THEME: TURNING POINTS/CHANGE/REVOLUTIONS



THEME: TURNING POINTS/CHANGE/REVOLUTIONS

1) Neolithic Revolution (8,000 B.C.) : otherwise known as the agricultural revolution. People used to be nomads (wanderers). They were hunters and gatherers, which means that they would hunt in one place and when that place ran out of resources they would leave. People learned how to domesticate animals and plant food, which made them no longer have to be nomads, or wanderers…people started living in permanent settlements. New social classes were formed (when supplies were scarce and people went to war, many people got power, including the warriors.) new technology was developed: (tools and skills): calendars, plows, the wheel, metal weapons and metal tools.

Regents Words: PERMANENT SETTLEMENTS (TOWN & VILLAGES), FARMING DOMESTICATION

2) Fall of the Roman Empire (495 A.D.) -- The Roman Empire lasted from 200 B.C. to 495 A.D. It had controlled parts of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa at its height and Golden Age (the Pax Romana) and left many important cultural achievements (including architecture, law [the Twelve Tables] and government [idea of a Republic]. However, due to over-expansion, poor leadership, high debt and taxes, loss of values and ultimately barbarian invasions, the Empire first split in two and then collapsed. The Eastern half became known as the Byzantine Empire and continued on many of the traditions of Rome (such as law in the Justinian’s Code), but split with the Catholic Church in the Great Schism to form Orthodox Christianity. However, in the West, there was chaos and no central government and this led to the Middle Ages (or Dark Ages). Charlemagne briefly brought piece under the Holy Roman Empire, but it soon collapsed and only the Catholic Church provided the main source of stability and power. The manor system was also created to provide economic stability and feudalism was created to provide social and political stability.

Regents Words: ROME: PAX ROMANA, JULIUS CAESAR, EMPEROR AUGUSTUS, TWELVE TABLES, REPUBLIC, START OF CHRISTIANITY, BARBARIAN INVASIONS

BYZANTINE EMPIRE: JUSTINIAN’S CODE, GREAT SCHISM, EASTERN ORTHODOX CHRISTIANITY, CULTURAL DIFFUSION WITH RUSSIA

MIDDLE AGES: CHARLEMAGNE, FEUDALISM, MANOR SYSTEM, GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

2) Crusades (1095-1300.): During the Middle Ages (500-1400s), the Roman Catholic Church was the single most powerful organization in Western Europe. For hundreds of years, Christians had visited Jerusalem. However, early in the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks (Muslim) took control of the “Holy Land,” and drove out the Christian. Shocked and angered, the Pope called all Christians to unite and fight a holy crusade – a series of wars to get the Holy Land form Muslim rulers. After many years of “Holy Wars” the Christians failed to capture Jerusalem, but the effects were: New Ideas and Products, Increased Trade – European demand for foreign products, like spices and sugar led to increased trade with the East and other parts of the world and growth of Intolerance (prejudice) The Crusades led to the Christian persecution of Jews and Muslims, as well as to the Muslim persecution of Christians.

Regents Words: POSITIVE RESULT OR EFFECT- INCREASED TRADE BETWEEN ASIA AND EUROPE; ORIGINAL PURPOSERE- CLAIM THE HOLY LAND (JERUSALEM); NEGATIVE EFFECT- LASTING HATRED BETWEEN CHRISTIANS

AND MUSLIMS

3) Commercial Revolution: =the business revolution, rise of capitalism. This led to the decline of feudalism because serfs started selling their farm products and paying their lords with money instead of labor. This led to the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Capitalism=individual owns and operates the means of production, I am free to enter any business I want to, you go in to business because you want to make a profit. Competition brings lowers prices and better quality. Supply and demand also regulates the price. (Invisible hand controls the market, gets things produced). This leads to the reemergence of towns and cities, the growth of the merchant class and trade guilds (unions) and trade organizations (Hanseatic League).

Regents Words: Capitalism, Trade, Leads to Age of Exploration, Desire for products from East, towns and cities, growth of merchant class, trade guilds, Hanseatic League.

