Chapter 7 outline



Chapter 3 - States of Consciousness ‘16Consciousness: problem which led to behaviorism; cognitive neuroscience, levels of info processing: conscious, subconscious, dual processing AKA parallel processing; blindsightSelective attention, parallel processing, the cocktail party effect, inattentional blindness, change blindness / deafnesspopoutRhythms: circadian rhythm, hourly / nightly…SLEEP: research (1952)-stages, hallmarks of each and terms -- alpha, hypnagogic, spindles versus k-complexes, delta, talking, wetting, walking, processing-REM: all terms and issues -- vs. NREM-1, genital arousal, paradoxical (blocked by pons), story-line dreams, eyes, everyoneWHY? – genetics, age-related differences, suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN – hypothalamus) pineal gland, melatonin-functions of sleep-effects of sleep deprivationSleep disorders: insomnia, narcolepsy - hypocretin, apnea, night terrors, sleepwalking; insomnia tipsDreams: WHAT – all, men vs. women, lucid dreams, manifest content, REM Rebound -WHY? - FREUD: wish-fulfillment; latent content, trigger events, erotic, frightening-Others: filing / information-processing, physiological function, activation-synthesis, cognitive development(Daydreams and Fantasies: purposes, differences) Psychoactive drugs: substance use disorder, tolerance / neuroadaptation, withdrawal, physical and psychological dependences3 misconceptions: quickly corrupt (vs. “medical”), therapy a must, disease model problem; “addiction?”Depressants – -alcohol: effects on judgment, inhibitions, reactions, memory processing, self-awareness, expectations -barbiturates/ tranquilizers – Nembutal, Seconal, Xanax, Amytal, Atavan; effect on sleep, anxiety, memory-opiates – opium, heroin, morphine – effects, endorphinsStimulants – -caffeine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, -nicotine -- Smoking: growing outside US… --“Eliminating smoking would increase life expectancy more than any other preventative measure…” -why start? pediatric disease: “nic-a-teen”, modeling / media, tolerance, withdrawal-why not quit? (NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT!); stress reduction – immediate, powerful, PHYSICALLY and psych addictive – tolerance / withdrawal, quick, powerful, cheap / readily available-stops craving, boosts mood, alertness; ups three of Big Four (like cocaine); epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine-cocaine – effects of “new” forms; blocks reuptake / depletes “Big three” (dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin); high addiction, arousal-methamphetamine -- effects-Ecstasy (MDMA – classification – stimulant and mild hallucinogen; NTs – dopamine; serotonin; effectsHallucinogens – AKA psychedelics; similarity to near-death experiences-LSD – blocks subtype of serotonin, commonalities to near death experiences-Marijuana – classification, effects -- reactions, senses, pain and nausea; THC receptors in brain (frontal, limbic, motor); not as addictive as cocaine or nicotine, reverse toleranceInfluences on drug use – social, biological – parents, identical twins, NPY; psychological, cultural, peersNear-death experiences: similarity to other hallucinatory states; monism, dualismChapter 3 - States of Consciousness ’16 (with spaces)Consciousness: problem which led to behaviorism; cognitive neuroscience, levels of info processing: conscious, subconscious, dual processing AKA parallel processing; blindsightSelective attention, parallel processing, the cocktail party effect, inattentional blindness, change blindness / deafnesspopoutRhythms: circadian rhythm, hourly / nightly…SLEEP: research (1952)-stages, hallmarks of each and terms -- alpha, hypnagogic, spindles versus k-complexes, delta, talking, wetting, walking, processing-REM: all terms and issues -- vs. NREM-1, genital arousal, paradoxical (blocked by pons), story-line dreams, eyes, everyoneWHY? – genetics, age-related differences, suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN – hypothalamus) pineal gland, melatonin-functions of sleep-effects of sleep deprivationSleep disorders: insomnia, narcolepsy - hypocretin, apnea, night terrors, sleepwalking; insomnia tipsDreams: WHAT – all, men vs. women, lucid dreams, manifest content, REM Rebound -WHY? - FREUD: wish-fulfillment; latent content, trigger events, erotic, frightening-Others: filing / information-processing, physiological function, activation-synthesis, cognitive development(Daydreams and Fantasies: purposes, differences) Psychoactive drugs: substance use disorder, tolerance / neuroadaptation, withdrawal, physical and psychological dependences3 misconceptions: quickly corrupt (vs. “medical”), therapy a must, disease model problem; “addiction?”Depressants – -alcohol: effects on judgment, inhibitions, reactions, memory processing, self-awareness, expectations -barbiturates/ tranquilizers – Nembutal, Seconal, Xanax, Amytal, Atavan; effect on sleep, anxiety, memory-opiates – opium, heroin, morphine – effects, endorphinsStimulants – -caffeine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, -nicotine -- Smoking: growing outside US… --“Eliminating smoking would increase life expectancy more than any other preventative measure…” -why start? pediatric disease: “nic-a-teen”, modeling / media, tolerance, withdrawal-why not quit? (NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT!); stress reduction – immediate, powerful, PHYSICALLY and psych addictive – tolerance / withdrawal, quick, powerful, cheap / readily available-stops craving, boosts mood, alertness; ups three of Big Four (like cocaine); epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine-cocaine – effects of “new” forms; blocks reuptake / depletes “Big three” (dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin); high addiction, arousal-methamphetamine – effects-Ecstasy (MDMA – classification – stimulant and mild hallucinogen; NTs – dopamine; serotonin; EffectsHallucinogens – AKA psychedelics; similarity to near-death experiences-LSD – blocks subtype of serotonin, commonalities to near death experiences-Marijuana – classification, effects -- reactions, senses, pain and nausea; THC receptors in brain (frontal, limbic, motor); not as addictive as cocaine or nicotine, reverse toleranceInfluences on drug use – social, biological – parents, identical twins, NPY; psychological, cultural, peersNear-death experiences: similarity to other hallucinatory states; monism, dualismChapter 7 - States of Consciousness ’09 – complete notesConsciousness: problem which led to behaviorism; levels of info processing: conscious, subconsciousProblem – How do they study consciousness? This problem led to psychologists studying the direct observations of behavior – behaviorism.Consciousness – limited, can only consciously do one thing at a time – serial processing - our awareness of ourselves and our environment - it lags – before you are conscious, you do itSubconscious – can do more than one thing at a time - parallel processing Rhythms: annual, monthly (PMS finding), daily (circadian, changes – hypothalamus, melatonin: pineal gland, adenosine), hourly / nightly…Annual cycles – ex: animals hibernate, migrate; humans – get sleepier/depressed in the winter28 day cycles – the menstrual cycle, causes fluctuation in moods24 hour cycles- circadian rhythm (day cycle) - body temperature, alertness, and growth hormone secretion are based on this cycle90 minute cycles – the stages of sleep last about 90 minutes eachSuperchiasmatic nucleus – 20000 cells that control the circadian clock – triggered by light – causes pineal gland to secrete melatoninMelatonin – sleep inducing hormone – secreted by the pineal glandAdenosine – inhibits neurons – keeps you awake-Seasonal Affective Disorder (S.A.D.) Getting more depressed in the winter in places where there is not much sun – like Alaska Cure - Go under intense artificial light to fake themselves out SLEEP: research (1952)-stages, hallmarks of each and terms -- alpha, hypnagogic, spindles versus K-complexes, delta, talking, wetting, walking, processingBefore sleep - go through alpha waves before stage 1, they show that you are awake but relaxed Stage 1 – happens in an unremembered moment- have hallucinations during this time (hynagogic sensations)- REM happens in stage 1-like stage Stage 2 – go through sleep spindles – bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain wave activity- can start sleep talking in this stage, but can happen in any stageStage 3/4 – brain emits large, slow delta waves - kids may be subject to night terrors in this stage (not in the context of a dream, which happen in stage 1) - people may be subject to sleepwalking in this stage, but can happen in any stageWe still process stimuli outside our conscious awareness, ex: we do not roll off the bed in our sleep or roll over a sleeping baby if it sleeps in the same bed as you.