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Timeline:1917 – Bolsheviks seize power1918 – Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ends war with Germany costing Russian territory. Civil war begins between Bolsheviks (reds) and anti-Bolsheviks (whites). Tsar and family murdered1920 – civil war ends in Bolshevik victory1921 – Sailors from the Kronstadt naval base rebel against Bolshevik government. ‘New Economic Policy’ introduces a degree of private enterprise after the state control of ‘war communism’1924 – Lenin dies1928 – first ‘Five Year plan’ modernises Soviet industry and agriculture1929 – Trotsky expelled from Soviet Union1932-33 – famine in Ukraine caused by Stalin’s collectivisation policies against the kulaks1934 – Soviet Union enters the League of Nations, concerned by the rise of Nazi Germany. Kirov, the Leningrad party boss who Stalin regarded as a rival is murdered1936-38 – three major show trials occur1939 – Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact allows Hitler to invade Poland without Soviet reaction and Poland is divided1941 – operation Barbarossa, the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union occurs1922 – Stalin appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party1923 – Stalin accumulated bureaucratic power in his hands1924 - 24 January – death of Lenin – Trotsky tricked into not attending, May – Stalin survives reading of Lenin’s will – triumvirate (Stalin, Kamenev and Zinoviev) defeat Trotsky at 13th Party Congress when Trotsky raised objections to the growing centralization and bureaucratization of the party. Trotsky isolated. 1925 – Trotsky loses position as Commissar of WarStalin forms alliance with “the right” including Bukharin, Rykov, and Tomsky – support continuation of NEP opposed idea of rapid industrialisation – Zinoviev and Kamenev try to relink with Trotsky but rejected – they lose every vote at 15th Party Congress1927 – Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky – accused of forming “united opposition” – crime is “factionalism” with punishment of expulsion1927-28 – major economic crisis – food shortages – NEP run out of steam1929 – Stalin turns on right allies – calls for massive, rapid industrialisation and hard line against peasants – 1929 Party Congress Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky – forced out of Politburo – Stalin becomes undisputed leader of Soviet Union, Trotsky expelled from country, Stalin pushes for industrialization and collectivisation in a series of 5 Year PlansCivil War1918 gov threatened by major counter-revolutionary groups (Trotsky commanded Red Army 1918 – ruthless discipline – tasked with reconquering areas that had breakdowns of central authority)‘Whites’ – liberals, monarchists, disgruntled socialists, foreign powers, ex POWSouth/anti-communists – led by General Denikin who supported constituent assembly, Siberia – threatened by Admiral Kolchak, General Yudenich threatened PetrogradBritish/French supported whites – preservation of eastern war from against Germany – Lenin’s plans to repudiate all foreign debts and freeze assets – French, large loans to tsar – imperialistic reasons, America wanted greater proximity to Japan1921 – Soviet gov reconquered most previously owned territoryWhites failed – could only offer return to the past – control, landlord and church elevated, lack of co-ordinated offensives – whites lacked leaders with set goalsBolsheviks – held industrial heart of nation between Moscow and Petrograd – war supplies, largest potential conscript pool, major transport networksForeign intervention ended up assisting Bolsheviks - nationalist appeal – Bolsheviks stood for removal or foreign forces“Lenin was prepared for a civil war, and perhaps even welcomed it as a chance to build his party’s power base” – Orlando Figes, Revolutionary Russia, 2014Treaty of Brest-Litovsk‘Decree of Peace’ – Bolsheviks offered immediate peace without annexations – negotiations began 22 Dec in Brest-litovsk - Lenin believed in peace at any price to consolidate gov as support of proletariat and peasants would soon be lost, Trotsky preferred neither war or peace but fighting and demobilise army but refuse to sign formal peace agreement containing unacceptable territory demandsTrotsky’s chosen – 18 Feb Germans resumed fighting and takeover with little resistance from Russian army – Lenin threatened to resign if immediate acceptance or peace agreement didn’t occur – 3 March 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signedTreaty harsh – Russia lost Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Ukraine – Turkey took other land cutting Russia off from black sea. Russia pay war indemnity of 6,000,000,000 marks – Overall Russia lost 30% population, 