4) Renaissance: = rebirth = Golden age of literature, art, and science. The Renaissance began in Italy in the mid 1500s. The cities were centers of trade, and this made merchants rich and willing to sponsor artists. The main value was humanism – the belief in the beauty and accomplishments of humans and the mind, thinking about worldly stuff, rather than religious. Why did it happen? Because people were tired of the church, the plague, and the 100’s of years of war. After the plague, people began returning to cities, merchants became patrons of the arts. Art was based on humanist ideas. Artists include Michelangelo, Leonardo da vinci, Raphael. Writers include Dante, Shakespeare, and Machiavelli.

Regents Words: INDIVIDUALISM, QUESTIONING SPIRIT, REBIRTH OF THE IDEALS OF CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS

(GREECE AND ROME), SECULARISM, MACHIAVELLI (THE ENDS JUSTIFY THE MEANS)

5) Protestant Reformation: (protest done with words, leading to an active change) During the Middle Ages, the Church became corrupt with abuses and excesses. People would sell indulgences for money, rather than confessing their sins and doing what they had to do to be absolved. The church used the money from the tariffs for themselves, not to better the church. Martin Luther came and wrote his 95 theses (arguments against indulgences) in 1517 and posted them on the door of the church. This made people break away from the Catholic Church and form new Christian churches. John Calvin and Martin Luther both believed that Christians could only reach heaven through faith in god. But they had some differences: Luther believed that the pope can’t pardon sins and that the bible was the only source of religious truth, while Calvin believed in predestination, or that everything that will happen in one’s life is determined when his or her soul is created, theocracy, or state being run by religion. Luther’s followers are called Lutherans or Protestants. The Reformation was spread by the printing press, and came about from humanism ideas and the Renaissance, strong monarchs (who supported Luther and wanted to break away from the Church).The effects of the protestant reformation were political and religious divisions, religious conflicts, anti Semitism, and witch hunts. The Church responded to the Protestant Reformation with The Counter Reformation, holding the Council of Trent to reaffirm the Catholic Doctrine but reform itself a little, and using missionaries of Ignatius Loyola to spread Christianity and the Holy Inquisition to force people to convert to Catholicism.

Regents Words: MARTIN LUTHER, SALE OF INDULGENCES, CHURCH ABUSES, PROTEST AGAINST THE CATHOLIC CHURCH, END OF RELIGIOUS UNITY IN EUROPE

Counter Reformation: COUNCIL OF TRENT; IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA AND THE JESUITS; REAFFIRM CATHOLIC DOCTRINE BUT REFORM A LITTLE.

6) Scientific Revolution: Emerges from the questioning spirit of the Renaissance. New ways of solving problems and thinking about the world. Came to define modern thought. Copernicus: universe is heliocentric (revolves around the sun). Galileo invented the telescope. Newton discovered gravity. The scientific method was formed=relied on experiment, not authorities. Descartes emphasized the power of human reason. The Catholic Church does not like the scientific revolution and forces Galileo to recant because the new theories go against Church views.

Regents Words: INVOLVED THINKERS LIKE COPERNICUS, NEWTON AND GALILEO. THINKERS FOCUSED ON NATURE AND HOW IT WORKED; HELIOCENTRIC THEORY DEVELOPED, SPIRIT OF QUESTIONING FROM RENAISSANCE

7) Age of Exploration (1400’s-1600’s): Due to increases in technology (Scientific Revolution) and the demand for products and trade from the East (Age of Exploration and Commercial Revolution), Spain and Portugal began to want to find new ways to the East. Portugal started to explore first, but then Christopher Columbus went to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain for permission to sail around the world, but then bumped into and “discovered” the Americas and “the New World.” The Spanish Conquistadors (who went for “Gold, God and Glory”) defeated the native populations of the Aztecs, Incas and Mayans with better technology and spreading disease. They then created colonies, a new social class system (Encomienda System) and a new economic system (mercantilism) where the colonies gave their raw materials to the mother country. Spain brought in slaves from Africa , and began the triangle trade: slaves from Africa to America for its plantations, raw materials to Spain and then finished products to Africa (to sell for slaves). Spain, Portugal, England and France then began competing for countries around the world and

