Unit Plan - Weebly



Unit PlanLindsay MeirowChemistry 419Document 1: Instructor’s guideDescriptionThis unit plan will cover the history of the atom, the modern representation of the atom, electron configuration, atomic emission spectra, periodic trends, and classification of elements including metals, metalloids, and non-metals. Before it, the chemistry class should have covered safety and equipment, data collection, and elements, compounds and mixtures. Following the unit, students will be able to learn of ionic compounds and covalent compounds.It is my duty to develop a challenging curriculum with clear and attainable objectives and expectations to motivate my students to be creative and inquisitive. Teachers are to act as a guide in academia not an authority figure spouting off information. I will encourage self-discovery and critical thinking and hope to teach that each mistake is simply an opportunity to learn. My science classroom will be inquiry-based testing students to make their own connections and discover their own learning. I will use a diverse set of methodologies and techniques of teaching such as integrating units with hands-on and minds-on activities to challenge students to actively develop understanding and apply that knowledge to the interpretation of real-world situations. A variety of teaching strategies will not only keep students engaged but also allow them various opportunities to excel. Through this unit plan, my students will not only grasp the concepts of electron configuration, electron emission spectrum, trends in the periodic table, and metals/metalloids/non-metals but also be confident in their development of problem-solving skills and inquiry based thinking. ScheduleActivity ListAssessment PlanDocument 2: Lesson PlansFunctional Lesson Plan 1: Electromagnetic LightHSCEs:C2.4x Electron Movement For each element, the arrangement of electrons surrounding the nucleus is unique. These electrons are found in different energy levels and can only move from a lower energy level (closer to nucleus) to a higher energy level (farther from nucleus) by absorbing energy in discrete packets. The energy content of the packets is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation. These electron transitions will produce unique absorption spectra for each element. When the electron returns from an excited (high energy state) to a lower energy state, energy is emitted in only certain wavelengths of light, producing an emission spectra.C2.4d Compare various wavelengths of light (visible and nonvisible) in terms of frequency and relative energy.Objectives:The learner will be able to:compare various wavelengths of light in terms of frequency and relative energy.v=c/λE=hvMaterials:Computer with preziPrism Safety: Except for basic and standard preparation for the average classroom, there are no special safety features necessary.Hazardous Materials: None.First Aid Procedures: None. Procedure:Students will participate through taking notes, observing light entering a prism, and participating in discussions stemming from leading questions. Students will be called on randomly to check for understanding and answer questions and solve problems with the equations v=c/λ and E=hv displayed on the Prezi. Engage: Ask students What kind of waves do we already know? Students should respond with answers such asRipples: surface waves on water after a stone is thrown inOcean waves: tides and tsunamisSound waves: in air, water and solidsUltrasounds: high frequencyInfrasounds: low frequencyEarthquakes: waves in the earthOn a string: one dimensionalguitar, slinky, rope Shock waves: NOT a wave. Propagating disturbances and carry energy but lose energy as they spreadExplore: Shine light through a prism. Light belongs to the Electromagnetic waves, or Electromagnetic spectrum. Have students taking notes. Ask students What other waves are in the spectrum? Prezi (2-3) Infra Red (IR) wavesUltra violet (UV) wavesRadiowaves (AM, FM, TV)MicrowavesX-raysGamma RaysWhat properties of a wave can we measure? Prezi (4)Amplitude: height of the crests, how strong the wave is (loudness of sound)Wavelength: distance between two crestsWave velocity: velocity with which crests advance in spaceSpeed of light, cFrequency, f or v: number of crests passing a fixed point each secondPrezi (5): Your turn! Have students vote and call on students randomly for explanations.The wavelength of the wave in the diagram above is AThe amplitude of the wave in the diagram above is DPrezi (6): Your turn! Have students vote and call on students randomly for explanations.Indicate the interval that represents one full wavelength. DExplain: Prezi (7-8) What is the relationship between frequency and the wavelength? As frequency increases, the shorter the wavelengths.As frequency decreases, the longer the wavelengths. Also discuss Prezi (7-8) the approximate equivalent size to (particulate level diagram)Therefore, the frequency and wavelength of waves are inversely related.v=c/λ Prezi (9)v= frequency in Hz (1/s or s-1)c= speed of light 3.00 x 108m/sλ=wavelength in mPrezi (10): have students complete practice problem: Calculate the wavelength of the yellow light emitted by a sodium lamp if the frequency of the radiation is 5.10 x 1014s-1. Walk around as students calculate ensuring students are doing the problem correctly and answering any questions. Have student come write their answer on the board.v=c/λ --> c/v=λλ=3.00 x 108 m/s / 5.10x 1014 s-1=5.88 x 10-7 mElaborate: Light and other EM radiations spread like waves, all over space. However, the was they give up their energy is distinctly not wavelike. Prezi (12-13-14) watch youtube video to discuss Max Planck, blackbody radiation and quanta. He found that if he assumed that the energy of a body changes in only small discrete units, he could explain the color changes emitted. QuantizationContinuous violin: produce any note when fingers are placed at an appropriate spot on the bridgeQuantized piano: produce notes corresponding to the keys on the keyboardRelationship between frequency and energy is shown with the equation E=hv, h=6.63 x 10-34 J*s. Prezi (15) have student complete problem: Calculate the frequency and energy of blue light that has a wavelength of 400nm. Answer: v=7.5 x 1014 Hz and E=4.97 x 10-19 J. Calculate the wavelength and energy of light that has a frequency of 1.5 x 10615 Hz. Answer: λ=2.0 x 10-7 m and E=9.95 x 10-19 J. Walk around as students calculate ensuring students are doing the problem correctly and answering any questions. Have student come write their answer on the board.Prezi (16) Interesting fact: Max Planck won the 1918 Nobel Prize "in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta."Evaluate:Prezi Your turns! check for understandingScientific Background (personal):Electromagnetic spectrum: display of the various types of electromagnetic radiation arranged in order of increasing wavelength.Visible radiation has wavelengths between 400 nm (violet) and 750 nm (red)For light, speed, c = wavelength λ (lambda) * frequency v (Hertz (1 Hz=1s-1)c=3.00 x 108 m/sSome phenomena can’t be explained using a wave model of lightBlackbody radiation: emission of light from hot objectsPlank investigatedproposed that energy can only be absorbed or released from atoms in certain amounts, or quantaquantum: smallest amount of energy that can be emitted or absorbed as electromagnetic radiationPlanks constant h=6.63 x 10-34 J*srelationship of energy and frequency E=hvQuantizationContinuous violin: produce any note when fingers are placed at an appropriate spot on the bridgeQuantized piano: produce notes corresponding to the keys on the keyboardnobel prize in 1918References: Lesson Plan 2: Photoelectric EffectHSCEs:C1.1E Describe a reason for a given conclusion using evidence from an investigation.C1.1f Predict what would happen if the variables, methods, or timing of an investigation were changed. C2.4x Electron Movement For each element, the arrangement of electrons surrounding the nucleus is unique. These electrons are found in different energy levels and can only move from a lower energy level (closer to nucleus) to a higher energy level (farther from nucleus) by absorbing energy in discrete packets. The energy content of the packets is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation. These electron transitions will produce unique absorption spectra for each element. When the electron returns from an excited (high energy state) to a lower energy state, energy is emitted in only certain wavelengths of light, producing an emission spectra.C2.4d Compare various wavelengths of light (visible and nonvisible) in terms of frequency and relative energy.Objectives:The learner will be able to:predict what will happen if variables affecting a photoelectric simulator were changed. using a photoelectric simulator, describe the qualities of light affect on pare various wavelengths of light in terms of frequency and energy. E=hvexplain why an atom can absorb only certain wavelengths of light.Materials:computer with prezi and simulator Safety: Except for basic and standard preparation for the average classroom, there are no special safety features necessary.Hazardous Materials: None.First Aid Procedures: None.Procedure:Students will participate as a large group following along with the Prezi taking notes. We will observe a simulator of the photoelectric effect making observations and inferences. They will apply this information to the old equations to make new connections.Engage: Prezi (17) asks the question What do these items have in common(calculator, car, phone, and houses? They are all solar powered, use light to generate electricity. This is a practical application of the phenomena that cannot be explained using a wave model of light. Explore: Prezi (18) Classical Wave Theory predicts that...The intensity of the radiation should have a proportional relationship with the resulting maximum kinetic energy.The photoelectric effect should occur for any light, regardless of frequency or wavelength.There should be a delay on the order of seconds between the radiation’s contact with the metal and the initial release of photoelectrons.Have students make observations using the simulator from (particulate level diagram). Explain the set-up to students. The light source releases photons which hit the target material, or selected metal (cathode) which releases electrons toward the anode. Under options, select show photons. Ask what colors students would think should remove an electron. Set the metal to Sodium, the wavelength to 400 nm and the intensity slider from 