-REM: all terms and issues -- vs. stage 1s, genital arousal, paradoxical (blocked by pons), story-line dreams, eyes, everyoneDifferent than stage 1 b/c it is not as easy to wake up out of while it is easy to wake up out of stage 1Sexual arousal during REM – it occursParadoxical sleep – may seem easy to wake up, but is not - seem to be acting out dreams, and brain is, but pons blacks movement, so you are virtually paralyzed except for twitches - internally aroused, externally calmBrain’s motor cortex is active during REM sleep but your brainstem blacks its messages so you can not move, except for twitchesSleep cycles repeat every 90 minutes WHY (sleep)? – age-related differences in sleep needsMetabolic and hormonal functions improve with sleepSustains better moodsPerform more proficient, accurate workAwaken refreshedAs you get older you need less sleepAs you stop growing, stage 4 sleep shrinks b/c you no longer need the hormones secreted during this stage -effects of sleep deprivationMost accidents occur when you are tired, including visual error tasks, b/c of slowed reaction timesSleep boosts mood, strengthens memory, including concentration, moderates hunger and obesity, fortifies disease-fighting immune system, lessens risks of fatal accidentsYou can keep a sleep debt for about 2 weeksw/o sleep you get irritable, make mistakes, and feel fatiguedSleep makes memory permanent, essential for memory-functions of sleepProtects – descendants slept in caves b/c animals attacked at night, therefore it saved them to reproduceRestores/Repairs – brain tissue, allows neurons to repair themselves from free radicals - allows unused connections to weakenRemembering – makes memories permanentGrowth – during sleep the pituitary gland releases growth hormones- adults spent less time in deep sleep, therefore get less growth hormones Sleep disorders: insomnia, narcolepsy, apnea, night terrors, insomnia tipsInsomnia – persistent problems in falling or staying asleep (help: relax before bedtime, no caffeine, exercise, etc…)Narcolepsy – overwhelming sleepiness for about 5 minutes – dangerous – randomly fall asleepSleep Apnea – (mainly overweight men) – stop breathing during sleep, snort in air awakening sleeper for brief period, deprives them of deep sleepNight terrors – target children, a frightening image not in the context of a dream, happens in stage 4, recall little or nothing of the episode the next morningDreams: WHAT – all, men vs. women, lucid dreams, manifest content, REM Rebound Dreams – hallucinations of the sleeping mind; vivid, emotional, and bizarreMen – more often have sexual overtone, dream more of menVs. Women – dream ? of men and womenBoth – marked by emotionsLucid dreams – when you know you are dreaming, like performing an absurd act to test your state of consciousnessBlind people – they dream w/o vision, but have been known to experience visual imagesManifest content (Sigmund Freud label) – the storyline of our dreams sometimes incorporate the previous day’s experiences and preoccupations (a trigger event)Outside stimuli – can be woven into your dreams – like running water or a phone ringingIf continually waken up, then allowed to sleep, you will have an increase in REM sleep-WHY? - FREUD: wish-fulfillment; latent content, trigger events, erotic, frightening-Others: filing / information-processing, physiological function, activation-synthesis, cognitive developmentPurpose of dreams-To satisfy your own wishes – Freud said in ‘The Interpretation of Dreams’ that a dream provides a psyche safety valve that discharges unacceptable feelings - latent content – a dream’s content is censored/symbolic – gun is a penis, but not always a gun can just be a gunFile away memories – dreams process information, help sift, sort, and fix memories - REM helps consolidate memories – helps convert memories into long term learningTo develop and preserve neural pathways – dreams serve a physiological function – they provide the brain with periodic stimulation which preserves neural pathwaysTo make sense of neural static – activation-synthesis theory – dream randomly erupt from neural activity and spread upward from the brainstem, the static turns into a dreamTo reflect cognitive development – a dream’s content reflect the dreamer’s cognitive development (their knowledge and understanding) (depends on what we know and our age) Daydreams and Fantasies: purposes, differences Purpose – similar to dreams, good for creative parallel processing and cognitive development Hypnosis: define, induction, posthypnotic amnesia, history, controversyHypnosis - a social interaction where a hypnotist suggests to another person to spontaneously act out with feelings, thoughts, etc... - Hypnosis is not forced upon someone because the person must be willing to interact in the emotions and thoughts that are to be carried out. Induction - the process of being carried into the state of hypnosis. Induction must be performed before you are hypnotized and is a long process. Posthypnotic amnesia - the inability of a previously hypnotized person to recall what they experienced during hypnosis - it is induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion. History - hypnotic techniques have been used since antiquity, but Austrian physician Anton Mesmer gets the credit for hypnosis. He thought he had discovered an “animal magnetism.” He passed magnets over the bodies of ailing people who had—once awakened—were much improved. A French commission saw hypnosis or mesmerism as “mere imagination” and since then it had been thought to have been linked to foolishness and insanity. Controversy - most people question whether hypnosis is an actual altered state of consciousness. Questions:Can anyone? Stanford Hypnotic Scale, “highly hypnotizeable”, Robert True experimentCan anyone? – Yes, but only if you want to, you cannot be forced into being hypnotizedIf you think you know what the hypnosis does, you will be more likely to become hypnotizable, like planting a stoogeIf you are told hypnosis means you are dumb, you won’t do it, but if told only smart people get hypnotized, you will be more likely to become hypnotizedDepends on how far you are willing to goIf you are predisposed to believe, then you’ll believe True Experiment – he age regressed people to a very young age Aid memory? – age regression experiments, false memories, It can help people, but people start filling in their own memories with their imaginationAge regression – people that are age regressed act as they believe a child would act, yet their spelling, etc… are perfect, they may write like a child thoughHypnotists can plant false memories into a person’s mindForce people? versus pretending, authority figureNo! Only if the person wants toYou may want to play the role of a good hypnotized personAn authoritative figure can influence you, hyp. Or not, to do unlikely thingsThe actions of a hyp. person are well w/in normal limitsTherapeutic? Posthypnotic suggestion versus just positive suggestionsIt can be.Posthypnotic suggestions – suggestions made during a hyp. session to be carried out after hypnosis can help alleviate some painBut so can positive thinking/suggestionsAlleviates pain? Dissociation, distractionIt can.Dissociation – beyond distraction, a deeper distraction but in the unconsciousDistraction – like being taken into a novel, a vivid imagination-type experienceHypnosis is said to dissociate the sensation of pain stimuli (hand in ice bath experiment)Doesn’t black sensory input, just our attention to the stimuli (heart beat and knife example page 293)An altered state? Social influence theory, divided consciousness / hidden observerEh?Social Influence theory – may get caught up in the hypnotized role of good subjectDivided consciousness – hypnosis has caused a split in our awareness, however, in life much of our behavior occurs on autopilotPsychoactive drugs: tolerance / neuroadaptation, withdrawal, physical and psychological dependencesPsychoactive drugs – chemicals that change perceptions and moodsTolerance – the user experiences neuroadaptation – the brain adapts its chemistry to the drug’s affects - requires greater doses for the desired effect, except marijuana b/c it is stored in your fat cells, keeping it in your body making it easier to get highWithdrawal – stop using = undesirable side effectsPhysical dependence – physical pain and intense cravingsPsychological dependence – w/o, can’t relieve stress or negative emotions3 misconceptions of addiction: quickly corrupt (vs. “medical”), therapy a must, disease model problemIf you have a preconception they can color your experienceAddiction – craving for a substance despite bad consequences and with withdrawal causes symptoms (headaches, nausea, etc…)Addictive drugs quickly corrupt – false – there are many more controlled users of drugs (like