REGENTS WORDS: MOTIVES FOR EUROPEANEXPLORATION: (OLD IMPERIALISM), GOD, GLORY AND GOLD; NEED FOR A NEW TRADE ROUTE TO ASIA AFTER CONSTANTINOPLE FALLS TO THE OTTOMANS IN 1453; 1. DESIRE TO FIND RICHES AND SPICES; 2. SPREAD CHRISTIANITY; CURIOSITY ABOUT THE WORLD THAT WAS STIMULATED BY THERENAISSANCE

EUROPEAN EXPLORERS (1500-1600’s): COLUMBUS DISCOVERS THE AMERICAS; FERDINAND MAGELLAN CIRCUMNAVIGATES THE WORLD; DA GAMA AND DIAS TRAVEL AROUND AFRICA TO GET TO ASIA

AZTEC EMPIRE: LOCATED IN PRESENT DAY MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA HIGHLY ADVANCED AND UNIFIED UNDER ONE LEADER; TAKEN OVER BY THE SPANISH AND CORTES - SPANISH MORE

TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED

INCA EMPIRE: LOCATED IN PRESENT DAY PERU; HIGHLY ADVANCED; TAKEN OVER BY THESPANISH AND PIZARRO - SPANISH MORE TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED

SLAVERY IN THE NEW WORLD: FIRST SLAVES WERE INDIANS BUT TOO MANY DIED FROM DISEASE; AFRICANS REPLACE THE INDIANS; ARABS, AFRICAN AND EUROPEANS INVOLVED IN THE SLAVE TRADE

TRIANGULAR TRADE: BETWEEN EUROPE, AFRICA AND THE AMERICAS; MIDDLE PASSAGE (BETWEEN AFRICA AND THE AMERICAS) – ROUTE THE SLAVE SHIPS TOOK.

MERCANTILISM: ECONOMIC THEORY; DEVELOPED AND PRACTICED BY EUROPEAN COUNTRIES DURING THE 1500.-1700’S; MAIN OBJECTIVE: TAKE RAW MATERIALS FROM COLONIES TO MAKE INTO FINSIHED PRODUCTS TO SELL BACK TO COLONIES AND OTHER PLACES; LED TO AN UNEQUAL; TRADE RELATIONSHIPBETWEEN THE PARENT COUNTRIES (EUROPEAN) AND THE COLONIES

ECONMIENDA SYSTEM: PRACTICED IN THE AMERICAS AND ENFORCED BY THE EUROPEANSEXPLOITED THE NATIVE WORKERS/FORCED.

8) Enlightenment: Following the Age of Absolutism (where rulers had absolute power), philosophers began to question politics and develop new theories (similar to the questioning spirit of the Renaissance. John Locke expressed the theory of Natural Rights – that we are inherently good and have the right to life, liberty and property, and governments were created to protect these rights. He said that if there is no government then anarchy will start. If they failed to do so, they can be removed. Locke and Jean Rousseau believed in the “social contract” – if the government does not protect rights then we can remove the government. Other philosophers included Voltaire (freedom of speech), Becarria (rights of the accused), Mary Wollstonecraft (women’s rights and education), and Montesquieu (the government should be divided into three separate branches to separate power). Some rulers listened to the philosophers and were known as enlightened despot (ruler who has a strong central government but were “enlightened” because they created some political and social reforms) were absolute rulers who used their power to make reforms in society. However, for those rulers who did not, their countries went through revolutions. The American Revolution, French Revolution and Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 were based off Enlightenment ideas, and Enlightenment ideas can be seen in the Constitutions from America and France.

Regents Words: JOHN LOCKE: BELIEVED IN NATURAL RIGHTS - LIFE, LIBERTY AND PROPERTY AND

PROTECTION OF THEM (SOCIAL CONTRACT); PEOPE WERE NATURALLY (BORN) GOOD; PEOPLE HAVE THE

RIGHT TO OVERTHROW A GOVERNMENT IF IT DOESN’T PROTECT THEIR NATURAL RIGHTS.

