PSY 410: Cognitive Psychology
PSY410 – Cognitive Psychology. J. P. Toth.
Study Guide for Exam 2
Note: Students are responsible for all lectures and assigned material regardless of what is on this guide. Items marked with an asterisk (*) are primarily covered in the textbook, not in lecture notes.
Memory: Overview
❑ What are the different ways in which memory can be defined?
❑ What are the three main processes that underlie all forms of memory?
❑ What functions does memory serve?
❑ What are the main kinds of memory?
Short-Term & Working Memory
❑ What is working memory? How is it defined? Give examples.
❑ What are the two main characteristics that working & short-term memory share?
❑ How does working memory differ from short-term memory?
❑ What terms did William James use to describe the distinction between short-term and long-term memory?
❑ What is the modal model of memory? What are its the three main components?
❑ *What is sensory memory?
❑ *What is iconic memory (aka. the icon) and what are its main characteristics?
❑ *What is the partial-report technique, and what does research using this technique tell us about sensory memory?
❑ In the context of STM, what are meant by the terms duration, capacity, & code?
❑ What method was used to study the duration of STM? How did it work?
❑ What is thought to be the general duration of STM?
❑ What is memory span?
❑ What is the magic number +/- 2? What is chunking?
❑ According to the modal model, in what code are items in STM stored?
❑ What are the two main forms of forgetting? How do they differ? Which is thought to provide the better explanation of forgetting?
❑ What is the serial position curve?
❑ What are primacy and recency effects? What explains these effects?
❑ What are the two main forms of amnesia and how do they differ?
❑ To what degree does the modal model provide a good explanation of amnesia?
❑ Describe the main problems with the modal model?
❑ *What does Sternberg's research say about how we search for items in STM?
❑ List & define the four main components of Baddeley & Hitch's (B&H) WM model? [note that only 3 components were discussed in class; the 4th is mentioned in the text as a new addition to the B&H model. The following questions refer to the 3 components discussed in class].
❑ What experimental phenomena support the existence of these 3 components?
❑ What brain regions appear to underlie the 3 components of B&H's WM model?
❑ How does the Operation-span task work? What does it measure?
❑ According to Engle (2002), WM is most related to what other cognitive process?
Long-Term Memory: Encoding
❑ Define and describe the difference between declarative & procedural memory.
❑ Define and describe the difference between semantic & episodic memory.
❑ What brain area/s is/are most crucial for declarative memory? Procedural memory?
❑ Describe the Levels of Processing (LoP) paradigm & the LoP effect.
❑ What are the primary implications of the LoP effect?
❑ What is the difference between intentional & incidental learning (or encoding)?
❑ According to the LoP approach, what are the three main encoding strategies for getting information into LTM?
❑ What concept best captures the idea of deep processing?
❑ Describe the various ways in which information can be elaborated at encoding?
❑ Explain the concepts of organization & distinctiveness in the context of encoding?
❑ What are mnemonics? What are the main mnemonic strategies? How do they work?
Long-Term Memory: Retrieval
❑ What is the difference between recognition & recall?
❑ What is the difference between free recall & cued recall?
❑ What are the two primary ways in which recognition memory is tested?
❑ *Who first documented the forgetting curve, and what does it tell us about forgetting?
❑ *What is a flashbulb memory and what does research tell us about this effect?
❑ What is encoding specificity (ES)? What experimental results support this idea?
❑ What is transfer appropriate processing (TAP)?
❑ In terms of explaining how memory works, how do ES & TAP differ from LoP?
❑ What is mean by the term encoding-retrieval interactions?
❑ What is state- or context-dependent memory? Give examples.
❑ What are the two main processes underlying the dual-process model of recognition memory? How are these processes defined?
Long-Term Memory: Implicit Memory
❑ What is implicit memory? How is it usually expressed in performance?
❑ How do amnesics perform on implicit memory tests relative to normals?
