Appalachian State University



Teaching Reading in a Kindergarten Classroom

Diane Clark

Reading 5710

March 7, 2005

What an exciting time to be in the field of teaching! In my situation with the administration that is one hundred percent behind its teachers, I find myself in a very enjoyable as well as excellent situation. In the school where I am employed, if a teacher wants to investigate a new program, technique, or use a new strategy, all they have to do is ask. The principal is a firm believer that if you allow a teacher to do their job, they will do it. He has a wonderful instinct for hiring those that do just that. He allows teachers to be an integral part of how the school is run and continually wants feedback from them to insure the school environment is the best it can be and one that evokes the highest quality. I consider myself fortunate when I transferred into that school.

I am a Kindergarten teacher with approximately eleven and one half years experience teaching in the classroom. I’m a firm believer that there is no greater skill that can be taught to a child than Reading. It is an amazingly difficult and complex task which is embedded in every aspect of our society; it dictates how our society functions, which is why I take my job very seriously. I want to be able to provide a solid foundation in the area of Reading. I first want to set the tone for my Reading program that I have developed by establishing an environment that allows the children positions of leadership, ownership to tasks, some choice, and provide for a supportive and enjoyable introduction into the world of literacy. I have incorporated ideas that I get from reading programs that I use currently and those I have used in the past to create reading into a wonderful experience where children want to be involved. Some ideas come from workshops I have attended, other ideas from teachers, or sometimes even from the students; they have great ideas! They have wonderful little minds, and if they are thinking one way, perhaps another child may think that way too! I can try it, vary it or discard it depending on the workability of the idea. I try to create an atmosphere where the children are comfortable voicing their ideas. I realize that there are other elements that can foster the whole child, so I try to develop self-esteem, curiosity, and a natural purposefulness to reading. Ideally, I think the program that I have put together works! I try to stay abreast of new ideas, techniques or strategies that come into the field of reading. I’m also mindful that each classroom of children is different from the last group. What works in one group may or may not work with another, so I adjust what I do for the best results.

Assessment in the Kindergarten classroom

In my current teaching situation, our county has developed an assessment called the KELA, the Kindergarten Early Literacy Assessment, which is used to determine growth of the student throughout a given school year. I am not against assessment, and do feel that testing can be good, but I feel that I do teach to the document. The assessment covers what the state of North Carolina says we need to be teaching. This assessment is a document allows me to track my students. I believe that whatever a teacher decides to use, that information should be used to assess growth that the child makes between designated time periods. I use the assessment and keep anecdotal records to make sure each child is achieving and making growth. I generate checklists from state objectives and keep notations of who can and cannot do certain items as we cover them.

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My reading program is developed around this assessment, although I use many other ideas, strategies, techniques and ideas obtained from past and present reading programs; I have to teach to what will be covered on the test but if the class is ready to go beyond what is on the assessment, I will teach for learning. The assessment that is given covers alphabet recognition, phonological awareness, decoding, spelling and leveled readings to determine what level that a child reads.

The alphabet recognition portion covers four areas in that are tested four times a year. The testing is done in stages, where only certain areas are tested at a designated time of year. The four areas of alphabet recognition are: uppercase recognition, (being able to name uppercase letters), lowercase recognition, (being able to name lowercase letters), production, (being able to produce through writing the alphabet letters), and sound production, (being able to produce the sound of each letter of the alphabet). The phonological portion of the assessment encompasses several areas as well. The areas are: verbally stating how many words are in a sentence, being able to decipher how many syllables are in certain words, rhyming, deleting initial and final parts or sounds in words and distinguishing beginning and ending sounds of words. There is a decoding part of the test where the children are asked to call out words that they recognize. The spelling portion of the assessment is a portion of the test where the student writes down words that the teacher calls out. The last portion of the test deals with reading passages of leveled texts. The children begin at the Emergent level and read throughout the year at designated times, in our case, each nine weeks. The books, developed by the state are leveled, determined by the reading equation that was developed for each book or passage. As I stated above the KELA assessment plays a big part in how I teach reading. The scores are sent to the county level and then to the state level to be aware of the growth each student has made for the year.

Another area that I assess in my room is writing. In the Write From the Beginning program, a program the county adopted, the students are assessed three times during the school year. A rubric is used to determine growth. The students are given a prompt from which they will write a sentence. They are assessed on drawing, the formation of their letters, and if the sentence matches what they have drawn.

