestrians, municipal officials, and soldiers) and humiliores (everyone else)

Political Parties:

-Populares: “party of the people” Power base included Assembly of the Tribes. Composed of Senators and nobles but appealed to plebs.

-Optimates: “the party of the best men” or of the aristocrats: Power base was Senate. Appealed to the interests of wealthy and old noble families.

Senate[ii]

-Made up of around 100, 300, 600, 900 men, depending on the time, serving for life unless expelled by censors

-Met in Curia

Assemblies[iii]

-Assembly of the Curiae (comitia curiata): oldest assembly, by late Republic had mostly only ceremonial/clan functions

-Assembly of the Centuries (comitia centuriata): elected consuls, praetors, censors; declared war; served as court of appeal for citizens sentenced to death, 193 centuries served

-Assembly of the Tribes (comitia tributa): elected magistrates, voted yes or no on laws, 35 tribes determined geographically

Subgroup: Concilium Plebis: open only to plebeians—this group elected the 10 Tribuni plebis.

Offices of the Republic:

-Cursus Honorum: The required sequence of public offices held by politicians: military tribune (requirement not enforced), quaestor, aedile (not required), praetor, consul, censor (In bold was the required “course of honors”)

-Military tribune: 24 men selected by the Tribunal Assembly. Served under the legionary commander

-Quaestor: Elected yearly. Duties: financial administration, second-in-command to a governor in provinces, pay master for legions, supervision of public games.

-Aedile: Elected yearly. Four positions: two plebs and two patricians (Curule Aediles) Duties: care of the temples, organized games, maintenance of the public buildings, roads, and aqueducts, water and food supplies, and sometimes judges in mercantile affairs.

-Praetor: Initially, 2 elected annually, but, as the empire grew, 18 elected yearly. Judges in basilica. Two judges more prestigious: Praetor Peregrinus (chief judge involving foreigners) and Praetor Urbanus (chief judicial office in Rome.)

-Consul: Most prestigious job. 2 elected yearly; had to agree to rule. Duties: alternate monthly as the chairmen of the Senate, city's political agenda, commanded large-scale armies and controlled important provinces. 10 years required before reelection. (10 years according to the Lex Villia Annalis)

-Censor: Elected every 5 years for 18 month term. Duties: census of the people, distribute citizens into voting classes (based on income and tribal affiliation), membership roll of the Senate, construction of public buildings, moral status of city, leasing out conquered land for public use and auction.

-Tribune of Plebs: 10 elected yearly. Protected rights of the common man, had power to veto, could exercise capital punishment, could help a plebeian “in the hands of” a patrician magistrate. Were sacrosanct (touching them with violent intentions was punishable by death)

-Dictator: Special officer with total military and political power. Elected in times of emergencies by Senate. Held for 6 months.

Religious Offices:

-Haruspex: trained to read entrails of sacrificed animals to determine will of gods

-Augur: interpreted flight and behavior of birds to determine will of gods

-Pontifex Maximus: chief priest, Caesar appointed in 63 B.C. and later changed calendar under this position

Kings

-Romulus (son of Mars and Rhea Silvia)

-Numa Pompilius (know for religious reforms)

-Tullus Hostilius

-Ancus Martius

-*Tarquinius Priscus

-*Servius Tullius

-*Tarquinius Superbus

* Etruscans

First Consuls

-Brutus and Collatinus

Emperors of Rome:[iv]

Julio-Claudian Dynasty:

-Augustus (Octavian/ Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus): 27 B.C. – 14 A.D.

-Tiberius: 14 – 37 A.D.

-Caligula: 37 – 41 A.D. (murdered by the Praetorian Guard)

-Claudius: 41 – 54 A.D. (poisoned or died naturally)

-Nero: 54 – 68 A.D. (Committed suicide “Oh, what an artist the world is losing.”)

Year of the 4 Emperors (69 A.D.)

-Galba: 68 – 69 A.D.

-Otho: 69 A.D.

-Vitellius: 69 A.D.