32% agriculture, 85% sugar beet, 89% coal minesTreaty signed – ratification by congress 784 to 261 – Social Revolutionaries walked out leaving Bolsheviks to govern - Lenin believe no sacrifice too great to ensure survival of revolutionary government“It (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) was a device, to trade space for time, the time in which they needed to consolidate their revolutionary rule in the territory they held, and to defeat anti-Bolshevik forces…” – Richard J CramptonNew Economic PolicyPoor economic recovery post-civil war – 70% capacity geared to war production – workers leaving city to join Red Army – Petrograd lost 60% of workforce by 1918 due to warEconomic issue – farmers sent excess food in return for manufactured goods – ceased due to lack of excess food as peasants deliberately withheld to drive up pricesMarch 1918 – ‘war communism’ established – widespread rebellion, led to Kronstadt sailor rebellion – 1500 died, 2500 captured by Red armyNew Economic Policy (1921) – key sections of economy were state owned but small businesses could retain private profits and peasants could sell surplus crops, rain requisitioning replaced by taxOpinions: War communism was always meant to be temporary vs it was abandoned by force“NEP was never conceived of as a path to socialism but as a detour, as a temporary obstacle to overcome. The Bolshevik Party desperately needed a role to play; it needed a reaffirmation that it was leading Russia” – Vladimir BrovkinDeath of Lenin – manipulationGunshot wounds in 1918 after an assassination attempt + civil war pressures undermined health – 1922 onwards he suffered strokes which left him partially paralysed – died 21 Jan 1924 No procedure to determine Lenin’s successor – some believed in collective leadership but others began manoeuvring their reputation to present as candidates:Leon Trotsky – seemed most likely – charismatic, intelligent, and admired by Lenin and largely responsible for Red victory in Civil War. But disliked by many for his arroganceZinoviev – opposed Lenin’s call for seizure of power in 1917, not distinguished in Civil War – boss of Petrograd party with strong support baseKamenev – opposed Lenin’s call for seizure of power in 1917 – Moscow party support, Lenin’s deputyBukharin – younger party leaders, very popular amongst members, Lenin admired him as a Marxist theoristStalin – seemed least likely to assume leadership. Taciturn, and lacking charisma, not liked by Lenin, had built up a powerful power base in party bureaucracy – Stalin had accumulated power - Commissar of Nationalities, Commissar of Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate, Member of Politburo, Permanent liaison officer between Politburo and Orgbureau (organisation Bureau), General secretary of communist partyCritical moment in Stalin emergence was the May 1924 reading of Lenin’s will and testament – Zinoviev, addressed Central Committee and spoke in defence of Stalin arguing Lenin’s fears were unfounded – agreed that will was not to be distributed – Zinoviev regarded Trotsky as threat to power “Two years after the end of the Civil War Russian society already lived under Stalin’s virtual rule, without being aware of the ruler’s name” - -Deutscher, I, Stalin (1966)Cult of LeninStalin impressed by Vanguard party of professional revolutionaries – used to create heroic, divine status – Bolshevik reputation for toughness and militancy – self-confidence and powerStalin capitalised on death through being a pole bearer and having Lenin’s bod embalmed and placed in a Tomb in Red Square, MoscowUsed Lenin as means of criticising Trotsky – lack of heroism, optimism, and faith – claimed Trotsky’s idea of permanent revolution (permanent success of socialism in Russia) depending on world wide socialism, was a theory of permanent hopelessness and showed a lack of faith in the Russian peopleStalin convinced Trotsky to miss Lenin’s funeral – criticism of arrogance and lack of respect towards LeninSpoke to dissatisfactions of many Soviet Russians in 1920s – issues with NEP concerned young workers including inequality and rise of the rich in cities (NEO men/wealthy traders) or richer countryside peasants (Kulaks) Stalin developed the concept of ‘Socialism in One Country’ to develop patriotism within Russian Society developing industrial force‘Stalin is too rude, a fault … intolerable in the office of General Secretary’ - Lenin 1992Struggle for power between Stalin and TrotskyLegacy of Lenin created party struggle between ‘party machine’ (Stalin) and ‘challengers’ (Trotsky and other opportunists) – Lenin originally valued Stalin’s practical nature, in 1922 Lenin commented that Stalin would not be able to manage power with ‘sufficient caution’ - Trotsky