The Art and Science of Scholarly Writing - final

THE ART AND SCIENCE OF

SCHOLARLY WRITING

Diane M. Dusick, Ph.D. Walden University

Presented at the Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management Conference

Orlando, Florida October 13-15, 2011

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to clearly define scholarly writing. The science of scholarly writing consists of (a) selecting a topic worthy of scholarly research, (b) compliance with a scholarly manual (e.g., APA style); (c) a clear understanding of the mechanics of writing, i.e., proper grammar; and (d) basic adherence to the steps of the scientific method. The art of scholarly writing is more elusive to define but just as essential to a well-written article. The art of writing in a scholarly tone is based on (a) clarity, (b) brevity, (c) significance, (d) eloquence, (e) organization, and (f) overcoming writers' block. The paper concludes with suggestions to make writing less complicated and less threatening for students.

The Science and Art of Scholarly Writing: Preparing to Write the Dissertation Proposal United States Supreme court justice Potter Stewart noted that hard-core pornography is

difficult to define, but Stewart famously commented, "I know it when I see it" (Jacobellis v. Ohio, 1964). Many professional editors and doctoral chairs may feel the same way when evaluating the attempts at scholarly writing by doctoral students. The purpose of this paper is to dissect scholarly writing and define (a) the science ? those clear, robust rules of writing, and (b) the art ? those less tangible but just as important elements that change a paper from a dry, incomprehensible tome into an erudite, succinct parvum opus.

According to the Writing Center at Walden University (2009), Scholarly writing is a type of writing rather than a level of writing (there is no hierarchy in writing genres). Scholarly writing isn't better than journalism, fiction, or poetry; it is just a different category. As with any type of writing, scholarly writing has traditions and expectations that you know about only if you read or write in that style. Because most of us do not use scholarly writing in our daily practice, it can feel unfamiliar and intimidating, but it is a skill that can be learned. The more you are immersed in it, the more you will get a feeling for its hallmarks. Here are a few of the most common characteristics of scholarly writing:

The wording in scholarly writing is specialized, requiring previous knowledge on the part of the reader. You won't be able to pick up a scholarly journal in another field and easily understand its contents (although you should be able to follow the writing itself). Scholarly authors assume that their audience is familiar with fundamental ideas and terms in their field, and they do not typically define them for the reader.

Scholarly writing communicates original thought, whether through primary research or analysis that presents a unique perspective on previous research. In a scholarly work, the author is expected to have insights on the issue at hand, but those insights must be grounded in research and analysis rather than personal experience or opinion.

Scholarly writing includes careful citation of sources and the presence of a bibliography or reference list. The writing is informed by and shows engagement with the larger body of literature on the topic at hand, and all assertions are supported by peerreviewed, current sources.

Formal language is expected in scholarly writing, although the definition of formal varies over time and by field. Most current fields agree, however, that colloquialisms, slang, contractions, biased language, rhetorical questions, and second person pronouns should be avoided. (Walden University Writing Center, 2009, para. 2-5) The purpose of this paper is to clearly define how to write a paper for a scholarly rather than a general audience. The science of scholarly writing consists of (a)selecting a topic worthy of scholarly research, (b) compliance with a scholarly manual such as the American Psychological Association Publication Manual; (c) a clear understanding of the mechanics of writing, i.e., proper grammar; and (d) basic adherence to the steps of the scientific method. These concepts will be reviewed in more detail in the body of the paper. The art of scholarly writing is more elusive to define but just as essential to a well-written article. The art of writing in a scholarly tone is based on (a) clarity, (b) brevity, (c) significance, (d) eloquence, (e) organization, and (f) overcoming writers' block.

The Science of Scholarly Writing Selecting an Appropriate Topic

Selecting an appropriate dissertation topic begins with your area of interest. Because of the amount of research needed, you will become an expert on your topic by the time you are done. So choose a topic that is related to your professional goals. Remember that you will be spending a significant amount of time on your dissertation; it is therefore important that you choose a topic that truly interests you. However, be aware that the focus of your study goes beyond the broad topic.

Once you have identified an area of interest, the next step is to determine a significant research problem (more on this in the discussion of the scientific method). This is often a problem identified in the current literature. All dissertations revolve around a problem. If there were no problem, research would not be necessary.