-Vespasian: 69 – 79 A.D. (Left his son Titus to finish up the Jewish War)

Flavian Emperors:

-Vespasian: 69 – 79 A.D.

-Titus: 79 – 81 A.D.

-Domitian: 81 – 96 A.D.

5 Good Emperors:[v]

-Nerva: 96 – 98 A.D.

-Trajan: 98 – 117 A.D.

-Hadrian: 117 – 138 A.D.

-Antoninus Pius: 138 – 161 A.D.

-Marcus Aurelius: 161 – 180 A.D. (Ruled jointly with Verus for a while)

Severan Dynasty: (193 – 235 A.D.)[vi]

-Septimius Severus: 193 – 211 A.D.

-*Geta: 209 – 211 A.D.[vii]

-Caracalla: 211–217 A.D.

-**Macrinus: 217–218 A.D.

-Elagabalus: 218–222 A.D.

Alexander Severus: 222–235 A.D.

-*Note: Co-ruled with father, Septimius Severus

-**Note: Not a part of Severan dynasty[viii]

-Constantine: 306 – 337 A.D., first emperor who professed Christian beliefs [ix]

Famous Dates[x]

-1250 B.C.: Trojan War (1184 BC was the traditional date believed by the Romans)

-April 21, 753 B.C. = 1 A.U.C. (ab urbe condita – from the founding of the city)

-312 B.C.: Appius Claudius Caecus builds Via Appia

-79 B.C.:  Slave rebellion led by Spartacus is put down by Crassus and Pompey

-31 B.C.: Battle of Actium - Octavian and Agrippa defeated Cleopatra and Marc Anthony

-August 24, 79 A.D.: eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in Campania; Herculaneum, Pompeii, Oplontis and Stabiae are destroyed[xi]

Transitional Period time between Republic and Empire: 133-27 B.C.[xii]

-Gracchi Brothers: Reformed inequality between rich and poor.

-Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus: elected as Tribune of Plebs, introduced legislation to distribute land from Punic Wars to plebs which was eventually passed despite Senate disapproval. Was assassinated due to attempt to rerun for Tribune illegally without mandatory interval period.

-Gaius Sempronius Gracchus: Was elected Consul, later Tribune of Plebs, helped Equestrians, cheaper grain, reinstated land distribution for plebs, forced public works (roads, baths, etc.,) asked to be stabbed by own slave when his revolt was overpowered by Senate.[xiii]

-Gaius Marius: Reformed army by offering positions to plebs- starting the first “professional army.” Arranged for army veterans to receive free land. Was consul 7 times. First to show an army was necessary to hold power. Was exiled multiple times. Organized an army and seized Rome by force, becoming consul for the 7th time.[xiv]

-Lucius Cornelius Sulla: Patrician, became consul-When he left, caused civil war against Marius and Cinna, marched on Rome, become dictator, introduced “proscription” (the publication of lists of enemies and offering rewards for capture), reformed Senate[xv]

-First Triumvirate: 60-53 B.C., Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey), and Marcus Licinius Crassus, secret pact pledging mutual support[xvi]

-Second Triumvirate: found in 43 B.C., Marcus Antonius, Lepidus, and Octavian, a legal arrangement acting as joint dictatorship to gather money to stabilize authority and eliminate political opposition[xvii]

Wars:

-390 or 387 B.C.: Gauls attacked Rome, sack whole city except Capitoline Hill where Romans barricaded themselves, Romans alerted of Gallic attack by sacred geese outside Temple of Juno[xviii] (Brennus was the leader of the Gauls “Vae Victīs—Woe to the conquered”)

-War with Pyrrhus of Epirus: defeated Roman armies in 280 B.C. at Heraclea, at Ausculum in 279 B.C., but Romans won at Beneventum in 275 B.C. His two victories took greater losses of men than reward gained deriving term: “Pyrrhic victory”[xix]

-Punic Wars: Rome vs. Carthage over land and trade competition. Rome wins each

-1st (264-241 B.C.): concentrated on Sicily, Rome gains the island—Sicily is Rome’s first province