viewed more positive but still with some doubts. Lenin’s intent to present testimony in 1923 was stopped due to ill health – eventually came out a year later but officials decided to not release itZinoviev, Kamenev, and Stalin formed a Triumvirate/Troika (group of 3) united against Trotsky‘Scissor Crisis’ of 1923 caused by a fall in agricultural prices along with a rise in the prices of manufactured goods. Troika advocated for priority to recovery of peasant sector, financing the growth of industry from the growing prosperity of the peasants and from their increased purchasing of products – left opposition led by Trotsky argued priority for proletariatStalin also advocated ‘socialism in one country’ – strengthening communism within Soviet Union rather than applying Marxist idea of unity of workers around the world – 14th Party Congress of 1925 supported ‘socialism in one country’ and Trotsky was forced to resign as Commissar for War1927 – the left (now an alliance between Zinoviev, Kamenev, and Trotsky) made protests about foreign policy – each side portray other as departing from Lenin’s policies - Part meeting Nov 1927 Stalin denounced them as anti-Leninist and accused them of factionalism – their expulsion from the party followed Trotsky refused to recant but others were allowed back in with an apologyJanuary 1928 Trotsky arrested and sent into exile to Alma-Ata in Soviet Central Asia “Following Lenin’s death, Stalin played a waiting game, leaving it to the other side to move first, and then exploiting its mistakes. Even when the split between them was open, and despite many early threats and warnings, it was not until the end of 1927 that he moved to expel Trotsky and Zinoviev”. - Alan Bullock, Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives, 1991War communismPoor economic recovery post-civil war – 70% capacity geared to war production – workers leaving city to join Red Army – Petrograd lost 60% of workforce by 1918 due to warEconomic issue – farmers sent excess food in return for manufactured goods – ceased due to lack of excess food as peasants deliberately withheld to drive up pricesMarch 1918 – ‘war communism’ established – aimed to redistribute wealth – factories taken over by gov, production pre-planned, strict worker discipline, protesters executed, food rationed, free enterprise made illegalStrict conditions – led to revolt – peasants slaughtered own cattle Harvest of 1918 was a tenth of the 1916 harvest – revolts intensified leading to widespread famine in 1921 = typhoid and cholera epidemicOpposition to Bolsheviks evident in 1918 elections – polls ruled invalid – Kronstadt sailors mutinied supporting workers – Red army sent to supress revolt on 18 March – 1500 died, 2500 capturedLed to creation of New Economic Policy‘War communism couldn’t have only been temporary as it was kept for a year after the defeat of the whites’ – Figes 1996Lenin – leadershipThere can be no real and effective “freedom” in a society based on the power of money, in a society in which the masses of working people live in poverty and the handful of rich live like parasites.?– Lenin, Anthology, 1905Stalin – leadership.. Two years after the end of the Civil War Russian society already lived under Stalin’s virtual rule, without being aware of the ruler’s name.” -Deutscher, I, Stalin (1966)Trotsky – leadership“We had much admiration for him, but no real love. His sternness, his insistence on punctuality in work and battle, the inflexible correctness of his demeanour in a period of general slackness, all imparted a certain demagogic malice.”- Victor Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 1963Stalin – source of power1936 Constitution – false sense of democracy, consolidated Stalin’s singular authority, consolidated the power being in the hands of the Politburo, legitimised the notion of the one party state.Cult of Personality – Stalin infiltrated every aspect of Soviet life – “all embracing ideology”, Ban of opposition – Stalin completely eradicated all opposition through whatever means necessary, allowed for his singular grip on Russia – no other form of authority.Stalin’s Role in the Soviet state – apex of the state – complete embodiment of the nation, complete control of all state apparatus“Not a single decision of major consequence taken by anyone other than Stalin” Oleg V KhlevniukStalin – instrument of controlSecret police and gulags – terrorised Soviet society, constant fear of betrayal and atmosphere of suspicion, atomised society1937 – approx. 