alcohol) then there are addicts, people don’t usually get addicted to medical drugsAddictions can’t be overcome voluntarily – false – therapy is helpful, but most people get over it by themselves (ex: 298 top)We extend the concept of addiction to cover pleasure seeking behaviors – like ‘I’m a soda addict’ not a disease, or is it? Controversial! Depressants – drugs that calm neural activity and slow body functions-alcohol: effects on judgment, inhibitions, reactions, memory processing, state, expectationsAlcohol – slows brain activity that controls judgment and inhibitions - when provoked people act more aggressively - increases harmful and helpful tendencies - more likely to act on urges - slows reaction time - disrupts processing recent experiences into long term memories - focuses one’s attention on immediate situation, not future consequences - if you think you are drunk you will act like what you think a drunkard would act like-barbiturates/ tranquilizers – Nembutal, Seconal; effect on sleep, anxiety, memoryBarbiturates – induce sleep and reduce anxietyCan impair memory in larger doses, or even death-opiates – opium, heroin, morphine – effectsBlissful pleasure replaces pain/anxiety, crave fixes, and w/ the fake opiates the brain stops producing natural painkilling neurotransmittersStimulants – temporarily excite neural activity and arouse body functions-caffeine, amphetamines, nicotine; effects: Helps you stay awake and boosts athletic performance Amphetamines – caffeine and nicotine – induce headaches, fatigue, irritability, and depressionMethamphetamines – above ^ plus more, it gives euphoria at the price of awful crashes, drops dopamine levels, leaving user permanently depressed-cocaine – effects of “new” forms; blocks reuptake / depletes “Big three” (dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin); high addiction, arousal15 – 30 minute highDepletes dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotoninCrash of agitated depression occurs afterwardsRegular coke users get addictedExperience emotional disturbance, convulsions, heart attack, or respiratory failureAlso increases aggressiveness and block reuptake-Ecstasy (MDMA – classification – stimulant and mild hallucinogen; NTs – dopamine; serotonin; effectsProlongs serotonin’s feel-good feelingsFeel connected with peopleCauses dehydration, increases blood pressure, and deathRisk permanent depressed moodDisrupts circadian clock and disease-fighting immune system and impairs memory and other cognitive functionsHallucinogens – AKA psychedelicsHallucinogens – distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input-LSD – blocks subtype of serotonin, commonalities to near death experiencesEuphoria/detachment/panicSee geometric formsThen a tunnel/funnelReplays of past experiencesAt its peak you feel separated from your body-Marijuana – classification, effects -- reactions, senses, pain and nausea; THC receptors in brain (frontal, limbic, motor); not as addictive, reverse toleranceRelaxes, disinhibits, and you feel a highAmplifies sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smellsEffects depend of situation – if anxious will become more anxiousCan be pleasurable/therapeuticImpairs coordination, perceptual skills, misjudge events, disrupts memory formationInfluences on drug use – social, biological – parents, identical twins, NPY; psychological, cultural, peersBiological influences – susceptibility runs in the familyNPY – if have a lot = very sensitive to alcohol’s sedations affect and drink littleIf dopamine reward system is out of whack, more likely to seek pleasure elsewhereSocial influences – drug using cultural group?, peer culture, if start drugs b/c of peers, likely to stop if not hanging out with them anymore Near-death experiences: similarity to other hallucinatory states; monism, dualismLSD-like experience, out of body experienceBright lights, tunnel/funnel, etc…Is a hallucinatory activity of the brainMay change people’s lives (will be kinder, etc…)Dualists – mind and body are different entities – immortality – death is a liberation from bodyMonists – mind and body are one entity – death is real – afterlife includes bodily resurrectionChapter 7 - States of Consciousness ’06 Complete NotesConsciousness: problem which led to behaviorism: -Consciousness- Our own awareness of ourselves and of the environment that surrounds us.-Problem which led to behaviorism- Psychology was originally known as the “description and explanation of states of consciousness.” During the first half of the 20th Century, though, many found it difficult to scientifically study consciousness. This led many psychologists to turn to direct observations of behavior—an approach which was favored by a new emerging class of psychology called Behaviorism. By the 1960’s, psychology no longer identified itself as the study of consciousness or “mental life” but instead as the science of behavior. levels of info processing: conscious, subconscious-Conscious- Consciousness allows us to use voluntary control and to communicate our mental states to others. Consciousness is our awareness of ourselves and the world or environment surrounding us. -Subconscious- We register and react to stimuli; we do not consciously perceive it. Most of what you process is subconscious. When we meet a person, we unconsciously react to their gender, age, and appearance, and then become aware of our response. Subconscious information processing occurs simultaneously on many parallel tracks. When we see a bird flying, we are consciously aware of the result of our cognitive processing, but not of our sub processing of the color, form, movement, distance, and identity of the bird. Daydreams and Fantasies: purposes, differences (vs. conscious, men-women, @ different ages)-Daydreams and fantasies- Younger adults spend more time daydreaming than older adults. 95% of the time, men and women both report having sexual fantasies. Men, though, tend to fantasize about sex more physically and less romantically. Sexual fantasies do not however indicate sexual problems or dissatisfaction. Most daydreams involve familiar details of our lives. Daydreams may substitute for impulsive behavior. People who are actively more violent, or actually go out and commit crimes usually have fewer vivid fantasies. Rhythms: annual, monthly (PMS finding), daily (circadian, changes), hourly / nightly…-Rhythms- As humans, we all go through periodic physiological fluctuations, called biological rhythms. These biological rhythms are controlled by our internal “biological clocks.” -annual- We go through annual rhythms with each of the seasons of the year (Summer, Spring, Winter, Fall). We experience seasonal variations in appetite, sleep length, and moods during the winter months. This is called Seasonal Affective disorder. -monthly- Females have a monthly rhythm with their menstrual cycle. Some believe that the menstrual cycle causes a change in mood, called PMS, but many researchers are skeptical. -daily- Humans experience a 24 hour cycle where our bodies roughly synchronize with the 24-hour day through our biological clocks. This is known as the circadian rhythm. There are certain times of the day when we are most tired, and others when we are most awake. Our body temperature increases as morning approaches, climaxes during the day, and dips for a period of time in the early afternoon. SLEEP: research (1952)-research (1952)- In 1952, it was discovered that about every 90-100 minutes we pass through a cycle of five distinct sleep stages. This was discovered by Eugene Aserinsky who used an electroencephalograph machine to test his son’s sleeping throughout the night. -stages, hallmarks of each and terms -- alpha, hypnagogic, spindles, delta, talking, wetting, walking, processing-stages- Every 90 minutes (during sleep) we go through a cycle that consists of five distinct stages.