Materials used in the Kindergarten reading program

I use a variety of materials to ensure that objectives are being met satisfactorily by myself and by objectives set by the state. In the area of phonemic awareness I use materials from the reading program that I am currently using, Letterland reading program, integrating it with materials from an old Open Court series, (letter picture cards), a Saxon Phonics series that I taught from in the past, and an assortment of hands on materials that either the school purchased or I purchased to add variety to the program. I use mini Magna Doodles, chalkboards, white boards, magic slates, and rainbow boards, skywriting using their fingers, magic fingers, (hard plastic fingernails with red nail polish on them), Hulk hands, a giant college megaphone, a fireman’s megaphone for cheering words, a wacky stick, (child’s toy), a dog clicker, a magic wand, flashlight writing, textured writing boards, and a material clock to engage the children in texture with

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alphabet recognition. I also use games, for example, I made up the game, “Guess the Letter”. The children are contestants trying to guess the letter (those letters that they have been exposed to in the room) that another child picks from a stack of alphabet cards. They guess the letter from the clues that the audience gives (words that begin with that letter); it follows a Price is Right format. (Come on down, you’re the next contestant in Guess the Letter). I use many songs (Dr. Jean’s songs) and finger plays that allow the children exposure to the alphabet in an engaging way. I incorporate and utilize technology with different software and web sites that focuses on the alphabet in different ways, (phonemic awareness and phonological awareness), which allows the children in my room exploration using the alphabet. Some examples are the Letterland CD, ,

and Kinder Concepts. I have created my own web site for parents and the children in my room. It lists many web sites for alphabet practice and reading practice. The web site is: The web site includes a parent page as well as a student page. Other materials that I use are buckets that come from a company called Lake Shore. They have different objects in them that have the beginning sounds of words for the alphabet. I have developed them for many uses for my program. The use of instructional readers from the Wright Group Company is utilized in my room, along with big books, supplemental readers, sight word books, Creative Teaching Press books, and a program called Accelerated Reader. In the Writing portion of my reading program, I use Write From the Beginning and have developed a writer’s workshop utilizing journal writing.

The mini Magna Doodles, magic slates and rainbow boards, Hulk hands, flashlight writing, material clock, textured boards, and skywriting are used primarily for alphabet recognition. I will call out either a sound of a letter or the letter itself and the children write the letter or letter sound using one of the materials. I interchange each material so it is different each day for variety.

In the area of phonological awareness, I use the following materials: sentence strips for rhyming and scrambled sentences. (As the year progress’ we offer Partners In Print, a program for parents that allows them to be taught reading techniques. Scrambled sentences come from that program. I use sight words we have talked about and write a sentence on a sentence strip out of order. I cut up the sentence as it is on the strip and we put the words in order, then take out my giant magic finger, a squirt gun shaped like a hand with the pointing finger sticking out, and we read the sentence. The children chose different friends to come up and finger point as they read the sentence. I extended this lesson by giving the parents each sentence on a weekly sheet and they review it at home.) I also use Lake Shore alphabet buckets, Letterland materials, (cards, small reading books), old Open Court alphabet cards, an old Saxon Reading program, and Dr. Jean songs. I use a lot of hands on manipulatives, some examples are: white boards, chalk boards, magic slates, magic wands, a clicker to click out sounds of words, a wacky stick that makes noises, a giant college megaphone and a small fireman’s megaphone to give clues of words.

Decoding materials consist of: small sight word books, Creative Teaching Press books, Wright Group books, Letterland materials, big books white boards, chalk boards,

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Magna Doodles, the Hulk hands, Dr. Jean CD’s, sentence strips, and technology web sites.

I use the state recommended books for the leveled reading for the assessment, but I use the Creative Teaching Press books, the Letterland books, and the Wright Group books when I am teaching, and to determine levels for each child’s reading ability.

Types of reading instruction

As one walks in my room, the first thing that they would notice is that print is everywhere. The environment that I present is one that allows for literacy to be acknowledged in every area of the room, from the art center to the blocks center. I try to integrate as much literacy in every element of the kindergarten room as I can. As I stated above, reading is everywhere in our society. In our small schoolroom society, I want the children to see that indeed it is in every aspect of what we do to learn. I feel that they need exposure to lots of different types of instruction to develop into the best reader possible.