18million sent to labour camps – 10 million died.Late 1930’s – secret police controlled the party, only Stalin was above it.Purges and terror – eliminated all forms of opposition and formed an example of complete obedience to the citizens of Russia, allowed Stalin to create a party filled with people that owed their careers to him complete obedience. Enabled by the Kirov Decrees (March 1935).Allowed Stalin to eliminate who he pleased – innocence and guilt were irrelevant; they were simply based on the wishes of Stalin.1 in 18 people arrested - 1934 – 1million arrested and executed.Propaganda & censorship – allowed Stalin to create the image of Russia he wished to present – not the truth.‘Economic achievements were trumpeted, often in a way that involved blatant distortion of reality and manipulation of statistics; setbacks and failures were ignored’ - Fitzpatrick, The Russian RevolutionStalin – realisation of controlCulture/religion/artCompletely overturned by Stalin – utterly under his control, no option for individual expression of thought, all art/media of any kind had to align with the views of the state.Religion – all forms of authority apart from Stalin were removed brutally, religion was heavily discouraged, and priests were arrested and many executed. League of militant atheists.Education/youth/womenEducation had to align with the views of Stalin – history shaped by Stalin to paint him as the hero of Russia, Trotsky completely wiped from existence.Youth – voluntary membership of the Komsomol, atmosphere of distrust, reporting own parents for anti-communist behaviour – Paulik Morozov. “Devil’s noose”All improvements made for women eradicated – Stalin implements Family Code in 1936 which allows him to infiltrate the homes of his people.‘Stalin becomes the father of the nation, he is above the party, indeed he is above everyone. In this new guise, he is acclaimed as the fount of all wisdom … he is the most learned of men.’ - M McCauley, The Soviet Union since 1917 (1981)Economic – collectivisation 1928 ‘procurement crisis’ triggered mass restructuring – USSR was 2 million tonnes short of the minimum amount of grain needed for feeding workers – rationing introduced, squads sent to countryside to seize grain being held by peasants to bump the price16th Communist Party conference in April 1929 Stalin announced long term solution to food supply – all farms collectivised – original plan called for 20% of sown area during first 5 Year Plans (Oct 1928) – January 1930 central committee decided that complete collectivisation of the major growing regions would be complete autumn 1930End of privately-owned farms – Kolkhoz introduced (collective farm) and Sovkhoz (state farm)Kolkhoz peasants pooled fields, livestock and tools, and shared labour and wages – 50-100 families, motor tractors set up in central pools for 40 neighbouring farms to use – larger farm units and access to machinery resulted in modernisation of Russian agricultureSovkhoz worked directly for the state with paid in wageLand enabled industrial investment and manpower – improved agriculture lead to surplus grain stocks that could be sold abroad to raise investment funds for industry. The rural disruption that collectivisation involved created a pool of surplus peasant labour to be recruited into the industrial labour forcePolitical motivation – Bolsheviks proletariat centred ideology – wary of the power of the peasants (80% of population) – Unrest among peasants had played important part in NEP in 1921, which lefts regarded as backwards step – Stalin waged war against peasants in name of revolution‘Russia became pandemonium [chaos]. The overwhelming majority of the peasantry confronted the Government with desperate opposition. Collectivization degenerated into a military operation, a cruel civil war.’ - Isaac Deutscher, Stalin , 1966,Economic – KulaksRich peasants identified by Lenin as capitalist enemies of the revolution – 1918 article ‘Civil war in the villages’ he described kulaks as ‘rabid foes of the Soviet Government’ and urged ruthless war against themLand redistribution an effect of the revolution had ridded the traditional image of kulaks (rich peasant who was disliked as a capitalist or money lender) – kulaks possessed 25-40 sown acres, making up 3.9% of peasantry in 1927 compared to 15% 1917Stalin said new class of kulaks had arisen under NEP and were deliberately undermining the state by withholding large supplies of grain from the market, it was thus necessary to liquidate the kulaks as a classTreatment of kulak’s brutal – lost land and possessions, rounded up in thousands to Siberian labour camps, and many died – justification the kulaks were less than humanAs de-kulakisation occurred peasants lost support – communist party sent 25 000 urban members to countryside to run campaignKulak began to mean anyone in the countryside who opposed Stalin collectivisation plans – many ‘middle peasants’ that protested against their loss of land were labelled as kulaks and deportedPeasant opposed collectivisation resulting in complete collapse of agricultural sector and widespread famine 1932-33‘Masses of kulaks were deported to remote unpopulated lands in Siberia. Their houses, barns, and farm implements were turned over to the collective farms … in desperation they slaughtered their cattle, smashed implements, and burned crops.’ -Isaac Deutscher, Stalin , 1966,Political – Terror and Show trialsTerror drive political transformations – elimination of resistanceSecret police although created by Lenin, expanded by Stalin – 1934 secret police named NKVD, estimated 20 million killed between 1929-53 Purges began with murder of Stalin’s potential rival Sergei Kirov in Dec 1934 – used as pretext to find those responsible for assassination – mass arrests of party officials, old Bolsheviks, and ordinary citizensMoscow show trials were a dramatic propaganda event – 3 successive public trials – 1963, 1937, 1938 – The Purge of the Party - prominent communists accused of plotting against Stalin – many gave improbable/forced confessions that were not possible of occurring – then convicted and executedThe Purge of the Army - Sept 1937 – 9 out of the 10 generals and hero of civil war General Trukhachevsky – left party ill prepared for WW2The Purge of the People - Quotas set of identification and execution of enemies of people. Ordinary citizens denounce neighbours, children denounce parents – family members of accused were also labelled public enemiesParty structure transformed by 1939 Party Congress, most delegates who attended the congress 5 years earlier had been purged and replaced“The whole country….demanding one thing: that the traitors and spies who sold out our motherland to the enemy be shot like vile dogs” - Vyshinsky's closing speechPolitical – totalitarianism and gulagTotalitarianism is the belief that a government should have total power over its citizens – idea that humans need to be dehumanised to mount them into pieces of a giant machineAccording to Carl Friedrich in The Unique Character of Totalitarian Society to be totalitarianism a state must meet 6 criteria:Official ideology, consisting of an official body of doctrine covering all vital aspects of man’s existenceSingle mass party consisting of relatively small % of population passionately and unquestioningly dedicated to the ideologyTechnologically conditioned near-complete monopoly of control of all effective combatTechnologically conditioned near-complete monopoly of control of all effective communicationSystem of terroristic police control against enemies and arbitrarily selected population classesCentralised control of the economyInstitution encapsulates Stalin’s terror – extensive prison and labour camp systemGulag – acronym - Glavnoe Upravlenie ispravitel'no-trudovykh LAGerei (Main Administration of Corrective Labour Camps) – thousands of camps across country and on remote islands – notorious gulags: Magadan, Vorkuta, Norilsk, Kolyma, Chelyabinsk, Karaganda – importance of prison labour in planned economyEvidence suggest in 1930s there were 1.5 million prisoners in gulags, by late 1940s 2-2.5 million prisonersHistorians believe gulag’s forced labour accounted for 12-15% of entire 1930s economyPropaganda – camps intended o rehabilitate prisoners through ‘re-educational’ collective labour – mortality and mistreatment were endemic, significant numbers of inmates died yearly“The Gulag was conceived in order to transform human matter into a docile, exhausted, ill-smelling mass of individuals living only for themselves and thinking of nothing else but how to appease the constant torture of hunger” - Jacques Rossi, the Gulag handbook, 1987Social/culture – police controlTerror – pivotal in the functioning of SU under Stalin – Stalin’s orders carried out by NKVD Victims of totalitarian terror are ‘arbitrarily selected classes of the population’ (Friedrich) and ‘victims are innocent even from the POV of the persecutor’ (Arendt) – kulaks, military, and engineers were enemies of the state – ensured populations fearArbitrary selection of enemies – fearTo be classified as a totalitarian state a regime must have full control of all means if armed combat in order to defend against internal and external enemies.Stalin had strong control over red army and navy – Red Army was established through Sovnarkom decree in 1918 with aim to defend revolution in Russia and expand into Europe – during Civil war Trotsky controlled army, this then remained with the partyExtent of Stalin’s control is evident in 1937 military purges – Stalin used NKVD to concoct plot that generals with assistance of the German High command were conspiring against him – Hitler and Heinrich Himmler approved an operation to forge documents