-alpha- When you lay in bed with your eyes closed, you develop alpha wave which signal that you are awake but calm and relaxed. -hypnagogic- During stage 1 of sleep you might experience far-fetched images similar to hallucinations. They may include the feeling that you are falling or you may feel as if you are floating weightlessly. These are called “hypnagogic” sensations which may become incorporated into images at a later date. -spindles- During the twenty-minute long stage 2, people tend to see “sleep spindles,” or bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain- wave activity. During stage 2 it is fairly easy to wake someone up (sleep talking usually occurs during this stage). -Delta- During stage 3 and increasingly into stage 4, your brain emits slow and large delta waves. Stage 3 and 4 are together called slow-wave sleep. Delta waves occur during deep sleep. -talking- Sleep-talking usually occurs during stage 2, but can also occur during any other sleep stage. It is usually muddled and irrational. -wetting- At the end of Stage4 is when most children begin to wet the bed. -walking- At the end of Stage 4 is when children begin to sleepwalk. Around 20% of 3 to 12 year-olds have at least one episode of sleepwalking, usually lasting anywhere from 2 to 10 minutes. -processing- When you are deep asleep, your brain is busy processing away the meaning of certain stimuli. The brain’s auditory cortex responds to sound stimuli even during sleep. We therefore, process most information outside our conscious awareness. -REM: all terms and issues -- vs. stage 1s, genital arousal, paradoxical, story-line dreams, eyes, everyone-REM- Rapid eye movement sleep. This is a recurring sleep stage where vivid dreams often occur. It is also known as paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed. -vs. stage 1- Our dive into sleep (which is characterized by slowed breathing and irregular brain waves of Stage 1) happens in an unrecognized moment. Unlike Stage 1, during REM sleep your heart rate rises, your breathing becomes rapid and irregular, and every half-minute your eyes zip around in a temporary burst of activity behind your closed eye lids. -genital arousal- During REM sleep, your genitals become aroused and you have an erection or increased vaginal lubrication. Except during very frightful dreams, genital arousal always occurs, regardless if the dream is sexual or not. A typical 25 year-old man has an erection during nearly half of his night’s sleep. Men who are troubled by “erectile disorder” have morning erections which suggest that the problem is not between their legs. -paradoxical- dream sleep. When the body is internally aroused but externally clam. This is also known as REM sleep. -story-line dreams- The dreams that occur during REM sleep are often more emotional and are usually story-like. (They are never, however, acted out thanks to REM’s protective paralysis). -eyes- During REM sleep, your eyes repeatedly twitch. This may be caused by the overflow of the dreamer’s active nervous system. -everyone- Everyone, whether they remember their dreams or not, does dream. We averagely spend around 600 hours a year experiencing 1500 dreams. WHY? – age-related differences in sleep needs- Why?- Why do we need sleep? We need sleep to sustain better moods, and to perform efficient and accurate work. -Age related differences in sleep needs- Contrary to popular belief, not everyone needs 8 hours of sleep a night. Newborns spend almost two-thirds of their day sleeping, whereas most adults spend no more than one-third. Age-related differences in average time spent sleeping are rivaled by differences in the normal amount of sleep among individuals at any age. Some people thrive on 6 hours of sleep whereas others need at least 9 hours to physically function in the morning. -effects of sleep deprivation-effects of sleep-deprivation- Sleep-deprivation is very bad for humans. It not only causes you to become tired, but excess sleep deprivation leads to stress and can eventually (if taken far enough) lead to death. Accidents are prone to occur with sleep deprivation. Other effects include the suppression of the disease-fighting immune system, and can even alter metabolic and hormonal functioning. Slowed performance, impaired concentration, and communication are other effects. -functions of sleep-functions of sleep- We may have developed a need for sleep from our ancestors. When darkness protruded on our ancestors, sleep was a way of protecting themselves because they were not aware of all of the wilderness and danger that went on around them. We may have also developed a need for sleep because sleep helps us recuperate. It helps restore body tissue, especially those of the brain. Also, sleep may help play a role in our growth process because during deep sleep, the pituitary gland releases a growth hormone. As adults grow older they produce less of this hormone, which therefore results in their constant and permanent height. Sleep disorders: insomnia, narcolepsy, apnea, night terrors, insomnia tips-sleep disorders- Sleep disorders consist of insomnia, narcolepsy, apnea, and night terrors.-insomnia- Insomnia is when you experience persistent problems in falling or staying asleep. 10 to 15 % of adults complain of experiencing insomnia. Insomnia complainers do generally get less sleep then others but they usually overestimate by double how long it took them to fall asleep and by how long they actually slept for. -narcolepsy- Narcolepsy is when you experience periodic, overwhelming sleepiness. Narcolepsy usually lasts less than 5 minutes and occurs at the most random times. In some severe cases, they lapse into REM sleep, which relaxes all of their muscles, causing them to collapse. -apnea- Sleep apnea is a disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings. This process can repeat up t o400 times in just one night. Most who suffer from this condition are often unaware of it. -Night terrors- Mostly children experience night terrors. This person may experience sitting up or walking around, talking incomprehensibly, appear terrified, and even experience a doubling of heart and breathing rates. The night-terror sufferer wakes up during the episode and generally does not remember anything the next morning. Night terrors are different from nightmares (which like other dreams occur during early morning REM sleep). Night terrors usually occurs during Stage 4. -Insomnia Tips- In order to beat out insomnia some tips are to: relax before bedtime, using a dimmer light, avoid caffeine after the late afternoon, sleep on a regular schedule, exercise regularly but not in the late evening, reassure yourself that the temporary loss of sleep causes no great harm, and if nothing else works, aim for less sleep. Sleeping pills and alcohol are commonly used to also fight insomnia. These methods however are usually not reliable and may even aggravate the problem because they result in less REM sleep. Dreams: WHAT – all, men vs. women -dreams- A dream is a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. Dreams are noted for their hallucinatory imagery, sudden end ness, and incongruities. -what- Most of our dreams are negative. -Men vs. Women- For both men and women 8 in 10 dreams are marked by negative emotions. People repeatedly dream of failing in an attempt to do something. Only 1 in 10 of men’s dreams are sexual, and only 1 in 30 for women. We most commonly dream of events in our everyday lives. Women dream of men and women equally often whereas men dream of males 65% of the time. -FREUD: wish-fulfillment; manifest, latent, trigger events, erotic-Freud- Freud described the the story line of our dreams as manifest content. He believed that the manifest content sometimes incorporates traces of previous days’ experiences and preoccupations. In his book The Interpretation of Dreams Freud argued that by fulfilling wishes, a dream provides a psychic safety valve that discharges otherwise unacceptable feelings. Freud believed that a dream’s manifest content is a censored, symbolic version of the latent content, or in other words the underlying meaning of the dream. Freud believed dreams to be the key to understanding our inner conflicts. -wish-fulfillment- Freud argued that by satisfying wishes, dreams provide a psychic safety valve that emancipates otherwise unacceptable feelings. -manifest content- The remembered story-line of a dream. -latent content- The underlying meaning of a dream. Freud believed that the latent content of a dream acted as a safety valve. -trigger events- Freud believed that events in our lives may trigger dreams. -erotic- Although most dreams do not contain obvious sexual imagery, Freud believed that most adult dreams have hidden erotic wishes in them. In Freud’s view, a gun would represent a penis. -Other theories: information-processing, activation-synthesis-other theories- Freud’s wish-fulfillment theory of dreams have given way to other theories such as information-processing and activation-synthesis. -information processing- A theory that state’s that dreams may help sift, sort and fix the day’s experiences in our memory. We do know that REM sleep does process memory.