THOMAS HOBBES PEOPLE WERE NATURALLY (BORN) BAD; BELIEVED IN ABSOLUTISM.

JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU: SOCIAL CONTRACT

MONTESQUIEU: SEPARATION OF POWERS, SEPARATE BRANCHES, CHECKS AND BALANCES

ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS EXAMPLES – MARIA THERESA & CATHERINE THE GREAT;

ABSOLUTE RULERS WHO ALSO WORKED TO IMPROVE THEIR SUBJECTS’ LIVES

9) Industrial Revolution (1700’S AND 1800’S) : This was caused by the agrarian (agricultural) revolution; the ability to produce more food which sustained a population growth. This change led to lots of people moving to the cities. (Urbanization is when lots of people move to the city). The population explosion led to a need for more resources. It started in Great Britain. Why did it start in Great Britain? Because they have the coal and iron ore=factors of production, they have harbors, which are good for trade and a source of energy, they have a stable government , they have peace, they have money (capital, wealthy people willing to invest), the government assists them, and they have labor. The impacts of the industrial revolution include major population increase in the cities, lots of pollution from the factories in the cities, people lived in tenements (overcrowded buildings). But the standard of living did go up. But the conditions of the factories were horrible, dirty, and unsafe. Kids and women were preferred because you’d have to pay them less (no experience). They were exploited.

REGENTS WORDS: INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: STARTED IN ENGLAND (DUE TO NATURAL RESOURCES AND GOVENRMENT); POOR WORKING CONDITIONS AND PAY; FACTORY SYSTEM; GROWTH OFCITIES

ADAM SMITH: DEVELOPED LAISSEZFAIRE THEORY (GOVERNMENT = HANDS OFF OF

ECONOMY); WROTE THE WEALTH OF NATIONS; FREE TRADE

KARL MARX: WANTED TO OVERTHROW CAPITALISM AND DEVELOP A FAIRER SYSTEM (COMMUNISM); THOUGHT WORKERSM WERE BEING EXPLOITED AND URGED THEM TO UNITE; HISTORY OF CLASS STRUGGLE; WROTE THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO AND DAS KAPITAL (.Workers of the world unite.).

10) French Revolution (1789-1799): ideas from the enlightenment and the American Revolution, political, social, and economic factors bring forth the revolution. The 3rd estate paid all the taxes. They were 98% of the people but owned only 70% of the land. The government was spending more than they had. On July 14th, 1789 the peasants stormed the Bastille. The 3rd estate revolved, created a new government (National assembly, tennis court oath), The great fear was when the peasants looted all the nobles’ houses. When news of the revolution spread foreign monarchs got scared that the same thing would happen to their countries. French monarchs were killed. However, the Revolution soon got out of control Maximillian Robespierre’s government had a “Reign of terror”, killing thousands who were “enemies of the Revolution” with the guillotine. Robespiere was eventually killed and then General Napoleon Bonaparte used his army to overthrew the weak 5-man directory (provisional government in France) in a coup d’etat. He declared himself emperor of France and encouraged nationalism. He then waged war on Europe until he was finally defeated in 1815 and a king restored to France by the Quadruple Alliance that defeated him. At the Congress of Vienna, the victorious powers sought to “reverse the clock” of the liberal ideals of the French Revolution by restoring the king to France, creating a balance of power between countries and making the Concert of Europe; an organization to maintain peace in Europe.

REGENTS WORDS: CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION: INSPIRED BY THE SUCCESS OF THE

AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND THE IDEAS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT; PLIGHT OF THE 3RD ESTATE/UNFAIR SOCIAL SYSTEM; FRANCE ALMOST BANKRUPT.

FRENCH REVOLUTION: TENNIS COURTH OATH, STORMING OF THE BASTILLE, CONSTITUTION OF 1719, DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN, NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, GREAT FEAR.