I use many types of reading instruction because in Kindergarten the children are just being introduced to reading at a very basic level. I use systematic phonics teaching and multi-sensory approach with my reading program. I have found that through research that systematic phonics instruction may be the best instruction leading to reading success. The National Reading Panel states “systematic phonics instruction makes a bigger contribution to children’s growth in reading than alternative programs providing unsystematic or no phonics instruction. Systematic phonics helps in preventing reading difficulties, word-reading skills are strongly enhanced by program that include systematic phonics, and that it contributed in helping Kindergartners and 1st graders apply their knowledge of the alphabetic system.” In my room we decode words by sounds, both consonant and vowel sounds. In reading an article by Stahl, Osborne and Lehr, (1990), I know they stated that “Insufficient familiarity with the spellings and spelling to sound correspondences of frequent words and syllables may be the single most common source of reading difficulties”, so I try to initiate as much sound correspondence to letters for recognition purposes as I can.

I have been trained in Orton-Gillinham and use some of those techniques within my phonics teachings. The phonics component includes a systematic and organized approach with direct instruction. It is sequenced with scaffolding, where one element may build upon another for maximum learning. Research tells us that an early and systematic emphasis on teaching children to decode words leads to better achievement than a later or more haphazard approach (Adams, 1990, Chall, 1989). The multi-sensory element includes VAKT, or, a visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile approach. The use of manipulatives allows the student to process from the abstract to concrete.

Thomas Gunning (1996), stated three principles in teaching phonics which I feel that I use within my program, they are: first, it must teach skills necessary for decoding words, second, it must be a skill that students do not already know, and third, the skills being taught should be related to reading tasks in which students are currently engaged or will soon be engaged. I use guided reading, shared reading, independent reading, read

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alouds, leveled reading and model reading. I teach reading in small groups, large groups,

provide individualized instruction when needed, provide tutoring by peers,

by assistants, and by trained parent volunteers. In teaching reading, I found the article by

Stahl, Hester and Stahl (1998), was an excellent resource for me to draw on as an

affirmation for what I do in Kindergarten. I believe that there are many elements in a phonics program, which I incorporate, that are included within that article. I particularly like what they stated would make a good phonics program. They state that a good phonics program should include:

*the development of the alphabetic principle,

*it should include instruction that develops phonological awareness,

* it should provide practice in reading words,

*it should lead to automatic word recognition

* it should be only one part of reading instruction

I believe that in my phonics program I do all of those things, and will elaborate on how it is done in my room. In the development of the alphabetic principle, they state that the key to learning to decode words is that letters can represent sounds. I feel that I do that every day using many different types of materials to include those already listed. Each day in my room we use a different type of material to reiterate that point. The instruction is teacher directed with ample amounts opportunities for students to participate. For example, we may be use the magic slates, chalkboards, white boards and Magna Doodles to write the alphabet as I produce the sound. After learning enough sounds to formulate words, the children can begin to make words using the same materials. We sound and blend to make words. According to Ehrl, (1995), in the full alphabetic stage, where children are using all the sounds and letters, they will read somewhat labored, relying on sounding out the words. It will eventually lead to some

automatic word recognition where they can read without thinking about the text, rather

think of the meaning of the text. (Chall, 1996) By the end of the year, we will use more complex orthographic elements such as the consonant blends, and consonant digraphs. Being able to develop words is necessary for children to become independent word learners and thus be able to develop as readers without teacher assistance. (Share, 1995) My hope is that by the end of the year they can read Emergent book, Pre-Primer books, and even Primer using skills taught.

In the development of phonological awareness, the awareness of sounds in spoken words, I do many strategies to ensure success for the children in my room. I use many of the tasks stated in Stahl’s article (1995), phonemic deletion, sound isolation, phoneme segmentation, phoneme counting, rhyming, (building words by adding rimes to onsets), word-to-word matching tasks, sound-to-word matching tasks, deletion of initial and final sounds in words, segmentation, blending and deletion manipulation. I also use journal writing where invented spelling takes place, as a component in stressing phonological awareness.

I teach reading words by using the letter sound relationship. I review this on a continual basis to ensure that the children are able to do this task sufficiently. I have the children making words using old Open Court word cards; it provides a manipulative activity where they are creating words with me. I have them choral reading stories with

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me, or read independently to practice this skill. I send home leveled readers for parent

participation and include the program AR (Accelerated Reader) to initiate

comprehension. I also include this skill in their journal writing pieces. In addition, I use

repeated readings to help increase automatic word recognition. Optimistically, I hope these strategies will lead to some automatic word recognition.

I know that the phonics component is only one part of a reading program so I try to maintain a balance of instruction that encompasses not only a sound phonics portion, but good literary choices for the children to read independently, good literary choices for

me to read to the children, and a good writing component to allow them to tie together

what they have learned.