0% to 100% and have students make observations. Numerous photons are hitting the sodium, releasing electrons. But what if we increase the wavelength? The electrons slow down and eventually stop. Find what wavelength the photoelectrons are released. λ = 539 nm. This is the threshold wavelength. What will happen if we decrease the intensity? The intensity of the light source has no real effect. Explore other metals (zinc λ = 288 nm, copper λ = 263 nm, platinum λ = 196 nm, and calcium λ = 427 nm), finding their threshold wavelengths (frequencies) Explain: Prezi (20) Your turn! We found that the following threshold wavelengths:Sodium: 539 nm 5.39E-7, v= 5.57E14 m/s, E= 3.69E-19Zinc: 288 nm 2.88E-7, v=1.04E15 m/s , E=6.90E-19Copper: 263 nm 2.63E-7, v=1.14E15 m/s, E=7.56E-19Platinum: 196 nm 1.96 E-,7 v=1.53E15 m/s, E=1.01E-18Calcium: 427 nm 4.27E-7, v=7.03E14 m/s, E=4.66E-19Using these wavelengths, find the threshold frequency and energy.What quality of light determines the energy of its photons? Frequency, wavelength, or color. Using the equations we have learned (E=hv & v=c/λ) what can we say about the relationship between the frequency, wavelength, color and energy of the photons? When the frequency gets high, the wavelength gets shorter, or the color moves from red to violet, the energy gets larger. Elaborate: Ask students to work in small groups to discuss if the experimental results correlate with the classical wave theory using key words (intensity, frequency, and energy) and explain why or why not. Prezi (21) Experimental Results does not support the classical wave theory of light. The intensity of the light source had no effect on the maximum energy of the photoelectrons, i.e. Red light will not cause the ejection of photoelectrons from potassium no matter how intense the light but a very weak yellow light shining on potassium will begin the effect. Below a certain frequency, the photoelectric effect does not occur at all, i.e. only if the frequency of light is above the threshold frequency will there be enough energy for the photoelectric effect to occur. below threshold frequency: no electrons ejectedabove threshold frequency: excess energy appears as the kinetic energy of the ejected electronsThere is no significant delay (less than 10-9 s) between the light source activation and the emission of the first photoelectrons.Prezi (22) Watch youtube video through 2 minutes for an additional explanation of the photoelectric effect. Prezi (24) Interesting fact: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".Evaluate:Prezi your turns! check for understandingScientific Background (personal):Some phenomena can’t be explained using a wave model of lightPhotoelectric effect: emission of electrons from metal surfaces on which light shinesprovides evidence for the particle nature of light and quantizationPhotons: energy packets of light (Einstein)E =hvLight shining on the surface of a metal can cause electrons to be ejected from the metal if the photons have sufficient energybelow threshold frequency: no electrons ejectedabove threshold frequency: excess energy appears as the kinetic energy of the ejected electronsTherefore, light has wave-like and particle-like propertiesEinstein won nobel prize in 1921 for photoelectric effectReferences: Lesson Plan 3: Line Spectra and the history of the atomic modelHSCEs:C2.4x Electron Movement For each element, the arrangement of electrons surrounding the nucleus is unique. These electrons are found in different energy levels and can only move from a lower energy level (closer to nucleus) to a higher energy level (farther from nucleus) by absorbing energy in discrete packets. The energy content of the packets is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation. These electron transitions will produce unique absorption spectra for each element. When the electron returns from an excited (high energy state) to a lower energy state, energy is emitted in only certain wavelengths of light, producing an emission spectra.C2.4c Explain why an atom can absorb only certain wavelengths of light.C1.1E Describe a reason for a given conclusion using evidence from an investigation.Objectives:The learner will be able to: Explain why an atom can emit in only certain wavelengths of light.Based on their activity, describe the Bohr’s model of the atom. Materials:Computer with PreziActivity Supplies for each groupSpectroscope or Economy Quantitative SpectroscopeSpectrum Tube Power SupplyHydrogen Spectrum TubeSpectrum Analysis ChartSpectrum Tube SetActivity HandoutSafety: Never touch the gas discharge tube while the power supply is on. The tube gets very hot during operation and will burn you if you touch it. It is worth checking the following before setting up.The hydrogen gas discharge tubes have a lifetime of the order of five years, after which a significant proportion of the gas has diffused through the glass container. Each tube should be tested annually and more tubes ordered as required.Hazardous Materials: Gas Discharge TubeFirst Aid Procedures: For minor burns, including first-degree burns and second-degree burns limited to an area no larger than 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) in diameter, take the following action:Cool the burn. Hold the burned area under cool (not cold) running water for 10 or 15 minutes or until the pain subsides. If this is impractical, immerse the burn in cool water or cool it with cold compresses. Cooling the burn reduces swelling by conducting heat away from the skin. Don't put ice on the burn.Cover the burn with a sterile gauze bandage. Don't use fluffy cotton, or other material that may get lint in the wound. Wrap the gauze loosely to avoid putting pressure on burned skin. Bandaging keeps air off the burn, reduces pain and protects blistered skin.Offer the advice: Take an over-the-counter pain reliever. These include aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin, others), naproxen (Aleve) or acetaminophen (Tylenol, others). Use caution when giving aspirin to children or teenagers. Though aspirin is approved for use in children older than age 2, children and teenagers recovering from chickenpox or flu-like symptoms should never take aspirin. Talk to your doctor if you have concerns.Minor burns usually heal without further treatment. They may heal with pigment changes, meaning the healed area may be a different color from the surrounding skin. Watch for signs of infection, such as increased pain, redness, fever, swelling or oozing. If infection develops, seek medical help. Avoid re-injuring or tanning if the burns are less than a year old — doing so may cause more extensive pigmentation changes. Use sunscreen on the area for at least a year.CautionDon't use ice. Putting ice directly on a burn can cause a person's body to become too cold and cause further damage to the wound.Don't apply egg whites, butter or ointments to the burn. This could cause infection.Don't break blisters. Broken blisters are more vulnerable to infection.For major burns, call 911 or emergency medical help. Until an emergency unit arrives, follow these steps:Don't remove burned clothing. However, do make sure the victim is no longer in contact with smoldering materials or exposed to smoke or heat.Don't immerse large severe burns in cold water. Doing so could cause a drop in body temperature (hypothermia) and deterioration of blood pressure and circulation (shock).Check for signs of circulation (breathing, coughing or movement). If there is no breathing or other sign of circulation, begin CPR.Elevate the burned body part or parts. Raise above heart level, when possible.Cover the area of the burn. Use a cool, moist, sterile bandage; clean, moist cloth; or moist cloth towels.Procedure:Students will start class with the Hydrogen Spectrum Activity where students will observe hydrogen’s emission spectrum and verify the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom accounts for the line positions in hydrogen’s emission spectrum. Following this will be a discussion over the Rutherford and Bohr Model (history of atomic models) and their limitations. Engage: Prezi (25) Working in pairs, students will read and answer the following pre lab questions:In the normal hydrogen atom, the electron is in its “ground state” for which n = 1. When the atom absorbs energy, as it does when placed in an electrical discharge or flame, its electron moves to a higher allowed energy level and the atom is said to be in an “excited state.” In a hydrogen atom’s first excited state, n = 2; in its second, n = 3; and so on. When an excited-state electron drops back to a lower-energy state, it releases potential energy in the form of light. Some of the possible transitions are shown below. Figure 1??Possible transitions.The emitted light’s color and wavelength (λ) depend on the magnitude of the energy change (ΔΕ) due to the transition from one energy level to another. This is shown in the equations below: ?????????????????? ??????????????????? ΔΕ is the energy difference (in Joules) between the 2 energy levels Εx and Εy, h is Planck’s constant (6.63 × 10-34 J s), c is the speed of light (2.998 × 108 m/s), and λ is the wavelength in meters. Normally, the wavelength is expressed in nanometers (nm) (1 nm = 10-9 m) or Angstroms (?) (1 ? = 10-10 m or 0.1 nm). An excited electron may return to the ground state (n = 1) or to any other lower excited state. The energy difference between levels gets smaller as levels increase. Transitions from excited states to the ground state (n = 1) involve much larger energy changes than do transitions to level 2 (n = 2). In the gas discharge tube, a high-energy beam of electrons strike the ground state hydrogen atoms, promoting the electron in each atom to higher-energy levels. The electron may be promoted to different higher-energy levels in each hydrogen atom. Since the number of hydrogen atoms in the tube is very large, the subsequent dropping of electrons to lower-energy levels and the ground state produces all possible transitions. Some transitions occur more frequently than do others. Moreover, a given hydrogen atom’s electron may undergo several transitions before it reaches the ground state, emitting several photons. This produces photons of many different wavelengths (the discrete lines we observe in the hydrogen spectrum) in the visible and other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The Lyman series lines occur in the ultraviolet region, the Balmer are in the visible region, and the Paschen and Brackett are in the infrared. Pre-activity questions The visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum lies between the wavelengths of 400 and 700 nm.A certain photon has a wavelength of 550 nm. Calculate its energy in Joules.3.62 × 10-19 JThe Lyman series of lines in hydrogen’s emission spectrum are invisible to the human eye, but they can be detected photographically.The Lyman series of lines arise from transitions between higher excited states and level one.These lines are found in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum.Explore: Procedure Hydrogen’s emission spectrum will be observed by applying a high-voltage discharge to a tube filled with hydrogen gas and viewing the light emitted by the excited atoms with a spectroscope. The wavelengths of lines in hydrogen’s spectrum will be measured by reflecting the light from the spectroscope’s diffraction grating onto a ruled scale calibrated in nm.The instructor will set up and demonstrate the use of the spectroscope, power supply, and the function of the diffraction grating. When you start this experiment, the entire apparatus should be in place and properly adjusted by the instructor. Ask for assistance in readjusting the setup. Caution: Never touch the gas discharge tube while the power supply is on. The tube gets very hot during operation and will burn you if you touch it.Working in pairs, observe the hydrogen spectrum. In your data table (see Fig. 2), draw the lines you observe, recording their wavelengths and pare the observed spectrum with a known spectrum of hydrogen on the spectrum chart provided for reference in the lab, Prezi (26).Using the spectroscope, observe an ordinary white incandescent light bulb.Data table and calculations Colors, wavelengths, and energies of lines in the hydrogen spectrum Draw in the observed lines on the above scale and label the colors. Check observed wavelengths against those shown on the spectrum chart in the lab. Figure 3??Wavelengths diagram.Color ObservedObserved λ (nm)Energy Change (ΔE) from Observed λEnergy Level Transition1 pt.1 pt.2 pt. for doing it.1 pt.1 pt.1 pt.1 pt.1 pt.1 pt. Figure 2??Data table.Calculations (show your equations and calculations): Decide on the energy level transition, e.g., 6→1, for each of the observed wavelengths using figure 3 above.Calculate the energy of the photon, which is the energy difference for the transition, from the observed wavelengths.Explain: We have seen how some phenomena cannot be explained using the wave model theory. Prezi (27) The emission spectra, or emission of light from the electronically excited Hydrogen atom shows that not all radiation is continuous (as it would be in the classic wave model. Instead it produces a line spectrum, or spectrum containing radiation of only specified wavelength. Prezi includes the emission spectra of Mercury and Neon. Elaborate: Using the Prezi, instructor will present the history of the model eventually tying in Bohr’s model to the activity performed.Prezi (28)John Dalton 1802solidindestructible masssphericalPrezi (28) J.J. Thomson discover the electron in 1897proposed the plum pudding model in 1904 (before discovery of the atomic nucleus)atom is a ball of positive charge containing a number of negatively charged electrons-like negatively charged plums surrounded by positively charged puddingPrezi (28) Ernest Rutherforddiscovered the nucleus (central charge)Planetary modelnuclear atom where electrons surround a dense nucleusrest of the atom is empty spaceWhat prevents the electrons from falling into the nucleus?Prezi (29) Niels Bohrstudent of RutherfordTo explain the spectral line puzzleproposed that electrons are arranged in concentric circular paths (orbits) around the nucleus=prevents electrons from falling into the nucleuselectrons have a particular path of fixed energy explaining the signature colors we saw with the Hydrogen spectruman electron can jump from one energy level to another but cannot exist between energy levelsmust gain or lose just the right amount of energy (quantum) to move to the next energy levelenergy differences between higher energy levels are smaller than those between lower levelsLimitationsThis explains only the emission spectra of atoms and ions containing one electron (hydrogen)electrons do not move about the nucleus in circular orbitsPrezi (30): Interesting Fact: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1922 was awarded to Niels Bohr "for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them".Evaluate:Students will turn in activity sheet.Scientific Background (personal):Some phenomena can’t be explained using a wave model of lightEmission spectra: emissions of light from electronically excited gas atomsLine spectraMonochromatic: radiation composed of only one wavelengthContinuous: radiation that spans a whole array of different wavelengthsWhite light can be separated into a spectrum of colors.Rainbow: continuous spectrum which would correspond to different linesNot all radiation is continuousgas places in a partially evacuated tube and subjected to a high voltage produces single colors of lightLine Spectrum: spectrum containing radiation of only specific wavelengths Bohr’s ModelRutherford assumed the electrons orbited the nucleus was similar to the planets around the suncharged particle moving in a circular path should lose energy= unstable atom according to rutherfordBohr noted the line spectra of certain elements and assumed the electrons were confined to specific energy states, or orbits (did not fall into the nucleus)Energy level: region around the nucleus where the electron is likely to be movinganalogous to steps on a ladderrung to rung = energy level to energy levelcannot be between rungs/ levelsquantum: energy is the amount of energy required to move an electron from its present energy level to the next higher one quantum numberselectrons in an atom can only occupy certain orbits (corresponding to certain energies)electrons in permitted orbits have specific, “allowed” energies (not radiated from the atomenergy is only absorbed or emitted in such a way as to move and electron from one “allowed” energy state to another (E=hv)Limitationscannot explain spectra of atoms other than hydrogenelectrons do not move about the nucleus in circular orbitswon the nobel prize in 1922 for Bohr modelKEY to Hydrogen Spectrum ActivityIt is helpful to set up the spectroscopes in a completely dark room. Students may only see 3 of the hydrogen emission lines. If they only see 3 lines, you can give them the 6→2 transition wavelength for their calculations.Students can compare the bright line spectrum of an excited gas to the continuous spectrum of a glowing solid by using the spectroscope to observe the spectrum of an incandescent light bulb.The visible photons in the hydrogen spectrum are the Balmer series lines. The lowest energy and longest wavelength photon corresponds to the 3→2 transition and is red. The higher-energy transitions produce shorter wavelengths and the color moves towards the violet end of the spectrum (4→2, blue green; 5→2 and 6→2, violet). Since the energy difference between the levels gets smaller at higher levels, the spectral lines get closer together. They merge into a band of unresolved wavelengths that are too short to see. Sample data table Color ObservedObserved λ (nm)Energy Change (ΔE) from Observed λEnergy Level TransitionRed6603.01 × 10-19 J3→2Blue Green4804.14 × 10-19 J4→2Violet4304.63 × 10-19 J5→2Violet415(may not been seen) 4.79 × 10-19 J 6→2References: Lesson Plan 4: Atomic OrbitalsHSCEs:C4.8x Electron Configuration Electrons are arranged in main energy levels with sublevels that specify particular shapes and geometry. Orbitals represent a region of space in which an electron may be found with a high level of probability. Each defined orbital can hold two electrons, each with a specific spin orientation. The specific assignment of an electron to an orbital is determined by a set of 4 quantum numbers. Each element and, therefore, each position in the periodic table is defined by a unique set of quantum numbers.C4.8h Describe the shape and orientation of s and p orbitals.C4.8i Describe the fact that the electron location cannot be exactly determined at any given time.Objectives:The learner will be able to: describe the shape and orientation of the various orbitals. describe how the electron location cannot be determined exactly at any given time. Materials:Computer with PreziSafety: Except for basic and standard preparation for the average classroom, there are no special safety features necessary.Hazardous Materials: None.First Aid Procedures: None. Procedure:Todays lesson beings with a visualization comparing the size of an atom with other various objects. The class will follow along with Prezi while the instructor mostly presents new information on the history of the atomic model with emphasis on the modern model and atomic orbitals. Engage: Prezi (31) Most students tend to have a miserable sense of scale. To help students visualize the size of an atom, the teacher will display the website to show a particulate level representation from a coffee bean, past a mitochondrion to the carbon atom (sizes included). So we have gone through the history of the atomic models, what is the modern model we use today? Prezi (32)Using Einstein’s and Planck’s equation, Louis de Broglie derived the equation λ=h/mv (h=planck’s constant, m=mass of the particle, v=velocity of the particle, and λ=wavelength) summarizing the concepts of waves and particles as they apply to low mass, high speed objects. This equation predicts that all matter exhibits wavelike motions. Prezi (33) Werner Heisenberg developed the uncertainty principle stating that it is impossible to know exactly both the velocity and the position of a particle at the same time. Explore: Prezi (34) Erwin Schrodinger wrote and solved a complicated equation describing the location and energy of the hydrogen atom. This equation was the basis for the modern description of the modern model of the atom-quantum mechanical model. Instead of defined orbits, electrons travel in diffuse clouds or orbitals around the nucleus. This estimates the probability of finding an electron in a certain position. Explain: An atomic orbital are the regions of space where the electrons can be found. Prezi (35) Hydrogen’s orbital is 1s. The one is the principal energy level that is closest to the nucleus. The average distance of the electrons from the nucleus increases with increasing values of principle energy levels, or n. Within each principal energy level, the electrons occupy energy sublevels (same number). And the s is a description of the shape (in this case a sphere) of the orbital which depends on the energy sublevel. Prezi (36) shows a table of the principal energy level, the sublevels, and the orbitals and a diagram of the shapes of orbitals. s orbitals are spherical and there is an equal probability of finding the electron in any direction from the nucleusp orbitals are dumbbell shaped with three orbitals of equal energy (px, py, pz)d orbitals are mostly shaped like clover leaves with five orbitals of equal energy f orbitals are complex with seven orbitals of equal energy*If students are picking up on the trend based on the prezi table and diagrams, call on students to describe the orbitals.Elaborate: Working in pairs, have students find the maximum number of orbitals in each principal energy level. Two electrons occupy each orbital. What is the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a principal energy level? Develop a formula to solve for the max number of electrons that can occupy each principal energy level. 