EFFECTS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION: REIGN OF TERROR; ROBESPIERRE; RISE OF NAPOLEON; DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONALISM; INSPIRED LATIN AMERICAN REVOLTUIONS.

CONGRESS OF VIENNA: BALANCE OF POWER, PRINCE CLEMENS VON METTERNICH, CONCERT OF EUROPE. ‘TURN BACK THE CLOCK”, VICTORY FOR CONSERVATISM.

11) REVOLUTIONS OF THE 1830 AND 1840: Revolts occurred in many places across Europe after the Congress of Vienna because of liberalism( people opposing the power of monarchs and wanting democratic reforms) and nationalism (people wanted to become independent nations that were free from foreign rule. France and Austrian Empire were nationalistic revolutions. The Revolutions frightened many of Europe’s rulers and some agreed to reforms and

Greece and Belgium did gain independence. However, for the most part, the revolutions failed because of lack of widespread support, they themselves were divided and powerful government forces crushed the revolutions.

12) LATIN AMERICAN REVOLUTIONS OF THE 1800’S: The Encomienda System that was set up by Spain to govern its colonies treated the people their unfairly. The American Revolution, French Revolution and writings of the enlightenment reached the people of the Spanish colonies and they too wanted freedom. The Peninsulares (native born Spanish) had the most power. The Creoles (American-born Spanish), Mestizos (mixed_, Indians and slaves did not like this and revolted against the Spanish. Leaders of the different revolutions included Simon Bolivar, Toussaint L’ouverture, Jose de San Martin and Father Guadalupe Hidalgo. They overthrew Spanish rule and helped form the countries that exist in Central and South America today.

REGENTS WORDS: LATIN AMERICAN REVOLUTIONS: IMPORTANT INDIVIDUAL: SIMON BOLIVAR, TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE, AND JOSE DE SAN MARTIN; CAUSED BY THE INEQUALITIES, ESPECAILLY IN LAND OWNERSHIP INHERENT IN THE COLONIAL SUSTEM; NO UNIFICATION OF SOUTH AMERICA DUE TO DIFFERENT CULTURES

13) Bolshevik Revolution: Lenin-“peace bread and land.” Followed the ideas of Karl Marx but instead of the workers rising and overthrowing the capitalist system, he decided that the new group he formed, the Bolsheviks, would overthrow the system. He promised peace bread and land and the end to Russia’s involvement in the war. (Land reform and end of food shortages)

REGENTS WORDS: “BREAD, LAND AND PEACE”; ENDED TSARIST RULE AND ROMANOV DYNASTY; RUSSIA

BECAME FIRST COMMUNIST NATION; LED BY LENIN.

14) Chinese Revolution: In 1911, the Chinese revolted against the Qing Dynasty (led by Dr. Sun Yat Sen) in the first Chinese Revolution and created a Democratic Government called the Guomindang (Nationalist Party). However, after World War II Mao Zedong led a Communist revolution which defeated the Nationalist Forced under Chiang Kaishek. He then created the Peoples Republic of China which was communist, it redistributed land to the peasants form their landowners, took over businesses and gave women more rights. His economic program of the Great Leap Forward ended did not work and led to a great famine where millions died. During Mao’s Cultural Revolution, his personal Red Guards purged the government of “ant revolutionaries”, killing thousands more. Den Xiaoping tried to modernize Chine with his Four Modernization.

REGENTS WORDS: CHINESE COMMUNIST REVOLUTION (LATE 1940’S): LED BY MAO TSE TUNG; DEFEATED THE NATIONALIST FORCES

LED BY CHIANG KAISHEK; CREATED THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA.

