Jason A. Grissom Vanderbilt University Stanford University ...

Principal Time Management Skills: Explaining Patterns in Principals' Time Use and Effectiveness

Jason A. Grissom Vanderbilt University

Susanna Loeb Stanford University

Hajime Mitani Vanderbilt University

Abstract

Purpose: Time demands faced by school principals make principals' work increasingly difficult. Building on research from outside education suggesting that effective time management can improve job performance, this article investigates whether principals' time management skills are associated with different allocations of time across job task areas and higher measures of job performance. Research Methods: Time management skills were measured using an inventory administered to 287 principals in Miami-Dade County Public Schools, the fourth-largest school district in the United States. These measures were combined with time-use data collected during in-person observations, subjective assessments of principal performance obtained from assistant principals and teachers, and administrative data on staff and students provided by the district, which were used to construct measures of "value-added" to student learning during each principal's tenure. Time management relationships with time use and test score-based and subjective assessments of job performance were examined using regression analysis. Findings: Principals with better time management skills allocate more time to managing instruction in their schools. Time management is also associated with increased student test score growth in math. Subjective assessment results for elementary and middle schools are mixed, but both assistant principals and teachers rate high school principals' performance more positively when principals have better time management skills. Implications: Building principals' time management capacities may be a worthwhile strategy for increasing their focus on instructional leadership and pursuing school improvement.

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In pursuit of a more nuanced understanding of school leadership practice and the

connection between leadership practice and school improvement, several recent studies have

focused on how principals allocate their time within the work day (e.g., Goldring et al., 2008;

Horng, Klasik, & Loeb, 2010; Spillane, Camburn, & Pareja, 2007; Spillane & Hunt, 2010;

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Grissom, Loeb, & Master 2013). These studies highlight the large and diverse set of school functions with which principals engage on a daily basis, spanning instruction, personnel, budgeting, student services, external relations, and a host of other areas. Time is a scarce resource, and principals must make decisions about how to allocate their time among these competing demands. Time-use decisions are important for effective leadership, as evidenced by the relationship between principal time use and school outcomes (e.g., Grissom, Loeb, & Master, 2013; Horng, Klasik, & Loeb, 2010).

The connection between time use and performance motivates the present study. We proceed from the expectation that--just as some portfolio managers in the financial sector have a greater capacity for investing money in ways that produce profits--some principals will have a greater capacity for spending their time in productive ways. This greater capacity for using time effectively is known both colloquially and in a relatively large literature in psychology and organizational behavior as time management. That literature suggests that better time management skills--which include the ability to set achievable goals, identify priorities, monitor one's own progress, and remain organized (Claessens et al., 2007)--can lead to more effective time use and ultimately more positive individual outcomes in some settings (e.g., Britton & Tesser, 1991). Time management and its relationship to time use and job performance, however, have not been investigated in the context of school leadership.

This paper examines these relationships empirically using data from Miami-Dade County Public Schools (M-DCPS), the nation's fourth-largest school district. We draw on four data sources. The first is an original survey of M-DCPS principals we conducted during the spring of 2011. This survey included a time management inventory we used to measure four components of time management skills among respondents (N = 287). Second, also in spring 2011, we

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employed trained observers to conduct daylong in-person observations of a subset of principals using a time use protocol. From these observational data, we create measures of principals' time allocations across job demands. The third source is a survey given to assistant principals and teachers in the same schools targeted by the principal survey. For this study, we use assistant principals' and teachers' responses to a set of questions about their principals to construct subjective measures of principal performance. Lastly, we merge each of these data elements with comprehensive administrative data covering all schools and personnel in the district provided to us by M-DCPS. In particular, the administrative data allow us to construct estimates of schools' "value-added" to student learning during each principal's tenure--measured by growth on Florida's standardized tests--in both math and reading.

We use this rich data source to answer three research questions. First, how are time management skills distributed across M-DCPS principals, particularly with respect to school and principal characteristics? Second, how do time management skills predict observed principal time use? And finally, to what degree, if any, are time management skills associated with measures of principal effectiveness? The next section grounds these questions in existing research on time management and the connections psychologists and scholars of organizational behavior have made between time management and personal and organizational outcomes. We then describe the data sources, construction of measures, and estimation approach before presenting our results. The final section discusses the implications of our results for school leadership practice.

How Can Time Management Behaviors Improve Outcomes?

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High demands on one's time are characteristic of many professions. As Britton and Glynn (1989, 429) put it, "intellectually productive people usually have more things that they would like to do, or need to do, than they have time." This description certainly applies to the job of most school principals, who entail responsibility for the time-intensive tasks of managing school operations, overseeing instructional programs, building relations among staff members, and so forth (Horng, Klasik, & Loeb, 2010). In such professions, becoming more productive means finding ways to accomplish more given limited time resources. Managing one's time more ably is one way to fulfill this goal.

Time management means those behaviors "that aim at achieving an effective use of time while performing certain goal-directed activities" (Claessens et al., 2007, 262). Although little work has examined time management in the context of school administration, a relatively large literature has investigated the concept in the management of organizations more broadly. We draw on this literature in describing the characteristics of positive time management behaviors in schools and developing expectations about the role of time management among school principals in affecting their capacity to promote school improvement.

Components of Good Time Management Managing time or making effective use of time requires techniques and good planning

behaviors. Past studies and numerous how-to books suggest that one can use time efficiently and productively by setting short-term and long-term goals, keeping time logs, prioritizing tasks, making to-do lists and scheduling, and organizing one's workspace. (Claessens et al, 2007; Macan, 1994). These time management techniques and behaviors tend to share some underlying traits in common and can be classified into several groups. Britton and Tesser (1991) proposed

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three facets of time management: short-range planning, long-range planning, and time attitudes. Short-range planning is the ability to set out and organize tasks in the short run (e.g., within a day or a week). Long-range planning is the capacity to manage tasks over a longer time horizon (e.g., in a quarter or a year) by setting goals, keeping track of important dates and limiting procrastination. Positive time attitudes indicate that a person is oriented towards using their time constructively and maintaining agency over how their time is spent.