implicating Marshal Tukhachesvky to cripple leadership of the red army. 7 May 1937 President Benes of Czechoslovakia provided soviet ambassador with the fake documents incriminating Marshal, where Stalin then got the NKVD to interrogate, torture, and execute the alleged plottersPurge – execution of 8/9 Soviet admirals, 3/5 Marshals, 14/16 army commanders, 60/67 Corps Commanders, 136/199 Divisional Commanders, and all 11 Deputy Commissars for Defence – eliminated 36 761 army officers, over 3000 navy officers – not all executed 13 000 eventually returned to their military duties‘It was essential to smile — if you didn’t, it meant you were afraid or discontented. This nobody could afford to admit — if you were afraid, then you must have a bad conscience’ - Nadezhda Mandelstam, 1970Social/culture – control of communicationStalinist Russia possessed firm control of the media, education system, and cultural life of the USSR – facilitated cult of Stalin – opposition press banned by Lenin in 1917 Press Decree – more manipulative under Stalin than Lenin – distorted truth – reach widened under Stalin due to emphasis on broader literacy and educational standards1930s new schools open – literacy rate between 9-49 yr olds reach 94% in 1939 – school inculcating minds into Stalin’s version of Communist ideology Goskomizdat – responsible for censorship of all printed matterGosteleradio – dealt with TV and radioGoskino – films – values and massagesLiterature and arts controlled – Union of Soviet Writers – necessary to have a writing career1920s Socialist Realism emerged to promote proletariat and advance of USS – accessible propaganda “The press must grow day in and day out – its our party’s sharpest and most powerful weapon” – Joseph Stalin 1923Economic – collectivisation/industrialisationThe processes of collectivisation and industrialisation had profoundly beneficial impacts on the Soviet economy as they effectively revolutionised an agricultural nation into an industrial superpower. Livestock population plummeted and size of the grain harvest fell year by year between 1930 and 1934.Grain procurements as a percentage of the harvest rose from 15% in 1928 to 32% in 1934.Grain exports 1929=0.029 million tonnes, 1930=4.76 million tonnes, 1931=5.05 million tonnes.The exports gained the necessary capital for industrialisation to occur.Within a decade, the Soviet Union had been transformed from a backwards agricultural nation to the 2nd industrial power in the world, after the United States.FIRST FIVE YEAR PLAN 1500 enterprises started, steel production up by one third, major increases in electricity production, machine tools and tractor works established.SECOND FIVE YEAR PLAN 4500 new enterprises, development of prestige projects (e.g. Dnieper Dam), expansion of chemical industry, major increases in metals and machine tools.THIRD FIVE YEAR PLAN Greater emphasis on armaments, continued emphasis on heavy industry, however not as successful due to imminent threat of German invasion coupled with impacts of purges and terror.‘Right through mass rebellion, mass starvation, cannibalism, the destruction of the country’s livestock, and unprecedented political destabilisation, Stalin did not flinch.’ - Stalin: Paradoxes of PowerSocial – Collectivisation/industrialisationDespite their undoubted economic success, collectivisation and industrialisation engendered a colossal humanitarian catastrophe, resulting in the death and torture of millions.Use of violence, deportation and famines associated with the processes led to the deaths of 5-10million people.Man-made famine in the Ukraine – the Holodomor.Millions of people ended up living a desperate existence in Arctic and Siberian labour camps.The impact on rural society was entirely transformative the deaths, deportation and end of private ownership changed everything.Working Class labour discipline was harsh, punishments for lateness, absenteeism etc, implementation of internal passport system relinquished some civil liberties, living standards plummeted.Forced labour displaced kulaks, common prisoners and terror victims forced to work in inhospitable conditions e.g. the Baltic-White Sea canal.Widespread paranoia individuals could be accused of sabotage and treason for failing to meet production targets.Patriotic element Russia was successfully building socialism while the west was wallowing in the Depression.