Comprehension in the Kindergarten room

To develop comprehension for my students I use read alouds, repeated readings, Accelerated Reader, and parent participation through Supplemental Readers sent home.

I use activating prior knowledge by initiating a pre reading discussion. I use mapping after reading by using Thinking Maps (a semantic program our county uses) to track the events of the story, and to remember what was read. I use setting purposes and goals for reading a selection by discussion why it is important for us to know what we are reading. I use predicting in helping set the purpose and goal for reading. It allows the students to be more in tune to the selection read, giving them a reason for reading and then realizing whether their prediction was correct. I use summarizing and previewing in a discussion format. We preview the pages to see if we know what the book may be about and voice those assumptions aloud. We summarize the story aloud by going back through the book and creating a thinking map to go along with the book. Read alouds; according to Beck and McKeown (2001) provide rich opportunities for students to develop there

understanding of decontexualized language, language that is more likely to be found in

written text and not in oral speech. It allows students the ability to discuss the reading, to listen and construct more than the literal meaning, using background knowledge and ponder sophisticated words from the text. (Rasinski, 2003) Repeated readings allow students to remember facts from the text; resulting in improved story comprehension. (Rasinski, 2003) The supplemental readers I use are leveled texts taken from Story Box book, McGraw Hill, and The Wright Group. I train parents to ask the children some comprehension questions (those that are ready for the readers), and give them directions to follow. After the second or third time they know how to ask their child questions about the text read together. The children are not only reading the text to be able to read it, but after, they can successfully read it; the parents may ask them words on a page or ask comprehension questions about the text.

Fluency in the Kindergarten room

According to Kuhn’s and Stahl’s article (2003), fluency instruction seems to work best with children from between a late preprimer level and late second grade level. Beyond or below that level, the results are not strong. Children need to have some

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entering knowledge about words to benefit from rereading but not be so fluent that they cannot demonstrate improvements. I try to integrate fluency in my program with

providing read alouds, assisted readings, repeated readings, allow for modeling of oral

readings, shared readings, use choral readings, paired readings with the use of sixth grade reading buddies, use recorded materials, provide differentiated instruction through the supplemental reading program, and as stated by Chall (1996), provide a foundation that will allow for later instruction to proceed in a meaningful manner, including insights into the reading process that include concepts, about print, phoneme awareness and book-handling knowledge. By providing those elements, I feel that fluency will develop. I spend a lot of time on sight word knowledge to build a knowledge base in that area as well as building words using manipulatives. I provide reading materials that allow lots of choices for enjoyable reading to take place. I teach using assisted readings, repeated

readings and with texts that overlap in word choices, which I feel, help in the area of fluency as well as accuracy. The assisted readings provide support for the text read. In order for fluency to take place the children need to master other stages of the reading process to be considered fluent. The stages that Kuhn presents are the emergent literacy stage, next the convention literacy stage and finally the confirmation stage, from those when children have obtained a certain amount of accuracy they can read for enjoyment. In our county, the children are expected to pass within the Emergent levels. My expectations are higher. I would like for those students who can go beyond that stage to go as far as they can within the guidelines set by the county for passing each level. Therefore, I make available to my students differentiated instruction in the classroom and provide the supplemental reading program to make accommodations for students who go beyond what is expected.

Modeling reading in Kindergarten

Modeling reading allows for the student to be exposed to a teacher’s way of reading with inflection, reading multiple genres, read for exposure to words and structures of words, vocabulary, exposure to motivation for reading, fluency, comprehension, and can build confidence. (Gunning, 2000). Modeling reading develops children’s vocabulary, expands their experiential background, makes them aware of the language of books, introduces them to basic concepts of print and how books are read and provides them with many pleasant associations with books, but perhaps most important is the power of books to help children create worlds based on words and story structures. (Wells, 1986). The more a child is read to help build vocabulary and helps in discussions of unfamiliar concepts, thus creating or intuitively relating new concepts to the child’s background. (Gunning, 1996) Shared reading with big books and multiple copies of the same book is a way that I model reading allowing children the concept of print, understanding that sentences are made of words, and print direction. Modeling takes place throughout the reading time in my room, not only in shared reading, but also in phonemic awareness, in phonological awareness strategies and the writing process. My job is to ensure success in each task that the students are able to do.