2n2 where n is the principal energy level. Prezi (39)Evaluate:Prezi Your turns! check for understanding.How many 4p orbitals are there in an atom? (3)What is the total number of orbitals in the fourth energy level (n = 4) a. 4 b. 24 answer: Cc. 16 d. 9 e. 18 Scientific Background (personal):Louis de Broglie: if light can have material properties, matter should exhibit wave propertiespredicts that all matter exhibits wavelike motionsquantum mechanics: describes the motions of subatomic particles and toms as wavesparticles gain or lose energy in packages called quantaHeisenberg uncertainty principle: it is impossible to know exactly both the velocity and the position of a particle at the same timecannot determine the momentum and position simultaneously of electonsSchrodinger proposed an equation containing both wave and particle termsdescribes the location and energy of an electron in a hydrogen atomused to develop the quantum mechanical modeldoes not define the exact path of an electron around a nucleusestimates probability of finding an electron at a certain positionPrincipal quantum number, n refers to principal energy levelas n becomes larger, the atom becomes large and the electron is further from the nucleusEnergy sublevelsAtomic orbitals: the cloud shapes denoted by letterss=sphericalequal probability of finding the electrons in any direction from the nucleusas n increases, s orbitals get largerp=dumbbell shaped-two lobeshigher energy with 3 orbitals of equal energypx, py, pz as n increases, the p orbitals get largerd=two lobes and a collar5 orbitals of equal energyf=7 orbitals of equal energy2n2 = maximum number of electrons that can occupy a principal energy level n=principal quantum numberReferences: Lesson Plan 5: Electron ConfigurationHSCEs:C4.8x Electron Configuration Electrons are arranged in main energy levels with sublevels that specify particular shapes and geometry. Orbitals represent a region of space in which an electron may be found with a high level of probability. Each defined orbital can hold two electrons, each with a specific spin orientation. The specific assignment of an electron to an orbital is determined by a set of 4 quantum numbers. Each element and, therefore, each position in the periodic table is defined by a unique set of quantum numbers.C4.8e Write the complete electron configuration of elements in the first four rows of the periodic table.C1.1D Identify patterns in data and relate them to theoretical models.Objectives:The learner will be able to: write electron configurations for the first four rows of elements.identify elements based on their electron configurations. explain the process of filling orbitals. Materials:Computer with PreziElectron Configuration Dorm Room handoutElectron Configuration Battle Ship handout and rules Safety: Except for basic and standard preparation for the average classroom, there are no special safety features necessary.Hazardous Materials: None.First Aid Procedures: None. Procedure:This lesson incorporates two fun activities to learn and enhance the learning of electron configurations: Dorm room and battleship. Using these activities, the three rules of electron configurations and their exceptions will be learned. Engage: Today we are going to be participating in a learning game to expand our learning skills. It will seem that this project has nothing to do with chemistry, but you must have faith. It will become apparent later how this project relates to chemistry. You are instead going to be placing students into their dorm room placements!Explore: Electron Configuration Dorm Room1. Prezi (42) Project the overhead of the dorm onto the overhead and pass out copies to the groups.Explain the basic rules for their project of college dorms:Each of your groups has been put in charge of placing students into a dorm for this semester. There are four types of dorm rooms in the buildings-super roomsp-pretty good roomsd-dumpy roomsf-fantastically bad roomsMaximum of two students in any one roomThere are no elevators->students must be as close to the 1st floor as possibleWhen filling a type of room, all rooms must be full before going onto a different type of room.When filling a type of room on a floor, you must place one student in each type of room before pairing them.Now ask the students to place a number of students into the dorm rooms. Try not to answer too many questions. Let them try to reason out a way to not break any rules themselves. After a few minutes, show them on the board how they should have been filled.Give the students a couple more semesters worth of students to place. They should get the hang of it.Prezi (43) Now explain to them that we must have a better way to document the placement of students. Show them how to do this with electron configuration.1s2 2s2 2px2y2z1Big Numbers for floorsLetters for type of roomSuper script for number of students in the roomSub script to distinguish the different rooms of the same type/same floorAsk the students to use this notation to represent the past examples they had placed in rooms.After each group has done so, write the answers on the board. Prezi (44) Tell the students that the administration of the college has been approached by students complaining that they don’t like being put in poor quality rooms when there are much better rooms on the next floor or two higher. In light of these complaints the school has instituted a new rule which may be followed when placing students into dorm rooms. “A student will be placed one floor higher if and only if there is an available room, which is two grades better.”Show the students how this new rule would work, and then ask them to perform a couple of placements themselves.After the students have completed a couple of examples safely, tell them that in light of all these rules we have consulted of organizations asking for a better way to organize this. Prezi (45) Show them the electron configuration chart with arrows through it which indicate the direction of filling.Perform an example on the board with the students using this organizer. Have them complete a couple themselves and turn in their group work.Explain: Explain what they were actually doing. That is:Students = electronsFloors = energy levelsRoom types = shape of orbitalsRules for filling rooms are actually a hierarchy of energy requirements Have a discussion over the rules that were applied to the dorm rules.Prezi (46): There are three rules that apply to the electron configurations.Prezi (47): Apply the rule: There are no elevators->students must be as close to the 1st floor as possible to electron configurationAufbau: Electrons enter orbitals of lowest energy firstPrezi (48): Apply the rule: Maximum of two students in any one room to electron configuration.Pauli Exclusion: Atomic orbital may describe at most two electrons. These two electrons have opposite spin (quantum property of electrons-clockwise or counterclockwise). Vertical arrows represent an electron and its spin. Prezi (49): Apply the rule: When filling a type of room on a floor, you must place one student in each type of room before pairing them to electron configuration.Hund’s Rule: When electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy, one electron enters each orbital until all the orbitals contain one electron with spins parallel.Prezi (50): Exceptions! ChromiumAufbau: 1s12s22p63s23p63d44s2correct: 1s12s22p63s23p63d54s1Copper: Aufbau: 1s12s22p63s23p63d104s2Correct: 1s12s22p63s23p63d104s1Prezi (51 ) Which of the following sets of orbitals is arranged in order of increasing energy?a) 3d < 4s < 4p < 5s < 4db) 3d < 4s < 4p < 4d < 5sc) 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4dd) 4s < 3d < 4p < 4d < 5s3d < 4s < 4p < 4d < 5sC is the correct answerPrezi (52) Write the electron configuration in long form and short form for:Ar: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6[Ne] 3s2 3p6P: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3[Ne] 3s2 3p3Elaborate: Prezi (53): Have students play Electron Configuration Battleship.Rules for Electron Configuration Battleship Both players mark their ships on their defensive periodic table (either horizontally or vertically). Fold the paper in half so that the back of the defensive periodic table is facing your opponent. You may want to have a book or binder in between you and your opponent. 2. Who ever goes first calls out the element that they want to attack, along with its electron configuration. The other player says “Hit” or “Miss” depending on whether one of his ships is on the element/electron configuration called out. The person calling out should keep track of the hit or miss on the offensive periodic table to keep track of the shots. The person being attacked should mark the shot on his defensive periodic table. If the shot is a “hit” the player goes again—otherwise, it is the other player’s turn. Once the opposing player has scored a hit on all of the spaces for a particular ship, you must say “You’ve sunk my cruiser” (or what ever type of ship it was). Once a player has sunk all of his or her opponent’s ships, he or she is declared the winner! 