‘It was essential to smile — if you didn’t, it meant you were afraid or discontented. This nobody could afford to admit — if you were afraid, then you must have a bad conscience’ - Nadezhda Mandelstam, 1970Political – collectivisation/industrialisationRegardless of the devastating impacts collectivisation and industrialisation had on Soviet society, these processes had significantly advantageous impacts on Stalin’s regime, tightening his control on all aspects of Soviet life. After collectivisation the Communist party was in full control of the countryside and the concept of private ownership had essentially been destroyed.The party had established complete control there was no chance of a rival political force emerging.Peasants were now dependent on the state as its employees and the state now had a monopoly of farm technology.Destruction of Ukrainian nationalism.Dekulakisation has destroyed the previous rural structure and weakened the influence of religion (one of Stalin’s key goals).The state took complete control of the economy decided what was produced, who produced it and when and where it was produced.Propaganda infiltrated the nation exaggerated the successes of the regime and attempted to inspire civilians to join the “socialist offensive”‘Russia became pandemonium [chaos]. The overwhelming majority of the peasantry confronted the Government with desperate opposition. Collectivization degenerated into a military operation, a cruel civil war.’ - Isaac Deutscher, Stalin , 1966,Political changes in societyStalinist Constitution – legitimised Stalin’s authority, false sense of democracy and freedom, power remained strictly in the hands of the Politburo.Stalin remained at the apex of society – single form of authority, implementing the cult of personality which enabled him to permeate every aspect of Soviet society.Purges & TerrorThousands of party members accused of horrendous crimes.1928 – first show trials1934 – murder of Sergei Kirov, 1935 – Kirov DecreesMinimum death penalty age lowered to 12, atmosphere of fear, thousands denounced to NKVDYezhovschina “The Great Terror” – Innocence/guilt is irrelevant, targeted intellectuals (anyone who had the potential to criticise/oppose Stalin.1937 population was 164million, despite expected population being 180million.75% of party members who joined between 1921-28 were eliminated.‘Right through mass rebellion, mass starvation, cannibalism, the destruction of the country’s livestock, and unprecedented political destabilisation, Stalin did not flinch.’ - Stalin: Paradoxes of PowerEconomic changes in societyCollectivisation Simultaneously a massive human tragedy and a brilliant long-term economic success.Between violence, deportations and famines approx. 5-10million lives lost.Man-made famine “Holodomor”Destroyed Ukrainian nationalism & allowed Stalin to gain complete control of the countryside.Grain procurements increased from 15% in 1928 to 32% in 1934.Grain exports rose from 0.029million tonnes in 1929 to 5.05million tonnes in 1931.DekulakisationIndustrialisation The economy changes from a mixed economy under the NEP to a command economy (a system where the government, rather than the free market, determines what goods should be produced) under Gosplan which meant the removal of much of the human element of the economic system.Five Year PlansCentral planning – long and short term targets that had to be met, managers and employees would be questioned and punished if targets not met.Prestige projects – heavy labour used to create large projects e.g. Dnieper Dam.Internal passport system to control the movement of workers.Emphasis on heavy industry – coal, iron ore, steel, oil and transport.‘Economic achievements were trumpeted, often in a way that involved blatant distortion of reality and manipulation of statistics; setbacks and failures were ignored’ - Fitzpatrick, The Russian RevolutionSocial changes in societyWomen – all improvements made under Lenin were revoked, Family Code introduced in 1936.Education – Stalin decided that Russia needed educated and disciplined citizens, immediate shift to conservative and regimented approach to schooling.Stalin dictates that history books that had no mention of Stalin were not to be taught.Only books to be used were ones that painted Stalin as the hero of Russia e.g. A V Shestakov’s “A Short History of the USSR”.Youth – Forced into the Komsomol“The press must grow day in and day out – its our party’s sharpest and most powerful weapon” – Joseph Stalin 1923Foreign policy: economic – revolutionary pragmatism + export industryEnd of civil war – communists achieved breathing spaceRevolutionary pragmatism policy – SU declared that it stood for peaceful coexistence and economic cooperation with capitalist powers, while secretly exploiting situations to gain whatever they couldStrict ideological considerations put aside as SU depended on west to rebuild economy – financial support by western powers, believed would bring their downfallOrganisation meant to be separate to SU but not the case – shift in focus from promoting communism to the survival of the SUBy linking Comintern