Psychology-Unit 1



Psychology-Unit 1

Prologue-History of Psychology

← Psychology is defined as the study of human behavior and mental process

← The first and most important historians of psychology are: Freud, Jung, Darwin, Rogers, Maslow, Piaget, Wundt, Skinner, Pavlov, Locke and Watson.

← Freud & Jung were considered the Psychoanalytic theorists: Belief was in the unconscious (subconscious mind). Emphasis was on dreams and unconscious processes.

← Darwin: Survival of the fittest and belief in individual differences.

← Jung: Known as an Analytic Psychologist. Agreed much with Freud but branched out on his own after he studied under Freud. Was also a spiritual psychologist.

← Branch of psychology that focuses on how we think about the world. We are viewed as rational or irrational people.

← Piaget, Beck and Bandura focused on cognitive psychology.

← Branch of psychology that focuses on observable behavior. What can we see, observe, count, etc… Does not focus on the subconscious mind at all.

← Pavlov, Skinner, Watson, & Locke were from this theory.

← Locke asserted “tabula rasa” which means blank slate, signifying that all behavior is learned.

← Believes that the brain and genetics play a large role in psychology.

← Would also look at many chemical reactions in the brain as reasons for depression, anxiety and other psychological issues.

← This theory is the nature-nurture controversy theory. This is the theory which attributes that most of psychology is a combination of nature and nurture.

← Nature is also known as biology and genetics, and nurture is also known as environmental.

Experimental Psychology

← Three types of studies: survey, correlation, experiment.

← Survey: asking individuals preferences and charting responses. Simplest experimental method.

← No generalization can take place beyond the sample group.

← Correlation signifies relationship between two variables.

← -positive: move in the same direction

← -negative: move in opposite directions (inverse)

← Correlation is measured on a scale from -1 to +1

← Value measures strength while sign measures direction. (-.95 is stronger than +.75)

← Scatterplots visually show correlation.

← Positive correlations are shown with a graph sloping upward right whereas negative correlations are shown with a graph sloping downward right.

← No correlation is shown with a random set of points.

← Random Selection-The assurance that every individual in the population will have an equal chance of being selected

← Random Assignment-Reduces the likelihood of pre-existing differences between the control and experimental groups

← Experiments are done to show causation, that one variable causes another.

← Independent Variables are introduced by the researcher to change the results.

← Dependent Variables are measured by the researcher

← Single Blind studies are when the subject does not know what group they are in.

← Double Blind studies are when the subject and researcher do not know what group the subject is in.

← Control Group-placebo is given, no IV

← Experimental Group-IV is given

← Baseline measurement: Objective measure before IV

Biology

← Neural Communication

← -Dendrites: receives information and pass to the cell body

← -axons: largest part of cell body, passes message to cell body

← -myelin sheath: protects axons and speeds neural impulses

← Action potential: electrical charge that travels down the axon, working on all or none response

← Threshold: minimum amount of intensity

← Synapse: junction between the cells

← Neurotransmitters: Chemical messages in the brain

← Acetylcholine (ACH)-Enables muscles, learning & memory: not enough leads to Alzheimer’s Disease

← Dopamine: movement, attention, learning, emotion. Too much leads to Schizophrenia, not enough to Parkinson’s Disease

← Serotonin: Mood, hunger, sleep, arousal. Not enough leads to depression.

← Norepinephrine: Alertness & Arousal. Not enough can also lead to depression

← Endorphins: Control pleasure & pain.

← Divided into Central & Peripheral: The central contains the brain & spinal cord.

← The peripheral contains the somatic & autonomic

← The autonomic contains the sympathetic & parasympathetic

← Somatic controls voluntary movement, autonomic controls involuntary movement

← Sympathetic (arousing) prepares you for stress. Parasympathetic (calming) recovers you from stress

← Sympathetic: Dilates pupils, increases heart rate, inhibits digestion, stimulates glucose, stimulates adrenaline, relaxes bladder, stimulates ejaculation

← Parasympathetic: Contracts pupils, decreases heart rate, stimulates digestion, stimulates gallbladder, contracts bladder, blood flows to sex organs

← Hormones: Chemical messages in the blood

← Adrenal Gland: Secretes adrenaline

← Pituitary Gland: pea-size structure controlled by the hypothalamus responsible for growth

← Hypothalamus: Responsible for hunger, thirst, and homeostatic balance

← EEG-Electroencephalogram-amplified reading of brain waves

← Pet Scan-Positron Emission Tomography-Shows brain’s chemical fuel

← MRI-Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Shows the spinning atoms of the brain

← fMRI-functional MRI-can reveal brain’s function and structure. Most sophisticated method.