-2nd (218-202 B.C.): Hannibal attacks Italy via Spain. Publius Cornelius Scipio (Scipio Africanus) defeats Hannibal

-3rd (149-146 B.C.): Carthage is completely destroyed[xx]

-Civil War/Social War (90-88 B.C.): Most of the Roman allies rebelled, when they didn’t receive the desired Roman citizenship. Romans finally extend citizenship and defeat any cities still rebelling[xxi]

-Civil War (49-48 B.C.): between Julius Caesar and Pompey for control of Rome, started when Caesar crossed the Rubicon, ended when Pompey is defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus[xxii]

Army Terms:

-Imperator: either assumed by a military commander after a great victory or emperor[xxiii]

-Dux: general

-Imperium: the legal term to show the power of absolute authority of the consul over the army—essentially, the power to command an army in the field.[xxiv]

Weapons:

-Gladius: sword

-Galea: helmet

-Telum: javelin/any sharp penetrating object

-Pilum: javelin/throwing spear

-Scutum: shield

-Ballista: catapult similar to a giant crossbow

-Testudo: tortoise/formation when soldiers held shields overlapping, flat over their head

-Aries: battering ram

Famous Authors[xxv]

-Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus: Greek tragedy writers, 5th century B.C.[xxvi]

-Menander: Greek comedy writer, 4th century B.C.[xxvii]

-Aristophanes: Greek comedy writer. 5th / 4th century B.C.[xxviii]

-Plautus[xxix], Terence[xxx]: Roman comedy writers, 3rd / 2nd century B.C.

-Hesiod: author of “Works and Days”

-Sappho: poetess - she inspired the Roman poet Catullus

-Herodotus: Historian

-Plato: Greek philosopher

-Socrates: Greek philosopher

-Plutarch: Greek biographer

Golden Age of Literature[xxxi],[xxxii],[xxxiii]

Mostly during the reign of Augustus- this Age lasted from about 75 B.C. to A.D.14

Poetry:

-Lucretius: wrote didactic poems, wrote Dē rērum nātūrā (On the Nature of Things)

-Catullus: wrote lyric poems, topics: to/about friends, erotic poems often about Lesbia/Clodia, invectives, condolences

-Virgil/Vergil: wrote epic poems, wrote Appendix Vergiliana, Eclogues (or Bucolics), Georgics (or On Farming), and Æneid

-Ovid: mythological and semi-satirical poems, wrote Metamorphoses (Transformations)

-Horace: odes, epodes, satires, and epistles (phrase “Carpe diem” from Odes (I, xi))

Prose:

-Julius Caesar: wrote Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War),

-Cicero: an orator and politician, wrote Catiline Orations: famous orations against a Roman traitor

-Sallust: Roman historian, wrote Conspiracy of Catiline and the War Against Jugurtha

-Livy: Roman historian, wrote Ab Urbe Condita- history of Rome From the Founding of the City

Silver Age Writers[xxxiv]

1st and 2nd century A.D. following the Golden Age

-Juvenal: satire

-Martial: satire, wrote Epigrams

-Seneca: tragedies

-Pliny the Elder: wrote Naturalis Historia (Natural History)

-Pliny the Younger: wrote letters, the Epistulae

-Tacitus: Roman historian, wrote Historiae and Annales (more precisely Ab excessu divi Augusti)

-Suetonius: Roman historian, wrote Lives of the Twelve Caesars

Art

-Parthenon[xxxv]: Temple to Athena Parthenos, on the Acropolis (IN ATHENS, NOT IN ROME), partially destroyed but considered the most perfect traditional Greek Doric temple

-Pantheon: (literally “All Gods”) in Rome, rectangular in front (built by Agrippa, admiral and best friend of Augustus Caesar in 27 BC) and round dome in the rear (re-built by Hadrian in 117 AD after fire destroyed original), has a hole in dome (oculus) that lets in air and light and highlights the 12 niches of statues (probably the Olympian gods) around the floor of the building.