MAO TSE TUNG: GOT THE SUPPORT OF THE PEASANTS; GREAT LEAP FORWARD; THE

CULTURAL REVOLUTION

DENG XIAOPING: FOUR MODERNIZATIONS; ALLOWED FOR SOME CAPITALISTIC ELEMENTS; CRUSHED THE STUDENT; PROTESTS (TIANANMEN SQARE MASSACRE)

15) POST COLONIAL INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS (1940’s-1960’s): After World War II, the European colonial powers were weak and their colonies around the world began to revolt against them. Gandhi led a non-violence movement which eventually forced Great Britain to give India its independence. However, India and Pakistan have fought over the area of Kashmir after India’s partition (post-colonial boundary division) and have a fragile truce today. There were several massacres between Hindus and Muslims. African Independence movements were more difficult and those countries often used war to defeat the colonial powers (such as Algeria and Kenya). When they won independence, there was still tension because when the Colonial powers organized their colonies their boundaries included tribes that usually fought each other and used racism to control the population. This boiled over in the Rwanda Genocide when the Hutus were slaughtered because of the Tutsis. Many of these African countries are third world countries (or developing countries) because they were having trouble advancing while also suffering from AIDS.

REGENTS WORDS: Indian Independence (1947): GANDHI, NON-VIOLENT CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE; THE FORMER COLONY OF INDIA PARTITIONED INTO TWO – HINDU INDIA & ISLAMIC PAKISTAN; MASSACRE BETWEEN THE HINDUS AND THE MUSLIMS DURING THE GREAT MIGRATION DISPUTE OVER KASHMIR

GANDHI: THE SALT MARCH; THE HOMESPUN MOVEMENT; CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE AND PASSIVE RESISTANCE

AFRICAN INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT’S (MAINLY IN THE 1960’S): BOUNDARIES MADE UP BY THE EUROPEAN NATIONS DURING IMPERIALISM DIDN’T ACCOUNT FOR THE TRIBAL/ETHNIC DIFFERENCES; DECOLONIZATION TOOK PLACE AFTER WWII BECAUSE FORMER EUROPEAN MOTHER COUNTRIES WERE TOO WEAK TO KEEP COLONIES; MOST AFRICAN NATIONS STILL STRUGGLING AFTER INDEPENDENCE; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, RWANDAN GENOCIDE; LEADERS: KWAME GHANA, JOMO KENYATTA.

VIETNAM INDEPENDENCE: ENDED FRENCH COLONIAL RULE; VIETNAM WAR; HO CHI MINH IS THE REVOLUTIONARY NATIONALIST LEADER AND COMMUNIST

16) COMMUNIST CUBAN REVOLUTION (1959): Led by Fidel Castro, Cuba becomes a communist nation. It is the first communist nation in the West Hemisphere. America does not want Cuba to be communist and tries to have Cuba exiles overthrow him in the failed Bay of Pigs invasion. Castro goes to Russia for help who installs missiles with nuclear weapons in Cuba. This leads to the Cuba missile crisis, where 14 days in October 1962, America and Russia comes dangerously close to nuclear war. President Kennedy and Premier Kruschev make a secret deal which avoids war; Kennedy removes missiles in Turkey and promises not to invade Cuba and Kruschev removes the missiles from Cuba. Cuba is still a communist nation today.

REGENT WORDS: CUBAN REVOLUTION: LED BY FIDEL CASTRO; CUBA BECAME THE FIRST COMMUNIST NATION IN THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE; BAY OF PIGS INVASION AND THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

17) IRANIAN REVOLUTION (1970’s): Ayatollah Khimen overthrows the Shah and sets up the Islamic fundamentalism in Iran. He was totally against westernization (that’s why he hated the Shah) the chador was the symbol of the revolution. Chador= veil that women wear, totally covers their face.

REGENTS WORDS: LED BY AYATOLLAH KHIMEN AND ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISTS; OVERTHREW THE SHAH AND SET UP AN ISLAMIC THEOCRACY; RETURNED IRAN TO AN ISLAMIC SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT.

18) END OF APARTHEID (1990’s)- South Africa had a policy of legal segregation (separation) of the races. Its government was controlled by a repressive White government known as Apartheid. Pressure from around the world, more black South African resistance and the leadership of Nelson Mandela help end apartheid. As a result, Legal segregation ends. Mandela elected the first black president in 1994.