-activation-synthesis- According to this theory, the neural activity that spreads upward from the brainstem is random, and dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of it. Hypnosis: define, induction, posthypnotic amnesia, history, controversy-hypnosis- A social interaction where a hypnotist suggests to another person to spontaneously act out with feelings, thoughts, etc. Hypnosis is not forced upon someone because the person must be willing to interact in the emotions and thoughts that are to be carried out. -induction- The process of being carried into the state of hypnosis. Induction must be performed before you are hypnotized and is a long process. -posthypnotic amnesia- The inability of a previously hypnotized person to recall what they experienced during hypnosis. It is induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion. -history- Hypnotic techniques have been used since antiquity, but Austrian physician Anton Mesmer gets the credit for hypnosis. He thought he had discovered an “animal magnetism.” He passed magnets over the bodies of ailing people who had—once awakened—were much improved. A French commission saw hypnosis or mesmerism as “mere imagination” and since then it had been thought to have been linked to foolishness and insanity. -controversy- Most people question whether hypnosis is an actual altered state of consciousness. Questions:Can anyone? Stanford Hypnotic Scale, “highly hypnotizable”, True experiment-Can Anyone- Can anyone experience Hypnosis? The Answer-Yes, to some extent nearly everyone is able to experience hypnosis. Those who are more susceptible to hypnosis are likely to be just as vulnerable 25 year later. These types of people generally become commonly captivated in imaginative activities. -Stanford Hypnotic Scale- This scale assesses a person’s hypnotizability. One factor to test this is to tell a group of people who are standing with their eyes closed that they are swaying back and forth. The one’s who do sway a little are more hypnotizable then the ones that don’t. -“highly hypnotizable”- The highly hypnotizable are those who are easily persuaded. They are also able to turn attention inward and imagine more commonly and easily than those that are less able to be hypnotized. -True Experiment- After a Stanford hypnotic induction, the students were told that they would see red, then green, and then hear music. After each suggestion, the experimenters projected the correct stimuli. Fooled by this experience, most students were now believers of hypnosis. Aid memory? – age regression experiments, false memories, -Aid memory- Can hypnosis aid memory?—the answer is not really. -Age regression- When people supposedly relive experiences from their childhood. Sixty years of research argue that age regression is false. Age-regressed people act as they believe children would, but they typically miss the mark by outperforming real children of the specified age. Age regressed people may feel childlike and may print much as they know a 6-year old would. -false memories- The problem with putting someone on the witness stand who has been “hypnotically refreshed” may not be a good idea because they tend to mix fact with fiction. Hypnosis often contaminates the memory with false recollections and can even increase one’s confidence n false memory. Force people? versus pretending, authority figure-Force People- Can hypnosis force people to act against their will. The answer—not really. This is because an authoritative person in a legitimate context can induce people—hypnotized or not—to perform some improbable acts. -versus pretending- Does hypnosis give the hypnotist a special power to control their patients. Researcher Orne and Evans asked some people to pretend they were hypnotized. They then performed a blind experiment where all of the participants were treated the same. All of the unhypnotized people performed the same acts as those that were hypnotized. Most hypnotized people can be induced to deface a sacred book and a few will even steal, but most people asked to stimulate hypnosis are equally likely to do the same. -Authority figure- An authoritative person in a legitimate context can induce people—hypnotized or not—to perform some improbable acts. Therapeutic? Posthypnotic suggestion versus just positive suggestions-Therapeutic?- Can hypnosis be therapeutic? The Answer—yes. -Posthypnotic suggestion- A suggestion made during hypnosis that is carried on even after the patient is no longer hypnotized. This is used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors. -positive suggestions- In controlled studies, hypnosis can speed the disappearance of warts, but so do positive suggestions given without hypnosis. Positive suggestions and hypnosis both seem to have the power to change people’s expectations. Alleviates pain? Dissociation, distraction-Alleviates pain- Can hypnosis alleviate pain? The Answer—yes. Hypnosis can ease pain. -Dissociation- The split between the different levels of consciousness. Hypnosis dissociates the sensation of the pain stimulus from the emotional suffering that defines our experience of pain. -Distraction- The Lamaze method of childbirth, or the repeated breathing in-and-out is an example of distraction. By diverting your attention away from the pain and focusing on breathing, the pain will seem to decrease. Hypnosis does not block sensory input, but it may block our attention to those stimuli. An altered state? Social influence theory, divided consciousness / hidden observer-An Altered State?- Is Hypnosis an Altered State of Consciousness? -Social Influence Theory- The belief that hypnotic phenomenon are not unique to hypnosis. Believers of this theory argue that hypnotic phenomena—like behavior associated with other supposed altered states—are an extension of everyday social behavior. Hypnotic subjects are creative actors entrenched in playing the role of hypnotic subject. -Divided Consciousness/ Hidden Observer- How far does the split go? Hilgard used a term known as hidden observer to describe a hypnotized subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis. Psychoactive drugs: tolerance / neuroadaptation, withdrawal, physical and psychological dependences-Psychoactive Drugs- Chemicals that change perceptions and moods. -tolerance/neuroadaption- The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug. It requires the user to take a larger dosage to feel the drug’s effect. -withdrawal- The discomfort and distress that follows the discontinuation of the use of an addictive drug. As the body responds to the absent drug, the person may experience extreme cravings. -Physical dependences- A physiological need for a drug marked by unlikable withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued. -psychological dependences- a psychological need to use a drug, such as to ease negative emotions. 3 misconceptions: quickly corrupt (vs. “medical”), therapy a must, disease model problem-1st misconception: quickly corrupt- One huge misconception is that drugs quickly corrupt. An example of this is that morphine taken to control pain is powerfully addictive and often leads to heroin abuse. Even for extremely addictive drugs such as cocaine only 15-16 % become addicted within ten years of their first use. People typically don’t become addicted when taking drugs for medical reasons. -2nd misconception: therapy a must- Some addicts do benefit from attending therapy, but most people often recover on their own. It is bad to view addiction as a disease because that then may influence the person’s willingness to give up the drugs. -3rd misconception: Disease model Problem- We can extend the concept of addiction to cover not just drug dependencies but a whole spectrum of repetitive, pleasure-seeking behaviors. We should not apply the term addiction to other conditions (such as overeating) because it may lie as an all-purpose excuse. Depressants – -Depressants- A.K.A. downers. They calm neural activity and slow body functions. -alcohol: effects on judgment, inhibitions, reactions, memory processing, state, expectations-Alcohol effects on judgment- People who have been drinking alcohol respond more defensively when they are provoked. People under alcohol respond more willingly than usual and makes us more aggressive and more sexually daring. The urges that you feel when you are sober are the ones you will most-likely act upon when you are intoxicated, or drunk. As your blood level rises with the intake of alcohol, your judgments become less mature and you are therefore willing to do things, such as drive, even though you believe drinking and driving is wrong during your sober stage. -inhibitions- Alcohol effects inhibition. If asked to help, for example, people under the influence of alcohol are more likely to respond more aggressively than usual. Alcohol makes us more aggressive, helpful, self-disclosing, or more sexually daring. The urges that you experience as sober are most-likely to be acted upon while intoxicated. -reactions- With large intakes of alcohol reactions slow, speech slurs, and skilled performance deteriorates. -memory processing- Alcohol disrupts the processing of recent experiences into long-term memories. Therefore the day after being intoxicated, the person may not be able to remember what happened that night. This memory blackout branches from an inability to transfer memories from the intoxicated to the sober state. Blackouts after drinking may also result from the