You may spend a few months, or even a year or longer reviewing potential research problems. An excellent place to find suggestions for research is at the end of published articles in refereed journals. These articles often end with recommendations for further research. Examine the populations from previous studies. If a significant study did not include some population of interest, you might repeat that study ? use the same methodology, research questions, etc. - to see if the results are consistent across populations.

Look at the limitations and delimitations of previous studies. Can you control for variables not considered in previous studies? Also, look to see if results are consistent across studies. If two researchers find different results, you may be able to design a study that examines why.

Do not wait until you have completed your coursework to identify a topic. As you write research papers for your coursework, consider each topic as a potential research subject. Consider what questions remain unanswered as you review the literature. Equally important, consider how difficult it will be to conduct the study. Can it be done within a reasonable length of time, at a reasonable cost? Compliance with a Scholarly Manual

There are several styles of formatting such as Chicago Style (books, magazines, newspapers, and other non-scholarly publications), MLA (literature, arts, and the humanities), and Turabian (higher education in many subjects); but many manuscripts and dissertations in psychology, education, business, and the social sciences use the style developed by the American Psychological Association (generally referred to by the acronym APA). There are many excellent grammar books, and even the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010) includes numerous guidelines on how to write in a scholarly tone. The Publication Manual includes five different sections a scholarly author should carefully review.

Section 1 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010) covers the basics of "writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences" (p. 9). Section 2 details "Manuscript Structure and Content" (p. 21). Section 3 is a must for every author: "Writing Clearly and Concisely" (p. 61). Section 4 details "The Mechanics of Style", and covers punctuation, spelling, capitalization, italics, abbreviations, and more (p. 87). Finally, Section 5 presents the guidelines on presenting results in tables and figures.

The remaining sections of the Manual detail the rules for crediting sources, properly formatting references, and guidelines for publication. Regardless of which style of formatting you are required to use, remember that scholarly writing is never based on opinion, only fact.

Therefore, whatever you write, if you are stating a fact, you must provide a citation. Your personal opinion has no place in scholarly writing.

Too often, students assume their background in college-level writing prepares them for scholarly papers. Not so. Not only should authors review the five sections in the Publication Manual, but authors should keep the manual nearby for quick reference. The Mechanics of Writing

The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010) provides the basic mechanics of scholarly writing. A good grammar book is a must (do not depend on spellcheck and grammar check ? currently, no computer editing program can match the ability of a live editor). I would like to recommend eight specific guidelines from one of the best books of writing ever written, The Elements of Style (Strunk & White, 1979) that will also aid the scholarly author:

1. Make the paragraph the unit of composition (avoid one-sentence paragraphs and ensure paragraphs contain meaningful concepts),

2. Use active voice (active voice means that the subject of the sentence is doing the action, as in participants responded to the survey),

3. Put statements in positive form (for example, 30% of those contacted responded as opposed to 70% did not respond),

4. Use definitive, specific, concrete, language (some words and phrases to avoid include good, bad, perfect, ideal, seemingly, would seem to show, in terms of, based on, in light of. Prefer words and phrases that clearly illustrate your point),

5. Omit needless words (if you can eliminate words in a sentence without changing the meaning, do so),

6. Avoid a succession of loose sentences (long convoluted sentences confuse the reader), 7. Express co-ordinate ideas in a similar form (as, for example, in this list, each item begins

with a verb), 8. Keep related words together (for example, ensure that adjectival phrases immediately

follow the nouns they modify). Of course, plagiarism is absolutely not allowed. You may not, under any circumstances, use another author's words without quoting the exact source. But there are specific words and phrases that are common to scholarly studies that you may use with impunity. Typical phrases include (a) the purpose of this study is to . . . and (b) the results indicate the null hypothesis that . . . was/was not rejected. As you review published studies, make a note of other common scholarly phrases you see from study to study. It goes without saying that grammar and spelling are critical. However, that is not enough. Proper English does not compensate for a lack of substance. Consult a reliable guide to English usage if you need assistance regarding questions of grammar, sentence structure, or style. Consult a dictionary whenever you are unsure of the spelling or definition of a word. Pay attention to your spell-check program. But most importantly, say something relevant and significant. Follow the Steps of the Scientific Method There are essentially five steps in any scientific study (see Table 1, Dusick, 2011). Note that these five steps are a broad simplification of your study, and each of the five steps is broken down into many additional steps. Before your study can begin, the first step is to identify the problem and explicate the purpose. The purpose of the study is to solve the problem. Too often

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