REGENTS WORDS: THE SYSTEM OF APARTHEID IN SOUTH AFRICA: BLACKS SEPARATED AND VIEWED AS INFERIOR TO THE WHITES; ORGANIZATION THAT SOUGHT TO END APARTHEID-AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (A.N.C.); A.N.C LEADER WAS NELSON MANDELA

19) FALL OF BERLIN WALL AND COLLASPE OF COMMUNISM (1980’s-early 1990’s): Resulted from Western pressure during Cold war and its inability to keep up with U.S. President Ronald Reagan’s military spending. Communism failed to meet economic needs and desires of its citizens and the satellite states began demanding elections and winning them (such as Solidarity in Poland). Changes in the Soviet Union under Gorbachev (glasnost – democratic reforms- and Perestroika – reshaping the economy and government) led to the fall of communism in Eastern Europe starting with the fall of the Berlin Wall which divided Germany into half communist, half democratic/capitalist. The Soviet Union freed the satellite states and the Soviet Union became the Russian Federation of Independent States. The Cold War ended, Russia was no longer a super power, and suffered economic hardships, political conflicts between procommunist and predemocratic groups and miniority revolts from states such as Chechnya and Georgia, and civil conflicts.

REGENTS WORDS: COLLASPE OF COMMUNISM IN EASTERN EUROPE: (LATE 1980’S & EARLY 1990’S): FAILURE OF COMMUNISM TO MEET ECONOMIC NEEDS AND POLITICAL DESIRES; BERLIN WALL IS TAKEN DOWN (1989); MIKHAIL GORBACHEV

MIKHAIL GORBACHEV: SOVIET UNION LEADER DURING THE 1980’S AND EARLY 1990’S: HIS POLICIES OF PERESTROIKA AND GLASNOT HELPED TO END COMMUNISM IN THE SOVIET UNION; WAS REPLACED BY BORIS YELTSIN BECAUSE HIS REFORMS DIDN’T GO FAR ENOUGH.

THE AFTERMATH OF COMMUNISM IN EASTERN EUROPE: FORMER COMMUNIST NATIONS HAVING DIFFICULT MAKING THE TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY AND CAPITALISM ETHNIC CONFLICT IN SEVERAL FORMER COMMUNIST NATIONS; ONLY A FEW COMMUNIST NATIONS LEFT; NORTH KOREA, CHINA & CUBA

20) GREEN REVOLUTION: Goal was to increase the food supply. How? Irrigation=farmers installed pumps to being water from below the surface of the earth and used other irrigation systems to distribute the water. Machinery=farmers used machines (powered by diesel fuel and gasoline) to increase yields from their land. Fertilizer and pesticides=farmers enriched their soil with fertilizer and kept away bugs with pesticides. Scientists bred new, hardier, grains and livestock that could produce more meat and milk. This helped in developing countries, where they used it for wheat and rice. Food production even doubled in some cases (India and Indonesia)

New kinds of rice and corn and grain were made that was far more productive than other varieties. At first they succeeded, but soon discovered that they were damaging the environment. Insecticides killed bugs, which was their goal, but also killed birds and animals that ate the bugs.

It did not work well in many parts of Africa because of poor soil conditions. In fact, attempts to increase crop yield weakened the soil further and helped “desertification,” which had a terrible effect on the economies of several African nations (see world and global issues)

REGENTS WORDS: GREEN REVOLUTION: ATTEMPT TO UPRODUCE GREATER AMOUNT OF CROPS ATTEMPT TO PRODUCE CROPS THAT ARE MORE RESISTANT TO DIEASE; UISED IN DEVELOPING NATIONS WITH MIXED RESULTS.

21) COMPUTER REVOLUTION/INFORMATION AGE (1990’s-2000’s): Starting in the 1990’s, the internet (originally a military development) became a household and consumer good. This has created a new information age where we can communicate and gather information within seconds. Most recently, it has been used in Egypt and Libya to coordinate protests against repressive governments.

REGENTS WORDS: COMPUTER AREVOLUTION/INFORMATION AGE: THE INTERENT; CONCERN FOR PRIVACY; INFORMATION WITHIN SCONDS; LIBYA AND EGYPT PROTEST COORDINATION.

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