way that alcohol suppresses REM sleep. Extended and excessive drinking can also effect cognition by shrinking the brain. -state- Alcohol tends to make someone focus their attention on the immediate situation rather then any future consequences. This facilitates urges that you might otherwise resist. -expectations- People who are under the influence of alcohol have reduced self-awareness and tend to focus their attention on the immediate situation rather then on the future and what consequences might occur. -barbiturates/ tranquilizers – Nembutal, Seconal; effect on sleep, anxiety, memory-barbiturates- A.K.A tranquilizers. They mimic the effect of alcohol by depressing the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but also impairing memory and judgment. -Nembutal/ Seconal- Nembutal and Seconal are barbiturates that can sometimes be prescribed to encourage sleep or lessen anxiety. In larger doses, they can lead to impaired memory and judgment. With alcohol, it can become deadly. With sufficient doses, barbiturates by themselves can also lead to death, which makes them chosen by people attempting suicide. -opiates – opium, heroin, morphine – effects-opiates- Opiates depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. Opium’s derivatives are morphine and heroine. -heroin/morphine- derivatives of opium—opiates. -effects- When taking an opiate, the pupils constrict, the breathing slows, and the user becomes weary and tired. For a few hours, blissful pleasure replaces pain and anxiety. For a short-term user comes the long-term price of one craving after the other. The week long physical anguish of withdrawal is sometimes not worth it for some and can lead to death by an overdose. When repeatedly given artificial opiates are taken to the brain, the brain may stop producing its own opiates, known as endorphins. This makes withdrawal much more difficult because the brain lacks the normal level of these painkilling endorphins. Stimulants – -Stimulants- A.K.A. uppers. The temporarily excite neural activity and arouse body functions. -caffeine, amphetamines, nicotine; effects: -caffeine- One of the most-widely used stimulants. It speeds up body functions, help most-people stay awake, and boost moods. Coffee and soda, which contain high levels of caffeine, can be addictive. -Amphetamines- A.K.A speed. Amphetamines are drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes. Pupils dilate, appetite diminishes (because of an increase in blood-sugar) and energy and self-confidence rises under the influence of amphetamine. With the ending of amphetamines may come headaches, irritability, and depression. Amphetamines can be addictive. -nicotine- Nicotine is another widely used stimulant. It is located in cigarettes and is extremely addictive. It speeds up the body functions and helps diminish appetite.-effects- Stimulants, like depressants, can be very addictive. -cocaine – effects of “new” forms; blocks reuptake / depletes “Big three” (dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin); high addiction, arousal-cocaine- Cocaine is a stimulant that can put you on the fast track from euphoria to crash. Cocaine can be sniffed or “snorted,” injected with a syringe and smoked. -effects of “new” forms- When Cocaine is injected or smoke “free-based” it enters the bloodstream quickly. The result is a rush of euphoria that lasts for about 15 to 30 minutes. Crack, a form of cocaine, works even faster than cocaine, and produces a more intense high, and a more intense crash and a more intense craving for more crack which diminishes for several hours and then returns several hours later. -blocks reuptake/depletes “big three”- Since the rush of euphoria depletes the brain’s supply of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norenpinephrine, a crash of frantic depression occurs as the drug’s effect wears off. By binding to sites that normally reabsorb neurotransmitter molecules, cocaine blocks reuptake of dopamine, norenpinephrine and serotonin. The extra neurotransmitters then remain in the synapse, intensifying their normal mood altering effects and producing a euphoric rush. -high addiction/arousal- Regular cocaine users become addicted. Human and animal cocaine users may experience emotional disturbance, suspiciousness, convulsions, cardiac arrest, and even respiratory failure. -Ecstasy (MDMA – classification – stimulant and mild hallucinogen; NTs – dopamine; serotonin; effects-Ecstasy- A.K.A MDMA (methylenedioxymethamphetamin) or the Hug Drug. Ecstasy is both a stimulant and a mild hallucinogen. As an amphetamine derivative, it triggers the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Ecstasy’s major effect is to release stored serotonin and to block its reabsorption. After a half an hour of taking Ecstasy, for the next 3-4 hours, users experience emotional elevation and a certain connectedness with the ones around them. An immediate effect of ecstasy is dehydration and when combined with dancing can lead to death due to an increase in blood pressure. A long-term effect includes reduced serotonin levels, which causes an increased risk of a depressed mood. Ecstasy also suppresses the disease fighting immune system, impairs memory and other cognitive functions. It may also increase the risk of Parkinson’s symptoms. Hallucinogens – AKA psychedelics-Hallucinogens- A.K.A psychedelics. Hallucinogens are psychoactive drugs that distort perceptions and evoke vivid images in the absence of sensory input. Some are natural substances and others are synthetic. -LSD – blocks subtype of serotonin, commonalities to near death experiences-LSD- LSD is a synthetic hallucinogen. It was invented in 1943 by Albert Hofmann. LSD stands for lysergic acid diethylamide. LSD and other powerful hallucinogens are chemically similar to (and block the actions) of the subtype of Serotonin. -Commonalities to near death experiences- The emotions of an LSD trip vary from euphoria to detachment to panic. When the hallucinogenic experience peaks, people frequently feel separated from their bodies and experience dreamlike scenes as though they were real. This is so real that users may become panic stricken or harm themselves. -Marijuana – classification, effects -- reactions, senses, pain and nausea; THC receptors in brain (frontal, limbic, motor); not as addictive, reverse tolerance-Marijuana- Marijuana consists of the leaves and flowers of the hemp plant, which is cultivated for its fiber. Whether smoked or eaten, marijuana produces a mix of effects that makes the drug difficult to classify. Marijuana is classified as a mild hallucinogen. -effects—reaction, senses, pain, and nausea- If a person feels anxious or depressed, taking marijuana may intensify these feelings. In other cases, marijuana can be therapeutic and pleasurable. Some people are legally allowed to take Marijuana for medical reasons due to its therapeutic effect. For people who suffer pain, nausea and severe weight loss associated with AIDS, Marijuana may give relief to them. -THC receptors in brain- THC is the major active ingredient in marijuana. It triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. Scientists have discovered concentrations of THC-sensitive receptors in the brain’s frontal lobes, limbic system, and motor cortex. This also led to the discovery of naturally occurring THC-like molecules that bind with cannabinoid receptors, to help control pain. -Not as addictive- Marijuana is not as addictive as Cocaine or nicotine, but it does change brain chemistry which may make you more susceptible to heroin and cocaine addiction. -reverse tolerance- Marijuana stays longer in your fat cells (weeks and even months) and therefore requires less to get you “high.” Influences on drug use – social, biological – parents, identical twins, NPY; psychological, cultural, peers-Influences on Drug Use- Drug use by North Americans increased in the 1970’s. With increased education, however, drug-use declined. -Biological influences/parents, identical twins- Some people are biologically vulnerable to alcohol. For example, heredity influences alcohol use. Adopted individuals are more susceptible to alcoholism if one or both of their biological parents has a history of alcoholism. Having an identical twin with alcoholism puts the other at increased risk for alcohol problems. -Social, psychological, culture, peers- Psychological and social factors also apply an important influence. One psychological factor is feeling that one’s life is pointless. When young, unmarried adults leave home, their drug use increases. For teenagers, drug use can have social roots, apparent in differing rates across different culture groups. Peer culture is a major social influence. Peers influence attitudes about drugs. People are however, more likely to stop using drugs if their original intention was influenced by