to needs to Moscow rather than the needs of the working class – negated possibility of working together with all of the political left wing. Stalin warned western capitalist powers were waiting to invite SU – Stalin said 3 war scares occurred in the inter-war period based upon intelligence information ‘foreign capitalists, who will be obliged to work on the terms we offer them, will dig their own graves. Without them we cannot rearm ourselves (economically) without the electrification of Russia’ - George F. KeenanForeign policy: social – great depressionCapitalist financial crisis at the time Stalin embarked on economic expansion – became a key trading partnerIncreased support for communism abroad – led western nations to abandon collective action through LoN and seek national security through rearmamentEmergence of Japan and Germany as potential threats to Soviet security caused a change in emphasis in Soviet foreign policy – socialism in one country maintained by SU giving support to West’s collective security and active LoN participationLitvinov – outgoing, pro-European, and popular with Western diplomats – Litvinov signed non-aggression pact with Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, and France – formal diplomatic relations with USA and secured 1934 membership of SU to LoN‘Soviet Union made desperate attempts to maintain the connection with Germany which had been at the centre of her strategy since 1922. German machine tools were vital for Soviet industrial expansion’- R. Overy and A. Wheatcroft, 1989Foreign policy: military Czech Crisis 1938SU had assistance treaty with Czechoslovakia – SU action would only occur if France honoured its pactThroughout crisis SU would stand by commitment to Prague, but France had to convince Poland and Romania to permit SU troops to move across their territory – neither country allowedStalin was determined to utilise collective security when facing Germany – PM Chamberlain was unlikely to call on SU when it was speaking of moving against Poland and continuing to purge militaryPossibility of collective security failed – exclusion of SU and Munich negotiates reinforced Stalin’s view that the capitalist states were acting against SUNazi occupation of rest of Czechoslovakia in 1939 and Britain’s guarantee to support Poland – Moscow’s support being sought after in London, Paris, and by BerlinStalin felt his alliance with Britain and France due to their combined strength could take Germany – Soviets support in return of territorial integrity and promise of mutual assistance in the event of an attackVyacheslav MolotovProblem – by the time Chamberlain agreed to negotiations (May 1939) – situation changed, West delays re-enforced Stalin’s distrust – became more sympathetic to German demands1939 Litvinov was fired and replaced by Vyacheslav Molotov who favoured German foreign policy – publicly courted Britain and France, whilst undertaking secret negotiations with the Germans“Western statesmen were… more hostile to communism than fascism… (Stalin) interpreted British inaction over Spain as a calculated attempt to drive the SU into a war with Germany” – R. Overy and A. Weatcroft, 1989Foreign policy: political - Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pactSoviets invited Britain and France representatives to Moscow to begin military negotiations – officials possessed to authority to sign binding agreements – West didn’t trust MoscowNegotiation of a political and economic agreement with Germany was completed, and followed by the Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression pact of 24 August 1939 – return of Soviet neutrality, Germany would return of Polish lands lost in 1917Announcement of agreement met with dismay – Germans promised return of Poland – West expected SU to demand the one state Europe – added to the west’s suspicion of Soviet motivesGerman invasion of Poland3 September 1939 – Germany entered as Japan engaged SU in battle on the Manchurian borderGermans swept in quickly – fear that they would occupy, reach a truce with West, then leave Russia under threat – SU quickly reached truce with Japan and on 17 September entered Poland from the EastSU turned attention to armed forces development in preparation for war against capitalism – 1941 the SU army grew by 150% and air force larger than that of Germany, France, and Britain combined – 5 Year plans were successful“Soviet Union was going to follow an isolationist policy…let Herr Hitler know that as long as he keeps away from Russia's vast stretches he need not fear the Red Army….Dictator Stalin was simply clearing the decks to be ready at a moment's notice to jump either way." – Time magazine 1939 ................
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