Similarly, Macan (1994) identified three components of time management: (1) setting goals and priorities, (2) mechanics (i.e., making lists and scheduling), and (3) preference for organization. The first includes such behaviors as setting goals one wants to accomplish and prioritizing tasks to achieve these goals. The second includes behaviors associated with managing time such as making to-do lists and scheduling. The final factor includes one's preference for organization in his or her workspace and approach to projects. While this categorization differs somewhat from Britton and Tesser's (1991), the themes of goal-setting, prioritization, and organization are common to both schema.

People vary in their time management behaviors and techniques. For example, Macan et al. (1990) compared time management behaviors across demographic groups in a sample of undergraduate students. While time management behaviors did not differ by race, older and female subjects were more likely to be good time managers. Older students also had greater preference for organization. Other studies of undergraduate students found similar results (Truman & Hartley, 1996; Misra & McKean, 2000). Researchers have also explored the relationship between time management and other dispositional characteristics such as selfesteem, sense of purpose in life, polychronicity (i.e., multi-tasking), and impatience, and propensity to procrastinate (e.g., Bond & Feather, 1988; Francis-Smythe & Robertson, 1999).

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For example, Lay & Schouwenburg (1993) found that students prone to procrastination exercised fewer time management techniques while also tending to be further behind on work and to study fewer hours.

Time Management and Performance Several studies demonstrate that time management predicts job performance. For

example, car salesmen with better time management skills have higher sales (Barling et al., 1996). College students with better time management skills report higher grade point averages (Britton & Tesser, 1991; Macan et al., 1990). County extension directors with better time management skills are rated higher by their superiors (assistant regional directors) (Radhakrishna, Yoder, & Baggett, 1991).

To understand the association between time management and job performance, researchers have investigated a series of possible linkages e. Most clearly, time management helps improve job efficiency by enabling professionals to allocate adequate time to their job's most important tasks (Hall & Hursch, 1982; Orpen, 1994; Schuler, 1979). This greater attention to high-priority work areas improves worker outcomes. The expectation that increased time management will increase worker productivity by enabling employees to "work smarter" has driven widespread investment in time management training in the private sector (Green & Skinner, 2005).

Effective time management also reduces job stress, which can be an important impediment to job performance (e.g., Jamal, 1984). An important source of job stress in the workplace is the perception for an individual that what he or she needs to accomplish outpaces the time available (Schuler, 1979). Time management can help reduce this discrepancy. Using

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path analysis, Macan (1994) found that subjects with better time management skills perceived that they had greater control over their time and how they spend it, which was in turn associated with both reduced feelings of job-induced tension and lower reports of somatic tension, or physical symptoms of stress such as insomnia and headaches. Job-induced stress was then negatively correlated with self-assessed job performance. Claessens et al. (2004) documented similar paths from time management to perceived time control to reduced work strain and higher job performance in a study of engineers in a semiconductor manufacturer. Other studies have documented the positive association between time management and employee health, mediated by other factors such as perceived control and conflicts between the demand between work and family (e.g., Adams & Jex, 1999).

Time management is also predictive of other factors that might influence job performance. Professionals who manage time better report lower emotional exhaustion, the most important dimension of job burnout (Peeters & Rutte, 2005). They also report higher overall job satisfaction (Macan et al., 1990). Participants in time management training also report greater work/home balance (Green & Skinner, 2005). A long literature shows that satisfaction and satisfaction-related factors are contributors to employee performance (see Judge et al., 2001).

Of course, better time management need not lead to better job performance under all conditions. Increasing job performance requires engaging in more productive behaviors. According to Ajzen (1991), human behavior is a function in part of how much control one perceives he or she has over that behavior. Control is constrained by resources, including time and skills; time management increases perceptions of control by relaxing some of these constraints (Macan, 1994). Workers may face other kinds of constraints on their behavior, however, such as institutional limits on their autonomy, that time management can do little to

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address. Moreover, behavior change requires intent (Ajzen, 1991). If workers do not intend to engage in new behaviors or do not know which behaviors will be more productive, we would not expect better time management to enhance performance.

Studies of Time in Educational Administration Although overlooking time management specifically, research in educational

administration has documented the importance of how principals organize and allocate their time. Studies of principal time use using in-person observations and daily logs show that principal time spent on organizational management (e.g., personnel, budgeting) and operations predicts student achievement and other school outcomes (Horng, Klasik, & Loeb, 2010; May, Huff, & Goldring, 2012). Studies also find that principals' time investments in some instructionrelated tasks, including coaching and teacher professional development, are associated with more positive student outcomes (Grissom, Loeb, & Master, 2013; though see May, Huff, & Goldring, 2012). A long literature on instructional leadership suggests a connection between principals' involvement in instructional matters in their schools and positive school performance (see Robinson, Lloyd, & Rowe, 2008).

Yet studies also suggest that finding time to devote to tasks more closely associated with improving student learning is a consistent challenge. The principal work day is hectic, filled with frequent interruptions and problems that require attention (Blendinger & Snipes, 1996; Hallinger & Murphy, 2013). Principals are often called on to meet with parents or deal with parental concerns (Miller, 2001). They spend large portions of their days in planned and unplanned meetings and on completing administrative duties (Morris et al., 1981; Horng, Klasik, & Loeb, 2010). Manasse (1985) notes that "the nature and pace of events often appear to control

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