their peers. Near-death experiences: similarity to other hallucinatory states; monism, dualism-near-death experiences- A distorted state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death. It can occur through cardiac arrest. It is often similar to drug-induced hallucinations. -Similarity to hallucinatory states- Many people who have experience near-death experiences have said that they are similar to hallucinogenic . Psychologist Ronald Siegel believed that people under the influence of hallucinogenic drugs often see a tunnel-like view with a bright-light in the center. Some people, however, object to this and deny their similarity. When near-death experiencers report visions of another world, it is often influenced by their culture. -monism- the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing. They say that the mind and body are one. -Dualism- The presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact. They believe that mind and body are separate. Chapter 7: States of Consciousness ’07 Complete—version 2I. Consciousness and Information ProcessingConsciousness- our awareness of ourselves and our environmentConsciousness makes us aware of varied information, enabling us to reflect and plan.Conscious awareness enables us to exert voluntary control and to communicate our mental stated to others.When reverberating brain activity among interconnected brain areas crosses a threshold of intensity, it triggers consciousness.Consciousness lags behind the brain events that provoke it. Conscious processing takes place in sequence. II. Sleep and DreamsBiological rhythms- periodic physiological fluctuations, biological clocksDifferent body cycles include: annual cycles, 28-day cycles, 24- hour cycles, and 90-minute cyclesCircadian rhythm- the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycleAs people age, they shift from working better at night to working better at day.Light can change and affect the body’s circadian rhythm by activating light-sensitive retinal proteins.Suprachiasmatic nucleus- a pair of pinhead-sized clusters of 20,000 cells that control the circadian clock.Melatonin- a sleep-inducing hormoneAdenosine-inhibits certain neurons, making us sleepy.The brain is active during sleep and there is a biological rhythm during sleep.Aserinsky put electrodes on his son to test an EEG machine, and found that rolling eye movements and brain activity occur at 90-min intervals when someone is dreaming.REM sleep- rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active. Announces the beginning of a dream.Alpha waves- the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state; this can be monitored by an EEG machineSleep- periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness- as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from coma, general anesthesia, or hibernationHallucinations- false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the without external visual stimulus in stage 1Hypnagogic- sensations incorporated into memoriesSleep spindles- short bursts of energy during stage 2 of sleep. Sleep talking can occur during this stage.Delta waves- the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleepSlow-wave sleep- in stage 3 and increasingly in stage 4, stages that last 30 min during which you are hard to awaken.Children may wet the bed or sleep walk at the end of stage 4.Your brain can process enough stimuli to keep you from falling off the bed or hear a baby’s cry or your name.We process most information outside our conscious awareness.Erectile dysfunction- impotence, may be influenced by morning erectionsYour brainstem blocks motor messages during sleep, and you can’t be awakened easily. This is called paradoxical sleep; the body is internally aroused and externally calm.If awoken during a dream, most of the time, people will remember their dream even if they usually don’t.Darting eyes, like the occasional twitching of muscles, seem to merely reflect the overflow of the dreamer’s active nervous system.Sleep patterns can be influenced by age; therefore, different people need different amounts of sleep.People in industrialized nations sleep less than they did a century ago.Without sleep, you don’t function as well if you were to get 9 hours of sleep.Sleep effects: memory, concentration, mood, hunger, obesity, the immune system, and risk processorsMost people who get enough sleep feel happier and more content.Sleep deprivation slows reaction times and increases errors on visual tasks.Four theories for sleep include: (1) protection (2) restoring and repairing (3) remembering (4) growth(1) Protection- our ancestors were safer asleep in a cave than trying to continue walking.(2) Restoring and repairing- sleep helps us to recuperate brain tissue.(3) Remembering- sleep restores and rebuilds our fading memories of the day’s experiences.(4) During deep sleep, the pituitary gland releases a growth hormone.Insomnia- recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.From middle age on, sleep is sometimes interrupted.Insomnia complainers overestimate how long they take to fall asleep and underestimate how long they actually sleep.Insomnia quick fixes like sleeping pills or alcohol can aggravate problems by reducing REM sleep.Narcolepsy- a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.Hypocretin- an alerting neurotransmitter produced by a relative absence of a hypothalamic neural centerNarcolepsy is a brain disease.Sleep apnea-a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.Night terrors- a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.Children are most prone to sleepwalking and talking in stage 4.Dream- a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. Dreams are notable for their a hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities and for the dreamer’s delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.Lucid dreams- dreams during which you are aware that you are dreaming.Even congenitally blind people can experience visual images in dreams.Most dreams are about something negative.1 in 10 dreams for men and 1 in 30 dreams for women have sexual overtones.We usually dream of events in our daily lives.Women dream of males and females equally often, whereas 65% of the characters in men’s dreams are males.Manifest content- according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).We do not remember information played back while we are asleep.We dream:To satisfy our own wishesInformation processing- to file away memoryTo develop and preserve neural pathways, physiological function, to provide the brain with periodic simulationTo make sense of neural staticTo reflect cognitive developmentLatent content- according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that a dream’s latent content functions as a safety valve.Freud wrote The Interpretation of Dreams. In it, he believed that dreams were meant to fulfill erotic wishes.REM rebound- the tendency for REM sleep it increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)We need REM sleep.Biological and psychological explanations of behavior are partners, not competitors.III. HypnosisHypnosis- a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feeling, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.Anton Mesmer believed he discovered animal magnetism.Psychologists now agree that hypnosis is a state of heightened suggestibility to which people are subject in varying degrees.Research indicates that the strength, stamina, learning, and perceptual abilities of hypnotized people may be matched by those of motivated unhypnotized people.The people who respond to suggestions without hypnosis are the people who respond to hypnosis.Many researchers refer to hypnotic “susceptibility” as hypnotic ability- the ability to focus attention totally on a task, to become imaginatively absorbed in it, to entertain fanciful possibilities.Virtually anyone will experience hypnotic responsiveness if led to expect it.Hypnosis cannot help you to remember thing from your past.People who do remember events after hypnosis remember them mixed with fact and fiction.An authoritative person in a legitimate context can induce people- hypnotized or not- to perform some unlikely acts.Posthypnotic suggestion- a suggestion, made during hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.Hypnosis speeds things like the disappearance of warts, but so do the same positive suggestions given without hypnosis. This doesn’t work with drug, alcohol, and smoking addictions.Hypnosis can relieve pain.Dissociation-a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.Two theories explaining hypnotic pain relief: (1) dissociation (2) selective attentionPET scans show that hypnosis reduces brain activity in a region that processes painful stimuli, but mot in the sensory cortex that receives the raw sensory input. Hypnosis doesn’t