Iterative Methods for Solving Sets of Equations
Iterative Methods for Solving Sets of Equations
2.4 Gradient Methods
2.4.1 Gradients and Hessian
Gradient methods use derivative information of a function to locate optima. At the location where the first derivative is equal to zero, the function will have a maximum if the second derivative is negative and will have a minimum if the second derivative is positive. The concepts are illustrated in Figure 2.4-1 for a function with a single variable.
[pic]
Figure 2.4-1 The optimums of a one-dimensional function.
To understand how the first and second derivatives are expressed in a multidimensional system we begin by reviewing the concept of directional derivative of a function.
Let u(x,y) is a function of two variables and [pic]= (v1, v2) is a unit vector with arbitrary direction ( shown in Figure 2.4-2 where [pic] and [pic]are unit vectors in the x and y direction, respectively.
[pic]
Figure 2.4-2 Unit vector [pic]= (v1, v2) with arbitrary direction (
[pic] = v1[pic] + v2[pic] = [pic]cos ([pic] + [pic]sin ([pic] (2.4-1)
The directional derivative g’ of u measures the rate of change of u at the point (xo, yo) as we move in the direction of [pic].
g’ = (u([pic] = ([pic][pic] + [pic][pic])(( v1[pic] + v2[pic]) (2.4-2a)
g’ = v1[pic](xo, yo) + v2[pic](xo, yo) (2.4-2b)
g’ = cos ([pic](xo, yo) + sin ([pic](xo, yo) (2.4-2c)
Consequently, if g’ = 0, then u is not changing in the direction of [pic]. g’ is a maximum if we move in the direction of (u since g’ = |(u|(|[pic]|cos((). Therefore the gradient of u, (u, gives the direction of steepest ascent.
Example 2.4-13
Evaluate the steepest ascent direction for the function u(x,y) = xy2 at the point (2, 2)
Solution
If u(x,y) is temperature then the curves xy2 = constant are called isotherms. Six of these isotherms are plotted in Figure 2.4-3 with the point A(2, 2) for which the direction of steepest ascent is line AB. The function at A(2, 2) can be determined as
u(2, 2) = 2(2)2 = 8
Next, the gradient of u, (u, can be evaluated
(u = [pic][pic] + [pic][pic] = y2[pic] + 2xy[pic] = (2)2 [pic] + 2(2)(2) [pic]
(u = 4[pic] + 8[pic]
The angle ( with respect to the x axis is then
( = tan-1[pic] = 1.107 radians (= 63.4o)
[pic]
Figure 2.4-3 Isotherms for u(x,y) = xy2.
The magnitude of (u is evaluated as
|(u| = (42 + 82)1/2 = 8.944
Therefore line AB will initially gain 8.944 units for a unit distance advanced along this steepest path. The value of u at B is not 8 + 8.944 = 16.944 since as we move in this direction the value of the gradient changes. The value of u at B is
u(2.4472, 2.8944) = 2.4472(2.8944)2 = 20.502
The directional derivative g’ of u along this path is just |(u|
g’ = cos ([pic](xo, yo) + sin ([pic](xo, yo) = 4 cos(1.107) + 4 sin(1.107) = 8.944
The direction of steepest ascent is normal to the isotherm at the coordinate (2, 2). The Matlab program listed in Table 2.4-1 plots the isotherms shown in Figure 2.4-3.
Table 2.4-1 Matlab program to plot isotherms for u(x,y) = xy2 -------------
%
x1=2;y1=2;
dfdx=4;dfdy=8;
r=dfdy/dfdx;
dx=sqrt(1/(1+r*r));dy=r*dx;
x2=x1+dx;y2=y1+dy;
xx=[x1 x2];yy=[y1 y2];
fxy=[4 8 16 24 32 40];
x=.5:.02:4;x=x';
n=length(fxy);nx=length(x);
ym=zeros(nx,n);
for i=1:n
ym(:,i)=sqrt(fxy(i)./x);
end
plot(x,ym,xx,yy);axis equal
axis([0 4 0 4]);grid
xlabel('x');ylabel('y')
y2 =
2.8944
>> x2
x2 =
2.4472
For a function with two independent variables f(x,y), a maximum or a minimum depends not only on the partials with respect to x and y but also on the second partial with respect to x and y. The Hessian H of f is a matrix consists of the second derivatives defined as
H = [pic]
A maximum or a minimum of a multidimensional function depends on the determinant of the Hessian matrix.
|H| = [pic]
If |H| > 0 and [pic] > 0 then f(x,y) has a local minimum.
If |H| > 0 and [pic] < 0 then f(x,y) has a local maximum.
If |H| < 0 then f(x,y) has a saddle point.
3 Numerical Methods for Engineers by Chapra and Canale
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