3. Ships to mark on your defensive periodic table a. 1 aircraft carrier (5 spaces) (mark with AAAAA) b. 1 battleship (4 spaces) (mark with BBBB) c. 1 cruiser (3 spaces) (mark with CCC) d. 2 destroyers (2 spaces each) (mark with DD) 4. Pay attention to the electron configurations given. If the player does not give the correct electron configuration for the element intended, they lose that turn. 5. On the table provided, keep track of the elements and electron configurations given from both players. (It will also help you check to see if the configurations are correct.) If there is no name for the element (see atomic numbers 110-118), then write down the atomic number. You must complete at least 2 games for credit for this assignment. You must staple together your records (work) and battleship “boards” for credit. Evaluate:Collect a couple of Electron Configuration Dorm Room handouts.5 points for completionPrezi Your turns! check for understandingCollect at least 2 electron configuration battleship boards.5 pts each based on correct configurationsScientific Background (personal):Electron configurations: ways in which electrons are arranged around the nuclei of atoms are called electron configurationsAufbau principle: electrons enter orbitals of lowest energy firstrange of energy levels within a principal energy level can overlap the energy levels of an adjacent principal levelexample: 4s orbital is lower in energy than the 3d4f is lower than the 5dPauli exclusion principle: atomic orbital may describe at most two electronsto occupy the same orbital, two electrons must have opposite spins (paired)vertical arrow representsHund’s rule: When electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy, one electron enters each orbital until all the orbitals contain one electron with spins parallelsecond electrons then add to each orbital so that their spins are paired with those of the first electrons in the orbitalsum of the superscripts equals the number of electronsEXCEPTIONS: ChromiumAufbau: 1s12s22p63s23p63d44s2correct: 1s12s22p63s23p63d54s1Copper: Aufbau: 1s12s22p63s23p63d104s2Correct: 1s12s22p63s23p63d104s1filled energy sublevels more stable then half-filled which are more stable than othersReferences: Lesson Plan: Periodic Table ClassificationsHSCEs:ReviewC4.8 Atomic Structure Electrons, protons, and neutrons are parts of the atom and have measurable properties, including mass and, in the case of protons and electrons, charge. The nuclei of atoms are composed of protons and neutrons. A kind of force that is only evident at nuclear distances holds the particles of the nucleus together against the electrical repulsion between the protons.C4.8A Identify the location, relative mass, and charge for electrons, protons, and neutrons. C4.8B Describe the atom as mostly empty space with an extremely small, dense nucleus consisting of the protons and neutrons and an electron cloud surrounding the nucleus. C4.9x Electron Energy Levels The rows in the periodic table represent the main electron energy levels of the atom. Within each main energy level are sublevels that represent an orbital shape and orientation.C4.9b Identify metals, non-metals, and metalloids using the periodic tableC4.9 Periodic Table In the periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing number of protons (called the atomic number). Vertical groups in the periodic table (families) have similar physical and chemical properties due to the same outer electron structures.C4.9A Identify elements with similar chemical and physical properties using the periodic tableObjectives:The learner will be able to: identify the main groups on the periodic table including metals, non-metals and metalloids.identify families with similar chemical and physical properties using the periodic table.Materials:Periodic table worksheetIn pursuit of the properties of metals and nonmetals handoutsSeven vials with caps, filled and labeled with the followingVial 1: Iron fillingsVial 2: Sulfur rollsVial 3: Mossy ZincVial 4: GraphiteVial 5: SiliconVial 6: Mossy TinVial 7: CarbonOne dropper bottle of labeled 6M hydrochloric acidOne hammerEight pieces of paper (3.5 x 5 inches)Conductivity apparatus such as a 9-volt batter, a small appliance light bulb, and three pieces of insulated copper wire to make an open circuit (closed with samples)One test tube holderSeven test tubesSafety goggles for each studentSafety:Hazardous Materials:6M hydrochloric acidFirst Aid Procedures: For 6M hydrochloric acidEye Contact: Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Cold water may be used. Get medical attention immediately. Skin Contact: In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. Cold water may be used. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical attention immediately. Serious Skin Contact: Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial cream. Seek immediate medical attention. Inhalation: If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention immediately. Serious Inhalation: Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. WARNING: It may be hazardous to the person providing aid to give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation when the inhaled material is toxic, infectious or corrosive. Seek immediate medical attention. Ingestion: If swallowed, do not induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. Get medical attention immediately. Serious Ingestion: Not available.MSDS SheetsVial 1: Iron fillings 2: Sulfur rolls 3: Mossy Zinc 4: Graphite 5: Silicon msds.php?msdsId=9924921Vial 6: Mossy Tin 7: Carbon water....Lines/.../MSDS%20ActivatedCarbon.pdfMaterial Safety Data Sheet : acid MSDS Section 1: Chemical Product and Company Identification Product Name: Hydrochloric acid Catalog Codes: SLH1462, SLH3154 CAS#: Mixture. RTECS: MW4025000 TSCA: TSCA 8(b) inventory: Hydrochloric acid CI#: Not applicable. Synonym: Hydrochloric Acid; Muriatic Acid Chemical Name: Not applicable. Chemical Formula: Not applicable. Contact Information: , Inc. 14025 Smith Rd. Houston, Texas 77396 US Sales: 1-800-901-7247 International Sales: 1-281-441-4400 Order Online: CHEMTREC (24HR Emergency Telephone), call: 1-800-424-9300 International CHEMTREC, call: 1-703-527-3887 For non-emergency assistance, call: 1-281-441-4400 Section 2: Composition and Information on Ingredients Composition: Name CAS # % by Weight Hydrogen chloride 7647-01-0 20-38 Water 7732-18-5 62-80 Toxicological Data on Ingredients: Hydrogen chloride: GAS (LC50): Acute: 4701 ppm 0.5 hours [Rat]. Section 3: Hazards Identification Potential Acute Health Effects: Very hazardous in case of skin contact (corrosive, irritant, permeator), of eye contact (irritant, corrosive), of ingestion, . Slightly hazardous in case of inhalation (lungsensitizer). Non-corrosive for lungs. Liquid or spray mist may produce tissue damage particularly on mucous membranes of eyes, mouth and respiratory tract. Skin contact may produce burns. Inhalation of the spray mist may produce severe irritation of respiratory tract, characterized by coughing, choking, or shortness of breath. Severe over-exposure can result in death. Inflammation of the eye is characterized by redness, watering, and itching. Skin inflammation is characterized by itching, scaling, reddening, or, occasionally, blistering. Potential Chronic Health Effects: Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (sensitizer). CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS: Classified 3 (Not classifiable for human.) by IARC [Hydrochloric acid]. MUTAGENIC EFFECTS: Not available. TERATOGENIC EFFECTS: Not available. DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY: Not available. The substance may be toxic to kidneys, liver, mucous membranes, upper respiratory tract, skin, eyes, Circulatory System, teeth. Repeated or prolonged exposure to the substance can produce target organs damage. Repeated or prolonged contact with spray mist may produce chronic eye irritation and severe skin irritation. Repeated or prolonged exposure to spray mist may produce respiratory tract irritation leading to frequent attacks of bronchial infection. Repeated exposure to a highly toxic material may produce general deterioration of health by an accumulation in one or many human organs. Section 4: First Aid Measures Eye Contact: Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Cold water may be used. Get medical attention immediately. Skin Contact: In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. Cold water may be used. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical attention immediately. Serious Skin Contact: Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial cream. Seek immediate medical attention. Inhalation: If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention immediately. Serious Inhalation: Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. WARNING: It may be hazardous to the person providing aid to give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation when the inhaled material is toxic, infectious or corrosive. Seek immediate medical attention. Ingestion: If swallowed, do not induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. Get medical attention immediately. Serious Ingestion: Not available. Section 5: Fire and Explosion Data Flammability of the Product: Non-flammable. Auto-Ignition Temperature: Not applicable. Flash Points: Not applicable. Flammable Limits: Not applicable. Products of Combustion: Not available. Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: of metals Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Non-explosive in presence of open flames and sparks, of shocks. Fire Fighting Media and Instructions: Not applicable. Special Remarks on Fire Hazards: Non combustible. Calcium carbide reacts with hydrogen chloride gas with incandescence. Uranium phosphide reacts with hydrochloric acid to release spontaneously flammable phosphine. Rubidium acetylene carbides burns with slightly warm hydrochloric acid. Lithium silicide in contact with hydrogen chloride becomes incandescent. When dilute hydrochloric acid is used, gas spontaneously flammable in air is evolved. Magnesium boride treated with concentrated hydrochloric acid produces spontaneously flammble gas. Cesium acetylene carbide burns hydrogen chloride gas. Cesium carbide ignites in contact with hydrochloric acid unless acid is dilute. Reacts with most metals to produce flammable Hydrodgen gas. Special Remarks on Explosion Hazards:Hydrogen chloride in contact with the following can cause an explosion, ignition on contact, or other violent/vigorous reaction: Acetic anhydride AgClO + CCl4 Alcohols + hydrogen cyanide, Aluminum Aluminum-titanium alloys (with HCl vapor), 2-Amino ethanol, Ammonium hydroxide, Calcium carbide Ca3P2 Chlorine + dinitroanilines (evolves gas), Chlorosulfonic acid Cesium carbide Cesium acetylene carbide, 1,1-Difluoroethylene Ethylene diamine Ethylene imine, Fluorine, HClO4 Hexalithium disilicide H2SO4 Metal acetylides or carbides, Magnesium boride, Mercuric sulfate, Oleum, Potassium permanganate, beta-Propiolactone Propylene oxide Rubidium carbide, Rubidium, acetylene carbide Sodium (with aqueous HCl), Sodium hydroxide Sodium tetraselenium, Sulfonic acid, Tetraselenium tetranitride, U3P4 , Vinyl acetate. Silver perchlorate with carbon tetrachloride in the presence of hydrochloric acid produces trichloromethyl perchlorate which detonates at 40 deg. C. Section 6: Accidental Release Measures Small Spill: Dilute with water and mop up, or absorb with an inert dry material and place in an appropriate waste disposal container. If necessary: Neutralize the residue with a dilute solution of sodium carbonate. Large Spill: Corrosive liquid. Poisonous liquid. Stop leak if without risk. Absorb with DRY earth, sand or other non-combustible material. Do not get water inside container. Do not touch spilled material. Use water spray curtain to divert vapor drift. Use water spray to reduce vapors. Prevent entry into sewers, basements or confined areas; dike if needed. Call for assistance on disposal. Neutralize the residue with a dilute solution of sodium carbonate. Be careful that the product is not present at a concentration level above TLV. Check TLV on the MSDS and with local authorities. Section 7: Handling and Storage Precautions: Keep locked up. Keep container dry. Do not ingest. Do not breathe gas/fumes/ vapor/spray. Never add water to this product. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container or the label. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents, organic materials, metals, alkalis, moisture. May corrode metallic surfaces. Store in a metallic or coated fiberboard drum using a strong polyethylene inner package. Storage: Keep container tightly closed. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area. Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection Engineering Controls: Provide exhaust ventilation or other engineering controls to keep the airborne concentrations of vapors below their respective threshold limit value. Ensure that eyewash stations and safety showers are proximal to the work-station location. Personal Protection: Face shield. Full suit. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator or equivalent. Gloves. Boots. Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill: Splash goggles. Full suit. Vapor respirator. Boots. Gloves. A self contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product. Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling this product. Exposure Limits: CEIL: 5 (ppm) from OSHA (PEL) [United States] CEIL: 7 (mg/m3) from OSHA (PEL) [United States] CEIL: 5 from NIOSH CEIL: 7 (mg/m3) from NIOSH TWA: 1 STEL: 5 (ppm) [United Kingdom (UK)] TWA: 2 STEL: 8 (mg/m3) [United Kingdom (UK)]Consult local authorities for acceptable exposure limits. Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties Physical state and appearance: Liquid.Odor: Pungent. Irritating (Strong.) Taste: Not available. Molecular Weight: Not applicable. Color: Colorless to light yellow. pH (1% soln/water): Acidic. Boiling Point: 108.58 C @ 760 mm Hg (for 20.22% HCl in water) 83 C @ 760 mm Hg (for 31% HCl in water) 50.5 C (for 37% HCl in water) Melting Point: -62.25°C (-80°F) (20.69% HCl in water) -46.2 C (31.24% HCl in water) -25.4 C (39.17% HCl in water) Critical Temperature: Not available. Specific Gravity: 1.1- 1.19 (Water = 1) 1.10 (20%and 22% HCl solutions) 1.12 (24% HCl solution) 1.15 (29.57% HCl solution) 1.16 (32% HCl solution) 1.19 (37% and 38%HCl solutions) Vapor Pressure: 16 kPa (@ 20°C) average Vapor Density: 1.267 (Air = 1) Volatility: Not available. Odor Threshold: 0.25 to 10 ppm Water/Oil Dist. Coeff.: Not available. Ionicity (in Water): Not available. Dispersion Properties: See solubility in water, diethyl ether. Solubility: Soluble in cold water, hot water, diethyl ether. Section 10: Stability and Reactivity Data Stability: The product is stable. Instability Temperature: Not available. Conditions of Instability: Incompatible materials, water Incompatibility with various substances: Highly reactive with metals. Reactive with oxidizing agents, organic materials, alkalis, water. Corrosivity: Extremely corrosive in presence of aluminum, of copper, of stainless steel (304), of stainless steel(316). Non-corrosive in presence of glass. Special Remarks on Reactivity: Reacts with water especially when water is added to the product. Absorption of gaseous hydrogen chloride on mercuric sulfate becomes violent @ 125 deg. C. Sodium reacts very violently with gaseous hydrogen chloride. Calcium phosphide and hydrochloric acid undergo very energetic reaction. It reacts with oxidizers releasing chlorine gas. Incompatible with, alkali metals, carbides, borides, metal oxides, vinyl acetate, acetylides, sulphides, phosphides, cyanides, carbonates. Reacts with most metals to produce flammable Hydrogen gas. Reacts violently (moderate reaction with heat of evolution) with water especially when water is added to the product. Isolate hydrogen chloride from heat, direct sunlight, alkalies (reacts vigorously), organic materials, and oxidizers (especially nitric acid and chlorates), amines, metals, copper and alloys (e.g. brass), hydroxides, zinc (galvanized materials), lithium silicide (incandescence), sulfuric acid (increase in temperature and pressure) Hydrogen chloride gas is emitted when this product is in contact with sulfuric acid. Adsorption of Hydrochloric Acid onto silicon dioxide results in exothmeric reaction. Hydrogen chloride causes aldehydes and epoxides to violently polymerize. Hydrogen chloride or Hydrochloric Acid in contact with the folloiwng can cause explosion or ignition on contact or Special Remarks on Corrosivity: Highly corrosive. Incompatible with copper and copper alloys. It attacks nearly all metals (mercury, gold, platinium, tantalum, silver, and certain alloys are exceptions). It is one of the most corrosive of the nonoxidizing acids in contact with copper alloys. No corrosivity data on zinc, steel. Severe Corrosive effect on brass and bronze Polymerization: Will not occur. Section 11: Toxicological Information Routes of Entry: Absorbed through skin. Dermal contact. Eye contact. Inhalation. Toxicity to Animals: Acute oral toxicity (LD50): 900 mg/kg [Rabbit]. Acute toxicity of the vapor (LC50): 1108 ppm, 1 hours [Mouse]. Acute toxicity of the vapor (LC50): 3124 ppm, 1 hours [Rat]. Chronic Effects on Humans: CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS: Classified 3 (Not classifiable for human.) by IARC [Hydrochloric acid]. May cause damage to the following organs: kidneys, liver, mucous membranes, upper respiratory tract, skin, eyes, Circulatory System, teeth. Other Toxic Effects on Humans: Very hazardous in case of skin contact (corrosive, irritant, permeator), of ingestion, Hazardous in case of eye contact (corrosive), of inhalation (lung corrosive). Special Remarks on Toxicity to Animals: Lowest Published Lethal Doses (LDL/LCL) LDL [Man] -Route: Oral; 2857 ug/kg LCL [Human] - Route: Inhalation; Dose: 1300 ppm/30M LCL [Rabbit] - Route: Inhalation; Dose: 4413 ppm/30M Special Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans: May cause adverse reproductive effects (fetoxicity). May affect genetic material. Special Remarks on other Toxic Effects on Humans: Acute Potential Health Effects: Skin: Corrosive. Causes severe skin irritation and burns. Eyes: Corrosive. Causes severe eye irritation/conjuntivitis, burns, corneal necrosis. Inhalation: May be fatal if inhaled. Material is extremely destructive to tissue of the mucous membranes and upper respiratory tract. Inhalation of hydrochloric acid fumes produces nose, throat, and larryngeal burning, and irritation, pain and inflammation, coughing, sneezing, choking sensation, hoarseness, laryngeal spasms, upper respiratory tract edema, chest pains, as well has headache, and palpitations. Inhalation of high concentrations can result in corrosive burns, necrosis of bronchial epithelium, constriction of the larynx and bronchi, nasospetal perforation, glottal closure, occur, particularly if exposure is prolonged. May affect the liver. Ingestion: May be fatal if swallowed. Causes irritation and burning, ulceration, or perforation of the gastrointestinal tract and resultant peritonitis, gastric hemorrhage and infection. Can also cause nausea, vomitting (with "coffee ground" emesis), diarrhea, thirst, difficulty swallowing, salivation, chills, fever, uneasiness, shock, strictures and stenosis (esophogeal, gastric, pyloric). May affect behavior (excitement), the cardiovascular system (weak rapid pulse, tachycardia), respiration (shallow respiration), and urinary system (kidneys- renal failure, nephritis). Acute exposure via inhalation or ingestion can also cause erosion of tooth enamel. Chronic Potential Health Effects: dyspnea, bronchitis. Chemical pneumonitis and pulmonary edema can also Section 12: Ecological Information Ecotoxicity: Not available. BOD5 and COD: Not available. Products of Biodegradation: Possibly hazardous short term degradation products are not likely. However, long term degradation products may arise. Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The products of degradation are less toxic than the product itself. Special Remarks on the Products of Biodegradation: Not available. Section 13: Disposal Considerations Waste Disposal:Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and local environmental control regulations. Section 14: Transport Information DOT Classification: Class 8: Corrosive material Identification: Hydrochloric acid, solution UNNA: 1789 PG: II Special Provisions for Transport: Not available. Section 15: Other Regulatory Information Federal and State Regulations: Connecticut hazardous material survey.: Hydrochloric acid Illinois toxic substances disclosure to employee act: Hydrochloric acid Illinois chemical safety act: Hydrochloric acid New York release reporting list: Hydrochloric acid Rhode Island RTK hazardous substances: Hydrochloric acid Pennsylvania RTK: Hydrochloric acid Minnesota: Hydrochloric acid Massachusetts RTK: Hydrochloric acid Massachusetts spill list: Hydrochloric acid New Jersey: Hydrochloric acid New Jersey spill list: Hydrochloric acid Louisiana RTK reporting list: Hydrochloric acid Louisiana spill reporting: Hydrochloric acid California Director's List of Hazardous Substances: Hydrochloric acid TSCA 8(b) inventory: Hydrochloric acid TSCA 4(a) proposed test rules: Hydrochloric acid SARA 302/304/311/312 extremely hazardous substances: Hydrochloric acid SARA 313 toxic chemical notification and release reporting: Hydrochloric acid CERCLA: Hazardous substances.: Hydrochloric acid: 5000 lbs. (2268 kg) Other Regulations: OSHA: Hazardous by definition of Hazard Communication Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200). EINECS: This product is on the European Inventory of Existing Commercial Chemical Substances. Other Classifications: WHMIS (Canada): CLASS D-2A: Material causing other toxic effects (VERY TOXIC). CLASS E: Corrosive liquid. DSCL (EEC): R34- Causes burns. R37- Irritating to respiratory system. S26- In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately with plenty of water and seek medical advice. S45- In case of accident or if you feel unwell, seek medical advice immediately (show the label where possible). HMIS (U.S.A.): Health Hazard: 3 Fire Hazard: 0 Reactivity: 1 Personal Protection: National Fire Protection Association (U.S.A.): Health: 3 Flammability: 0 Reactivity: 1 Specific hazard: Protective Equipment: Gloves. Full suit. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator or equivalent. Wear appropriate respirator when ventilation is inadequate. Face shield. Section 16: Other InformationReferences: -Hawley, G.G.. The Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 11e ed., New York N.Y., Van Nostrand Reinold, 1987. -SAX, N.I. Dangerous Properties of Indutrial Materials. Toronto, Van Nostrand Reinold, 6e ed. 1984. -The Sigma-Aldrich Library of Chemical Safety Data, Edition II. -Guide de la loi et du règlement sur le transport des marchandises dangeureuses au canada. Centre de conformité internatinal Ltée. 1986. Other Special Considerations: Not available. Created: 10/09/2005 05:45 PM Last Updated: 11/01/2010 12:00 PM The information above is believed to be accurate and represents the best information currently available to us. However, we make no warranty of merchantability or any other warranty, express or implied, with respect to such information, and we assume no liability resulting from its use. Users should make their own investigations to determine the suitability of the information for their particular purposes. In no event shall be liable for any claims, losses, or damages of any third party or for lost profits or any special, indirect, incidental, consequential or exemplary damages, howsoever arising, even if has been advised of the possibility of such damages.Misconceptions: All metal conduct heat and electricity and non-metals do not. This is not true, but rather all metals are good conductors of heat and electricity and that non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Requisite Knowledge:Electrons, protons, and neutrons are parts of the atom and have measurable properties, including mass and, in the case of protons and electrons, charge. The nuclei of atoms are composed of protons and neutrons. A kind of force that is only evident at nuclear distances holds the particles of the nucleus together against the electrical repulsion between the protons.Procedure: Students will perform the lab: Pursuit of the Properties of Metals and Non-metals by testing the color, luster, malleability, conductivity, and reaction with acid with various objects. Engage: Watch the youtube video to show the history of the periodic table and periodic law. Stop at 5 minutes stating that we are going to perform a lab to discover for ourselves the properties of metals and nonmetals. Explore: Have students do the lab: Pursuit of the Properties of Metals and Non-metals IN PURSUIT OF THE PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NONMETALSIn this activity you will explore the properties of metals, nonmetal, and metalloids. You will be checking the physical properties of color, luster, malleability, and conductivity, as well as how the material reacts with acid. Be sure to make complete and careful observation. You will record these observations in the spaces in the table below.Sample #ColorLusterMalleabilityConductivityReaction with Acid1 +1Gray-silverShinyYesYesYes2 +1YellowBrightNo, crumblesNoNo3 +1Silver-grayShinyYesYesGas liberated, yes4 +1Steel-gray to blackDullNoYesNo5 +1Crystalline with bluish tinger phasesShinyNo, crumblesYesSlightly reactive6 +1Silvery-grayShinyYesYesYes7 +1BlackLittle shinyNoYesNoProceduresBe sure you are wearing goggles.Break into groups of two or three but be sure to complete your own data sheet.Take a white piece of white paper, fold it in half, open it, and place it on the lab top. Open vial 1 and shake a pea-sized portion onto the white paper. Observe the appearance of the sample and record your observation in the “color” and “luster” columns of the data sheet.Have one student place a second piece of paper over the top of the sample and crush the sample with the hammer. Remove the top piece of paper, observe the sample and record your observations in the “malleability” (capable of being shaped or formed) column of the data sheet. Have one student within each group test the conductivity of the sample with the conductivity apparatus by placing the ends not attached to the power source or light bulb into the sample vial. DO NOT LET THE WIRES TOUCH EACH OTHER. Observe the light bulb and record your observation in the “conductivity” column of the data sheet.Have one student place a test tube in the test tube rack. Pour sample 1 from the paper into the test tube and ass 10 to 20 drops of 6M hydrochloric acid. Wait three minutes then observe and record in the “reaction with acid” column.Repeat step 3 through 7 for the remaining six vial samples.Explain: AnalysisBased on your observations, which vials would you classify together and why?Answers will vary. If there is a clear pattern, +2pointsBased on what we have learned so far, classify the vials into MetalsMetalloidsNon-metalsIronSiliconSulfurZincGraphiteTinCabon+7 points for correctly placing each substanceWhat observations did you/would you assign the metals?Lustrous, malleable, good conductors of heat or electricity, reacts with acid+2 pointsThe non-metals?Not lustrous, poor conductors of heat or electricity, little reaction with acid+2 pointsWatch the youtube video starting at 5 minutes to clarify the classifications of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Elaborate: Students will jigsaw read chapter 23. Depending on the number of students in the class, divide the students into groups. One student will read and take notes one either 23.1: the alkali metals, 23.2: the alkaline earth metals, 23.3: Aluminum and the Group 3A elements, Carbon and the Group 4A elements, 23.5: Nitrogen and the Group 5A Elements, 23.6: Oxygen and the group 6a elements, 23.7: The Halogens, 23.8: Hydrogen, 23.9: The Noble Gases, or 23.10: The Transition Metals. The group will meets back as a whole and each individual will share their key facts about each sections. Evaluate:Collect Lab Handout- 20 pts.Alignment TableHSCEObjective NumberInstructional ActivityC4.9b1In Pursuit of the Properties of Metals and Non-metalsC4.9b and C4.9A1 and 2Youtube videoC4.9A2Jig-saw ReadScientific Background (College Level detail):MetalsPhysical PropertiesChemical Propertieslustrous (shiny)have 1-3 electrons in the outer shell of each atomgood conductors of heat and electricitycorrodes easily (damaged by oxidation such as tarnish or rusthigh melting pointlost electrons easilyhigh density (heavy for their size)form oxides that are basicmalleable (can be hammered)have lower electronegativitiesductile (can be drawn into wires)good reducing agentsusually solid at room temperature (exception=mercury)opaque as a thin sheetsonorous-bell like sound when struckNon-metalsPhysical PropertiesChemical Propertiesnot lustrous (dull)4-8 electrons in their outer shellpoor conductors of heat and electricityreadily gain or share valence electronsnonductile solidsform oxides that are acidicbrittle solidshave higher electronegativitiesmay be solids, liquids, or gases at room temperaturegood oxidizing agentstransparent as a thin sheetnonmetals are not sonorousAt the Web site may click on any element and access information about its physical and chemical properties, as well as other fascinating facts. Reading the Modern Periodic Table Our modern day periodic table is expanded beyond Mendeleev's initial 63 elements. Most of the current periodic tables include 108 or 109 elements. It is also important to notice how the modern periodic table is arranged. Although we have retained the format of rows and columns, which reflects a natural order, the rows of today's tables show elements in the order of Mendeleev's columns. In other words the elements of what we now call a "period" were listed vertically by Mendeleev. Chemical "groups" are now shown vertically in contrast to their horizontal format in Mendeleev's table. Note also that Mendeleev's 1871 arrangement was related to the atomic ratios in which elements formed oxides, binary compounds with oxygen; whereas today's periodic tables are arranged by increasing atomic numbers, that is, the number of protons a particular element contains. Although we can imply the formulas for oxides from today's periodic table, it is not explicitly stated as it was in Mendeleev's 1871 table. The oxides ratio column was not shown in earlier Mendeleev versions. Can you think of a reason why not? Groups The modern periodic table of the elements contains 18 groups, or vertical columns. Elements in a group have similar chemical and physical properties because they have the same number of outer electrons. Elements in a group are like members of a family--each is different, but all are related by common characteristics. Notice that each group is titled with Roman numerals and the letters A and B. Scientists in the United States and Europe now use different titles to refer to the same groups. To avoid confusion, the Roman numerals and letters designating groups will eventually be replaced by the numerals from one to eighteen. Periods Each of the table's horizontal rows is called a period. Along a period, a gradual change in chemical properties occurs from one element to another. For example, metallic properties decrease and nonmetallic properties increase as you go from left to right across a period. Changes in the properties occur because the number of protons and electrons increases from left to right across a period or row. The increase in number of electrons is important because the outer electrons determine the element's chemical properties. The periodic table consists of seven periods. The periods vary in length. The first period is very short and contains only 2 elements, hydrogen and helium. The next two periods contain eight elements each. Periods four and five each have 18 elements. The sixth period has 32 elements. The last period is not complete yet because new exotic