block sensory input, but it blocks our attention to it.Social influence theory- hypnotic phenomena are not unique to hypnosis; hypnotic phenomena are an extension of everyday social behavior.The more a person likes and trusts his or her hypnotist’s and feel motivated to demonstrate hypnotic behavior, the more he or she allows that person to direct their attention and fantasies.Hilgard viewed hypnotic dissociation as a vivid form of everyday mind splitsIn hypnosis as in life, much of our behavior occurs on autopilot.Our information processing is divided into simultaneous conscious and subconscious realms.Contemporary researchers are intrigued by the puzzle of how brain activity, attention, and social influences interact to create hypnotic phenomena.IV. Drugs and ConsciousnessPsychoactive drug- a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood.Tolerance-the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect.Neuroadaptation- the brain adapts its chemistry to offset the drug effect.Withdrawal- the discomfort and distress that follows discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.Physical dependence- a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinuedPsychological dependence- a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotionsAddiction- compulsive drug craving and use.People typically don’t become addicted when using drugs medically.Therapy or groups support may be helpful, but people often recover on their own.Viewing addiction as a disease can undermine self-confidence and the will to change cravings that, without treatment, “one cannot fight.”The concept of addiction can be extended beyond chemical dependence to a wide range of other behaviors.Depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens interfere with neurotransmission by stimulating, inhibiting, or mimicking the activity of chemical messengers at synapses in the brain.Depressants-drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.The urges you would feel if sober are the ones you will more likely act upon if intoxicated.Paired with sleep deprivation, alcohol becomes a potent sedative. Alcohol acts as an inhibitor, disrupts the making of long-term memories, reduces self-awareness, and focuses one’s attention on the immediate situation and away from any future consequences to oneself.Barbiturates- (tranquilizers) drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.Opiates- opium and its derivates, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.Stimulants- drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.Amphetamines- drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.Methamphetamine- a powerful addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; overtime, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at synapses in the brain and gives users a temporary rush.Cocaine is highly addictive and increases risk for cardiovascular stress and suspiciousness. Ecstasy (MDMA)- a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.Ecstasy causes: Dehydration, coupled with dancing, can cause the risk of severe overheating, increased blood pressure, and death. Damage to serotonin-producing neurons, leading to low levels of serotonin and permanently depressed moodSerotonin’s inability to control the circadian clockSuppresses the disease-fighting immune systemImpairs memory and other cognitive functionsHallucinogens- psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.LSD- a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid A users mood and expectations influence the effects of LSD; common experiences are hallucinations and emotions from euphoria to panic.THC- the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.Marijuana relaxes, disinhibits, may produce a euphoric high, is a mild hallucinogen, is sometimes used for therapeutic reasons, and interrupts memory.The effect of marijuana varies depending on the user.THC lingers in the body for about a month.All psychoactive drugs trigger negative aftereffects that offset their immediate positive effects.Heredity influences some aspects of alcohol abuse problems, especially those appearing by early adulthood. Dopamine reward circuit- addictive chemicals commandeer the reward circuit and boost its activity.For those whose genetic predispositions nudge them toward substances use, cities offer more opportunities and less supervision.Stress, failure, and depression can increase the risk for dependency.Peer culture is a major social influence. Our friends influence us, but we also select as friends those who share our likes and dislikes.Three possible drug prevention and treatment programs:1. Education about long-term costs of a drug’s temporary pleasures2. Efforts to boost people’s self-esteem and purpose in life3. Attempts to modify peer association or to inoculate youth against peer pressures by training them in refusalNear-death experience- an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug- induced hallucinations.Near-death experiences often involve seeing one’s body and floating near the ceiling, and seeing a light at the end of a tunnel. This can often be caused by lack of oxygen to the brain.Dualism- the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact.Dualists view these experiences as proof of human immortality.Monism- the presumption that mine and body are different aspects of the same thing.Monists believe that the reports parallel hallucinations and may be products of the brain under stress.Modifying Illness-Related BehaviorsSmokingTobacco kills some 4 million of its 1.2 billion customersSmoking one cigarette shortens your lifespan by 12 minutesEliminating smoking would increase life expectancy more than any other preventive measureSmoking correlates with higher rates of depression, chronic disabilities, and divorce Smoking usually begins during early adolescence and is especially common among those who get low grades, who drop out of school, who feel less competent and in control of their future, and whose friends, parents, and siblings smoke. Teenage smokers have traditionally been perceived as tough, precocious, and sociable.Adolescents are self-conscious and may begin smoking to imitate cool models, to get the social reward of being accepted by other smokers, and to project a mature imageTeens who start smoking also have friends who smoke, who suggest its pleasures, and who offer them cigarettes.“Nic-a-teen” – cigarette companies target teens because virtually all smokers start as teenagersThe more smoking teens actually see in movies, the more likely they are to experiment with tobaccoTobacco products are as addictive as heroin and cocaineSmoking can be a negative reinforcementA smoker becomes dependent, develops tolerance, eventually needing larger and larger doses to get the same effect; those who are initially most sensitive to nicotine tend to develop a tolerance quickly and to become most strongly addictedQuitting causes withdrawal symptoms: craving insomnia, anxiety, and irritabilityNicotine is compulsive and reinforcingNicotine triggers the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine which in turn diminishes appetite and boosts alertness and mental efficiency; stimulates the central nervous system to release neurotransmitters that calm anxiety and reduce sensitivity to pain; increases dopamine by stimulating its release Genes influence one’s propensity to cigarette addiction; smokers and nonsmokers tend to differ in a gene that influences responses to the neurotransmitter dopamineEfforts to help people stop smoking include public health warnings, counseling, drug treatments, hypnosis, aversive conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitive therapy, and support groups. Smoking has become rare among the highly educated or in the upper socioeconomic level. The drop has been most pronounced in the male smoking rate. Smoking-related cancer deaths have also been declining, especially among men. Several research teams have devised strategies for averting the behavior patterns that lead to smoking; key ingredients of such programs are: info about the effects of smoking, info about peer, parent, and media influences, training in refusal skills, through modeling and role playing. There is one other way to discourage smoking: make it more immediately costly. Close-up: Quitting SmokingApproximately ? of smokers try to quit each year, but fewer than 1/7th succeed permanentlyHelpful pointers for quitting:Set a quit dateInform family and friendsRemove all cigarettesReview things you learned from previous attempts to quit and anticipate challengesUse a nicotine patch or gum Be totally abstinentAbstain from or greatly limit alcoholIf other smokers live or work with you, quit togetherAvoid places where other are likely to smoke Exercise ................
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