❑ How is implicit memory measured? What is priming?
❑ What is the difference between repetition priming & semantic priming?
❑ What are the three main classes of implicit memory tests?
❑ What is a dissociation? What do dissociations between tests tell us?
❑ List some variables that produce dissociations between implicit & explicit tests.
❑ Give an example of a dissociation between an implicit & explicit test.
❑ What are the two main explanations of implicit/explicit dissociations?
❑ What does it mean to say that an implicit (or explicit) test is "contaminated" by explicit (or implicit) memory? Why is this a problem?
❑ What are the 3 main methods for dealing with explicit contamination of implicit tests?
❑ According to Toth (2000), what is the most difficult issue to address when studying implicit (nonconscious) forms of memory?
Long-Term Memory: Distortion
❑ What does it mean to say that memory is reproductive? reconstructive?
❑ What classic memory researchers are most closely associated with ideas of memory as reproduction vs. reconstruction?
❑ Who conducted research on The War of the Ghosts and what does that research tells us about memory?
❑ *What is memory consolidation.
❑ Describe the Deese, Reodiger, McDermott (DRM) paradigm. What is the DRM effect & how is it explained?
❑ What are schema & scripts? How do they help memory? How might they create false memories?
❑ Define imagination inflation.
❑ How does Loftus's misinformation paradigm work? What is a misinformation effect?
❑ Define & give an example of retroactive and proactive interference (RI & PI).
❑ Define source memory & source confusion.
❑ Give an example for how priming & source confusion might lead to false memory.
❑ *Describe the recovered/false memory debate.
❑ What does the Jennifer Thompson case say about the distinction between memory as reproduction vs. reconstruction?
Knowledge (Semantic Memory)
❑ Describe the main questions that define research on semantic memory?
❑ What are the primary tasks used to measure the organization of semantic memory?
❑ Describe the Hierarchical Network model. How does this model exhibit cognitive economy? What data was this model designed to explain?
❑ Give examples of Frequency & Typicality effects in sentence verification.
❑ Describe the Spreading Activation model. How is it different from the Hierarchical model? How is strength of association indicated in the model?
❑ What is Hebb's Law? What is LTP? What is a Hebbian circuit?
❑ *Describe the Connectionist (PDP) approach to semantic memory. What are the main features of connectionist networks?
❑ What does the study of the brain & brain damage say about how semantic memory (general knowledge) is organized?
Knowledge (Concepts & Categories)
❑ What is a category? What is a concept? Give examples.
❑ What are the three major properties people use to categorize things?
❑ What are the three major types of categories? Give examples.
❑ What does it mean to say that a person understands a concept or category?
❑ Why is the process of categorization so important?
❑ What is implicit learning (also called *nonanalytic concept formation)? Describe the two major paradigms (covered in class) used to explore this form of learning.
❑ According to your instructor, what are the three major ways by which people categorize things?
❑ Why are some categories difficult to explain in terms of rules or defining features (called the *classical view in the textbook)?
❑ What two theories assume a resemblance- (or similarity-) based categorization process?
❑ What does it mean to say that some categories have fuzzy boundaries, a graded structure, or a family-resemblance structure?
❑ What is a typicality effect? What are some of the different tasks in which this effect is shown. Give examples.
❑ Describe the idea of a prototype. Be specific.
❑ Describe the idea that prototypes are organized in a hierarchical structure?
❑ What is the basic level of categorization, why is it unique, and what explains its' uniqueness?
❑ Describe the exemplar view of categorization.
❑ Can the exemplar view explain typicality effects? If so, how? Can the exemplar view explain findings that the prototype view cannot?
❑ *Describe the schematic view of categorization.
❑ Describe the explanation-based view of categorization (called the *knowledge-based view in the textbook). What findings support this view?
❑ What is psychological essentialism?
❑ In what way might all four (or five, if you count schemas) theories of categorization be correct?
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