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Word Study in Kindergarten

Word study in my room is done through building words by adding onsets, making

words using manipulatives and through sight word study. Research suggests that the components of a pattern, its onset and rime are natural units of language and so are easier for youngsters to perceive and grasp. (Adams, 1990) As soon as we have studied the alphabet to begin building words is when I begin this process. I use white boards, and chalk boards to expose the children to word building. They are given ample amounts of practice for automaticity in reading words. I give them multiple sounds, one at a time, which they write on their boards and we manipulate those sounds to create words. I will change the beginning consonant so that we can work with word families. (i.e. cat, hat, mat) This also allows us to discuss vocabulary as we make words. I teach sight word study for reasons that Gunning (1996), stated in his book Creating Reading Instruction for All Children, first a number of words simply cannot be sounded out or are difficulty to sound out, second, although some of the high frequency words are regularly spelled, they incorporate advanced letter-sound relationships and allows for students greater variety in writing, and third, although sight words implies that the student will memorize the words through sight, it also refers to immediate recognition of words – taking in the words by sight and not having to decode them. I introduce three words on Monday in my room and we study them through out the week, and then they become part of our word wall for use in their journal writings. I use different manipulatives to engage the students in what the words say. For example, when I taught Four Blocks by Pat Cunningham, in first grade, I did the word study in their format. I lowered that format for Kindergarten, depending on the class. This year, my class is ready to study words in this fashion. On Mondays, one child will cheer the words, one word at a time and they will pick another child to do the next one. On Tuesdays, one child will click the number of letters in one word and the children in the audience will attempt to guess which word they clicked. If they pick a word with the same number of letters the clicker has to give a clue about that word. (It begins with a “b”. They may say the sound or letter name.) On Wednesdays, the children will use the magic wand and will give a clue about one of the words on the board. After they have given the clue they walk where the children are sitting and we say “Magic Wand in the air, who’s the one who will share.” Each word will be done in that style. On Thursdays, the wacky stick, which makes crazy noises, is used. A child will tap the wacky stick on their hand and everyone will count the noises it makes. The children will then pick a word that matches the same amount of taps. On Fridays, the giant college megaphone is used. The students will give a clue about one of the words on the board. They give the clues through the megaphone. I find when I allow the students to be a part of the lesson that more learning takes place then if I was the one giving clues or tapping the words, therefore, they are a huge part of the lesson. I reinforce the words in sight word books that I use for repeated readings, so they are seeing the word not only in isolation, but in printed material as well.

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Spelling in Kindergarten

I don’t believe that a formal Spelling program is developmentally appropriate in Kindergarten. I incorporate spelling in their writing pieces with invented spelling. I see

many stages of emergent writing. The children in my room have developed their writing

and spelling abilities since the beginning of Kindergarten. In each journal entry they create a drawing and then some form of writing to match their picture. Some children began with random scribbling to wordlike scribbling. Other children went directly to wordlike scribbling, then to formation of prephonemic writing. The spellings I see in most of the children’s journal entries to date are letter name spelling. Some have only one letter representing a word, and others are writing more letters to represent the sounds they hear in the words they try to spell. It seems as though they have a good handle on the alphabetic principle. I also incorporate spelling and writing in thematic centers around the room. Depending on the topic we are studying, them may trace, copy, draw and write in the Writing center, Publishing center, Puzzle center, or Unit of Study center. They have plenty of practice, which may help their future writings.

Meeting diverse levels and instructional needs in the Kindergarten room

Kindergarten is an interesting grade to teach because the children come to school at such varying abilities. Some children come ready to read and then at the other end of the spectrum there are children who do not know their alphabet. After the second week of school, the first part of the KELA is administered. It allows for me to see where the children are in the area of alphabet recognition. I usually have several that have mastered it to some degree, but are usually missing a piece. They can name the letters, but do not know the sounds associated with the letters, or they can name the letters but cannot produce them on paper. I know that they will master those skills pretty readily, so I can plan for them differently. I will start them with supplemental readers within the next four weeks, and will have my assistant pull them and do shared readings, choral readings paired readings from texts from within a comfort level, and then elevate the text to make it challenging. I don’t want them to be away from the group totally, but can differentiate for them to meet their needs. I teach reading by having two groups. The groups are not divided by ability levels. I believe that it is good to pair knowledgeable students with

those that have a difficulty time. I have seen them work better with peer tutors with lots of sharing and learning taking place. It builds self-esteem, social skills and friendships. It is certainly easier to teach ten children in a group than twenty and allows me to work with those that have harder time mastering a skill. I can have those who need my assistance in close proximity, and help them as needed. My assistant, who is studying to be a teacher, takes a group and works with them on reading skills in a format that involves a multi-sensory worksheet. On designated days, they cover the alphabet letter with something they can feel, then be a letter detective and find that particular letter in environmental print, they draw a picture of something that begins with the letter, and

finally trace the letter.