← Thalamus: Telephone switchboard of the brain

← Medulla: Controls heartbeat & respiration

← Reticular Formation: Controls arousal & alertness

← Cerebrum: Higher level thinking

← Cerebellum: Coordinates movement & balance

← Corpus Callosum: Connects the two hemispheres

← Limbic System (amygdala): Controls emotion

← Glial Cells: Support, nourish & protect neurons

← Frontal: Emotion & Judgment

← Parietal: Sensory information & touch

← Occipital: Vision

← Temporal: Hearing and Memory

← Broca’s Area: Controls Language Expression (Speaking)

← Wernicke’s Area: Controls language reception (comprehension)

← Aphasia: Impairment of language due to damage to Broca or Wernicke’s area

← Angular Gyrus: Transforms visual representations into auditory codes

← Plasticity: Brain’s ability to regenerate itself after damage

← Right Brain vs. Left Brain:

← -Left Brain: Right handed, logic, mathematics

← -Right Brain: Artistic Ability, Creativity, Spatial Relations

Consciousness

← Selective Attention- Conscious Awareness focuses

← Inattentional Blindness-When attending to one task, not noticing other obvious stimuli in the background

← Change Blindness-Not noticing an obvious change in stimuli

← Biological Rhythms:

← Circadian Rhythms-The 24 hour sleep-wake cycle

← Sleep Stages: Stages 1,2,3,4,Rem

← Stage 1: (alpha waves)-relaxed phase of sleepiness

← Stage 2: (sleep spindles)

← Stage 3: (theta waves)

← Stage 4: (delta waves)-deep sleep, sleeptalking and sleepwalking. Enuresis (bed-wetting) & Encopresis (bed-soiling). Night Terrors occur.

← REM (Rapid Eye Movement): Dreams occur

← A sleep cycle is approximately 90 minutes long. It is divided into 2 phases: Rem sleep & n-Rem sleep.

← As the evening progresses, Rem increases and n-Rem decreases.

← Babies average 50% Rem sleep while adults average 20% Rem sleep.

← REM Rebound-Lacking sleep one night will result in an increase in REM sleep the following night. Sleep medications reduce REM sleep. Withdrawing them increases REM and nightmares.

← Teens typically need 8-9 hours per night and average under 7 hours. Severe sleep loss leads to anxiety & depression and no sleep can lead to hallucinations.

← Hallucinations: Sensory experiences that occur without a sensory stimulus.

← Insomnia-the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep

← Narcolepsy-the inability to stay awake; suddenly falling asleep.

← Apnea-the temporary loss of breathing during sleep

← Theories of why we dream:

← -to satisfy our wishes (Freud wish fulfillment)

← -to file away memories (Information Processing)

← -to preserve neural pathways (Physiological)

← -to reflect cognitive development (Cognitive)

← Sleeping pills depress REM sleep and increase the speed to stage 4 sleep

← Hypnosis: A suggestible state of mind

← Posthypnotic suggestions: Suggestions made during hypnosis carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized.

← Dissociation: Divided consciousness or mind split such as doodling while listening to a lecture.

← Psychoactive drugs: chemicals that change perception and mood through altering neural pathways and connections.

← Tolerance: Brain adapts chemistry to offset drug effect and requires more for same effect

← Withdrawal: Absence of drug causes physical and psychological effects

← Addiction-Compulsive craving for a substance despite adverse consequences

← Dependence is physical and psychological

← Addictive drugs quickly corrupt: Morphine for pain control leads to heroin use is a myth.

← Addiction cannot be overcome voluntarily: People do recover on their own.

← All behaviors over-indulged are classified as addictions. Many over-indulged behaviors are not addictions and can be excused as such if not careful.

← Depressants: Calm neural activity & slow brain functioning. Examples are alcohol, barbiturates and opiates. Alcohol causes disinhibition meaning that people lose their judgment, memories, and boundaries.

← Stimulants: Excite neural activity and arouse body functions. Examples are amphetamines and methamphetamines, caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine.

← Cocaine creates euphoria and then a crash as there is no selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) to assist the process.

← Hallucinogens distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. Examples are LSD, Ecstasy, and Marijuana.

← Marijuana: Causes a mix of effects including mild hallucogenic reactions from the active ingredient, THC.

← Alcohol effects the transfer of material from short-term memory to long-term memory

Near-Death Experience: An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death similar to drug-induced hallucinations

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