-Flavian Amphitheater: Colosseum, built by the Flavian emperors, used for gladiatorial games (Ludi) and animal fights

-Circus Maximus: elongated oval building for chariot races; built between the Aventine and Palatine Hills

-Doric column[xxxvi]: most basic in shape, have a top shaped like a squished marshmallow or pillow

-Ionic column: have a top shaped like ram’s horns

-Corinthian column: have a top shaped like leaves or flowers

-Flutes: indented spaces in the length of the shaft of a column

-Arch: main building method of the Romans, allowed bigger buildings

-Vault: arch that continues on for a length

-Dome: circular arch, usually with a hole/oculus in the top

-Coffer: indentation in the surface of an arch or dome

Major Roads[xxxvii]

-Via Appia: Appian Way (312 B.C.) from Rome to Brundisium eventually; built to Capua originally in order to move troops to fight against the Samnites.

-Via Aurelia: (241 B.C.) from Rome to Gaul

-Via Sacra: road in the Forum of Rome, becomes Via Appia outside of Rome. Triumphal processions and funerals were made down this road.

Other roads:

-Via Aemilia Scaura: (109 B.C.) from Pisa to Placentia

-Via Aquitania: (118 B.C.) from Naronne to Aquitaine

-Via Augusta (8 B.C) from Pyrenees Mountains to Cadiz

-Via Cassia: (187 B.C.) from Rome to Arretium

-Via Claudia Augusta (13 B.C.) from Venice to Germania

-Via Domitia (118 B.C.) from Italy to Spain

-Via Egnatia: (146 B.C.) connecting Illyria, Macedonia, and Greece

-Via Flaminia: (220 B.C.) from Rome to Ariminum

-Via Latina: runs southeast of Rome[xxxviii]

-Via Postumia: (148 B.C.) from Genua to Aquileia

-Via Salaria: (4th century B.C.) from Rome to Truentinum

-Via Valeria: continuation of Via Tiburtina[xxxix]

-Via Julia Augusta: joining of Via Aemilia Scaura and Via Postumia[xl]

-Via Popilia: either a continuation of Via Flaminia or from Capua to Rhegium[xli]

Aqueducts[xlii]

-11 total in Rome

-Aqua Appia—built in 312 BC, by same man who built Via Appia. Rome’s first aqueduct.

-Aqua Marcia: first and longest elevated (above ground) aqueduct leading to Capitoline Hill

Roman Names[xliii]

-Praenomen: personal name e.g. Gaius

-Nomen: name of clan/gens e.g. Julius

-Cognomen: branch of clan/family name e.g. Caesar

-Agnomen: honorary title added to first 3 names e.g. Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus

-Women took names from the feminine version of their father’s nomen, e.g. Julia was the daughter of Gaius Julius Caesar. Second and third born girls took the names Julia Secunda, Julia Tertia, etc. The younger daughters might be given a diminutive nickname to distinguish them from older girls, e.g. Julilla.

Praenomina (of men)

|Abbreviation |Praenomen |Abbreviation |Praenomen |

|A. |Aulus |P. |Publius |

|Ap(p). |Appius |Q. |Quintus |

|C. |Gaius |Ser. |Servius |

|Cn. |Gnaeus |Sex. |Sextus |

|D. |Decimus |S. or Sp. |Spurius |

|L. |Lucius |T. |Titus |

|M. |Marcus |Ti. or Tib. |Tiberius |

|M'. |Manius |V. |Vibius |

|N. |Numerius |

Roman Calendar[xliv]

-Kalends (Kal.): 1st of every month

-Nones (Non.): usually the 5th day of the month

-Ides (Id.): usually the 13th day of the month

-“In March, July, October, May

Nones on the 7th and Ides on the 15th day”

-Pridie: day before Kalends, Nones, or Ides, e.g. pridie idus Martias (March 14th)

-Ante dies (a.d.): days before, e.g. ante diem tertium idus Martias (March 13th)

-Romans dated backwards from each of the 3 major days. The day before each was called the pridie. The day before the pridie had the number III and then Kalends, Nones, or Ides. The Romans counted the Kalends, Nones, and Ides as the first day, the pridie the 2nd, and therefore the “third day” as III.