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For those students who struggle in my room I create safety nets all along the way.

I work with them individually, I have my assistant work with them individually, and I have peer tutors from other grade levels come to my room and work with them while I am teaching so they can understand the concept being taught. Actually, this is a win-win situation. I am working with the EC teacher who is allowing for some of the students in

her class come to my room and work with some of my struggling students, this helps

them with self-esteem issues and builds confidence. She tells me that they love coming and helping all the students they can! I also work with a sixth grade teacher who comes

once a month to have her students read to my students. My students pick out books from our class library or the book baskets made available on a daily basis for self selected reading and they read together. I have my students read to them so the sixth graders can see progress their buddy has made. That is a real boost to my students. The sixth grade buddies are really good to my students and readily give them cards and gifts to show how proud they are of them.

This year I have one ESL student. I have had more in the past and I ask that not only one be placed in my room. In meeting this child’s needs and those who are considered ESL learners I plan for them using training that I received at a teacher academy I attended several years ago in Elon. I learned a lot of valuable information pertaining to how children of other nationalities may act, how they may feel, and some strategies to better prepare them for learning in the United States. Some of the strategies I use in Kindergarten are: giving the students “personal space”, establishing a routine for them, assigning a buddy to help them, including them in all activities, seating them in close proximity so they can receive help as needed, and connecting home and school assignments, so they are not overwhelmed with work. (Law and Eckes, 1990). In my room, I have a Spanish-English wall. It has the Spanish words and English translations. We work on those words, so all students can learn from our ESL student.

Tying it together and making it work

The program that I have developed for my Kindergartners involves many aspects of reading that fit together and creates an environment that allows the process of reading to begin. Incorporating the key elements: phonological awareness (syllables, onset/ rime and phonemic skills), phonics and word study, (to include print awareness, alphabetic knowledge, the alphabetic principle, and decoding), comprehension, (involving listening skills, and sense of story), and vocabulary development will hopefully make their journey into reading a success. (Vaughn, Stahl, 2004) I engage them every step of the way to make certain that learning is taking place. It will take several years for some of the children to become good readers. The essential pieces will hopefully begin with my ability to generate a good foundation from which they can grow. The elements that I didn’t state above is that children in my room the children see a fun filled day, packed with enthusiasm, caring, and dedication. I want the children in my room to see that I like what I am doing; it is important, and it matters. I want them to come to school every day and think “I wonder what we will be doing today in Mrs. Clark’s class?”

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References:

Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning to Read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press

Beck, I.L., & McKeown, M.G. (2001). Test talk: Capturing the benefits of read-aloud experiences for young children. The Reading Teacher, 55, 10-20.

Chall, J.S. (1989). Learning to Read: The great debate twenty years later. A response to

“Debunking the great phonics myth.” Phi Delta Kappan. 71 521-558

Chall, J.S. (1996). Learning to Read: The great debate. New York: McGraw-Hill

Ehrl, L.C. (1995). Phases of Development in learning to read words by sight. Journal of Research in Reading. 18, 116-125

CAL Center for Applied Linguistics. (2000). Enhancing English Language Leaning in Elementary Classrooms. Delta Systems Co. IL

Gunning, T.G. (1996). Creating Reading Instruction for all children. Simon & Schuster, Needham, MA

Law, B. and Eckes, M. (1990). The more than just surviving handbook. Winnipeg,

Manitoba: Peguis, 7-22

Kuhn, M.R. & Stahl, S.A. (2003). Fluency: A Review of Developmental and Remedial Practices. Journal of Educational Psychology. 95, 1, 3-21

Rasinski, T.V. (2003). The Fluent Reader. Scholastic Professional Books: New York, NY

Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching Children to read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the scientific Research Literature on reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. The National Reading Excellence Initiative ( )

Share, D.I. (1995). Phonological recording and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition. 55, 151-218

Stahl, S.A., Duffy-Hester, A.M., Stahl, K.A. (1998). Everything you wanted to know about phonics (but were afraid to ask). Reading Research Quarterly. 35 3 (338-355)

Wells, G. (1986). The meaning makers: Children learning language and using language to learn. Portsmith, NH: Heineman.

Vaughn, S. & Linan-Thompson, S. (2004). Research-Based Methods of Reading Instruction Grades K-3. ASCD (Association for Supervision and Curriculum Department. Alexandria, VA.

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