Numbers:[xlv]

|1 - unus |11 -undecim |21 - viginti unus |40 - quadraginta |1st - primus |

|2 - duo |12 -duodecim |22 - viginti duo |50 -quinquaginta |2nd - secundus |

|3 - tres, tria |13 -tredecim |23 - viginti tres |60 -sexaginta |3rd - tertius |

|4 -quartuor |14 -quartuorde cim |24 - viginti quartuor |70 -septuaginta |4th - quartus |

|5 -quinque |15 -quindecim |25 - viginti quinque |80 -octoginta |5th - quintus |

|6 - sex |16 -sedecim |26 - viginti sex |90 -nonaginta |6th - sextus |

|7 - septem |17 -septemdec im |27 - viginti septem |100 -centum |7th - septimus |

|8 - octo |18 -odeviginti |28 - viginti octo |1000 - mille |8th - octavus |

|9 - novem |19 -undeviginti |29 - viginti novem | |9th - nonus |

|10 - decem |20- viginti |30 - trigenta | |10th - decimus |

Roman Numerals:

|e.g. XC: 90 |

|e.g. CX: 110 |

-I: 1

-V: 5

-X: 10

-L: 50

-C: 100

-D: 500

-M: 1000

Hills of Rome

-Palatine

-Aventine

-Capitoline

-Quirinal

-Viminal

-Esquiline

-Caelian

Outer hills

-Vatican (northwest of Tiber, location of the city today)

-Pincian (north)

-Janiculum (west)

Geography:

Know the following on a map:

|Hispania: Spain |Gallia: France |Germania: Germany |

|Britannia: England |Caledonia: Scotland |Hibernia: Ireland |

|Germania: Germany |Graecia: Greece |Asia: Turkey |

|Phoenicia: Lebanon, Syria, etc. |Italia/Hesperia: Italy |Africa: northern Africa |

| |Helvetia: Switzerland |Illyricum: old Yugoslavia |

Seas (Maria):

-Mare Mediterraneum, Mare Nostrum, -----Mare Internum: Mediterranean Sea

-Mare Adriaticum: Adriatic Sea

-Mare Aegaeum: Aegean Sea

-Pontus Euxinus: Black Sea

Rivers (Flumina):

In Italy:[xlvi]

-Po River: now northern Italy, from Alps into Adriatic Sea, then Cisalpine Gaul

-Rubicon River: divided Rome/Italy from Cisalpine Gail (Caesar crossed it)

-Arno River: flows from the Apennines, through Florence, into the Tyrrhenian Sea

-Tiber River: flows from Apennines, through Rome, into the Tyrrhenian Sea, splits Janiculum and Vatican hills from others

In Europe:

-Rhenus Flemen (Rhine River) divides Gallia/Gaul from Germania/Germany

-Rhodanus Flumen (Rhone River): flows north from Masillia/Marseilles on the Mediterranean

-Thames River: flows through London, England

Mountains (Montēs):

-Alps: in northern Italy (Cisalpine Gaul), stretching across Helvetia, Gallia, and Germania

-Apennines: “backbone” of Italy

-Pyrenees: separate Gallia from Hispania

Islands (Insulae):

-Corsica: west of Italy, north of Sardinia

-Sardinia: west of Italy, south of Corsica; larger of the two

-Sicilia (Sicily): (3 cornered island being “kicked” by Italy); Rome’s first province gained from Carthage at end of 1st Punic War.

-Creta (Crete): south of Greece

-Cyprus: west of Phoenicia

-Hibernia (Ireland): west of Britannia

Miscellaneous:

-Straights of Gibraltar: Pillars of Hercules, between Spain and North Africa

-Acropolis: the high, flat hill in Athens, Greece where the Parthenon (temple to Athena) is built

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