or man- made elements are still being made in laboratories. Classification of General Properties The general properties of elements allow them to be divided into three classifications: metals, nonmetals and metalloids. The distribution of metals is shown in your periodic table as boxes colored yellow, purple and two shades of blue. Metalloid elements are in the diagonal boxes colored pink and nonmetal elements are above the diagonal line to the right of the metalloids, in boxes colored green, gold, and red. Notice that hydrogen's box is colored green, even though it is at the top of a group of metals. METALS As you can see, the vast majority of the known elements are metals. Many metals are easily recognized by non-chemists. Common examples are copper, lead, silver and gold. In general, metals have a luster, are quite dense, and are good conductors of heat and electricity. They tend to be soft, malleable and ductile (meaning that they are easily shaped and can be drawn into fine wires without breaking). All of these properties are directly related to the fact that solid metals are crystals formed from positive ions surrounded by mobile electrons. This mobility allows electrons to absorb and reflect light in many wavelengths, giving the metals their typical luster. It also permits electrons to absorb thermal and electrical energy from the environment or neighboring electrons and transfer this energy to other electrons; in this way, heat and electricity can be conducted throughout the metal. These mobile electrons hold the positive metallic ions so tightly that even when the metal sample is only a few layers thick, as in gold foil, the sample stays intact. So, the density, malleability, and ductility of metals are also due to electron mobility. The difference in the coloring on the periodic table indicates that the most metallic elements are those on the left side of the table. The Group I Alkali Metals and the Group II Alkaline Earths have more metallic characteristics than elements farther right whose square are colored blue, especially those that border on the metalloid elements. Generally speaking, the most metallic metals are in the bottom left corner. As you move toward the upper right on the periodic table, elements become less metallic in property. Alkali Metals The alkali (IA) metals show a closer relationship in their properties than do any other family of elements in the periodic table. Alkali metals are so chemically reactive that they are never found in the element form in nature. All these metals react spontaneously with gases in the air, so they must be kept immersed in oil in the storeroom. They are so soft that they can be cut with an ordinary table knife, revealing a very "buttery", silvery metal surface that immediately turns dull as it reacts with water vapor and oxygen in the air. The chemical reactivity of alkali metals increases as the atomic number increases. Their reactions with halogens, elements in Group VIIA, are especially spectacular because some of them emit both light and heat energy. They react with other nonmetals, albeit more slowly, forming compounds that are very stable. They also react with acids, forming hydrogen gas and salts; with water they form hydrogen gas and metallic hydroxides, which are sometimes called bases. They react with hydrogen to form metallic hydrides, which form strong bases in water. In all these reactions, the metals form ionic compounds, in which each metal atom loses one electron to form a positively-charged ion or cation. All compounds of alkali metals are soluble in water. These compounds are widely distributed. Large mineral deposits of relatively pure compounds of sodium and potassium are found in many parts of the world. Sodium and potassium chlorides are among the most abundant compounds in sea water. Potassium compounds are found in all plants and sodium and potassium compounds are essential to animal life—including human life. Lithium (Li) is the alkali metal of most interest to Genesis scientists. Alkaline Earth Metals The alkaline earth (IIA) metals also exhibit the typical metal characteristics of high density, metallic luster and electrical and thermal conductivity. Rocks and minerals containing silica, magnesium, and calcium compounds are widely distributed. These chemicals are also abundant as compounds in sea water. Their chlorides are abundant in sea water. Radium, the largest of the alkaline earths, is a radioactive element that occurs naturally only in very small quantities. Chlorophyll, the green coloring in plants, is a magnesium-containing compound. Calcium is a major component of animal bones, teeth and nerve cells. Alkaline earth elements form compounds by losing, or in the case of beryllium, sharing two electrons per atom. These atoms hold their electrons more tightly than alkali metals. They are, therefore, smaller than and not so chemically reactive as the neighboring alkali metals. They do not require special storage because the surface of these metals reacts with air, forming a tightly adhering layer that protects the metal and prevents additional reactions. None of them is found naturally as a free element. The chemical reactivity of these elements increases with size. Calcium, strontium, and barium react with water forming hydrogen and alkaline compounds. Magnesium reacts with steam to produce magnesium oxide. Common oxides of alkaline earth metals include lime (CaO) and magnesia (MgO), which react with water to produce strongly alkaline solutions. The alkali metals also react readily with many other types of chemicals, including acids, sulfur, phosphorus, the halogens (Group VIIA), and, with the exception of beryllium, hydrogen. Alkaline earth halides are quite soluble in water. The water solubility of their hydroxides increases, but the solubility of their carbonates and sulfates decrease with increasing atomic number. The presence of calcium and magnesium ions in water make it "hard" because they form insoluble salts with soap. Solid calcium carbonate deposits form on container surfaces when water evaporates. Magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), barium (Ba), and beryllium (Be) are all of interest to Genesis researchers. Transition Metals The transition (or heavy) metals have most of the usual properties of metals. Their densities, which are greater than the Group IA and IIA metals, increase and then decrease across a period. The transition metals are also called heavy metals because their atoms are relatively small and their large numbers of protons and neutrons give them relatively large masses. There is a great variance in the chemical reactivity of transition metals. All the transition elements react with halogens and most react with sulfur and oxygen. The elements from scandium through copper form compounds that are soluble in water. The heavier elements of Group VIIB are sometimes called the platinum metals, which, in addition to gold, are very nonreactive. One of the main uses for transition metals is the formation of alloys—mixtures of metals—to produce tools and construction materials for specific uses. For example, structural steel alloys, which are used in automobiles and building construction, can contain as much as 95% iron. There are also carbon and at least six different high-alloy steels, some which contain manganese, chromium, nickel, tungsten, molybdenum and cobalt: all transition metals. Copper, silver and gold are sometimes known as coinage metals because they can be found naturally in the free state and because they tarnish slowly. Since prehistoric times, they have been used in coins, utensils, weapons, and jewelry. Although many transition metals have very high melting and boiling points, mercury (Hg) has such a low melting point that it is a liquid at room temperature. All the transition metals are electrical conductors, with copper, silver and gold being among the best; they vary from very good to only fairly good thermal conductors. Some of the transition metals exhibit colored luster and some of them are more brittle than the Group IA and IIA metals. Whereas the compounds of the Group IA and IIA metals are white, many of the transition metal compounds are brightly colored. Many heavy metal compounds, such as those of mercury, cadmium, zinc, chromium and copper, are poisonous. When transition metal ions are present in even small percentages in crystalline silicates or alumina, the minerals become gems. Rubies are gems in which small numbers of chromium ions are substituted for aluminum ions in aluminum oxide. Chromium substitution for a small number of aluminum ions in another clear crystal, beryllium aluminum silicate, forms the green gem known as emerald. Alexandrine may appear red or green due to chromium ion substitution in its crystal. Iron ions can produce red garnets, purple amethysts, and blue aquamarines. Iron and titanium ions cause yellow-green peridot, and blue turquoise gems are colored by copper ions. Titanium and chromium are two transition metals about which Genesis scientists expect to learn a great deal. Rare Earth Metals The rare earth metals consist of the lanthanide series and the actinide series. Because they are difficult to find, they are termed rare earths. They often appear to be an add-on to the rest of the periodic table, but actually, they should be shown in the center of the table. The table should be split after 137 barium, and the Lanthanide series inserted. The Actinide series should be inserted after 88 radium. (Lanthanides) The fourteen lanthanide elements follow lanthanum (La) in the periodic table. They generally occur together in a phosphate mineral such as monazite. They are so similar in chemical and physical properties that they are especially difficult to separate from each other. Promethium (Pm) is unstable, and is not found in nature. An unstable isotope of an element decays or disintegrates spontaneously, emitting various types of radiation. Another name for an unstable isotope is a radioisotope. In some instances, the decay process is slow, with the unstable atom lasting days or months. In others, the process is rapid, lasting tiny fractions of a second. In addition to radiation, the unstable element changes its nucleus to become one or more other lighter elements. Approximately 5,000 natural and artificial or manmade radioisotopes have been identified.(Actinides) The fourteen actinides follow actinium (Ac) in the periodic table. They are all unstable, and most do not occur in nature. Less is known about these elements than about any other family, since some of them have only been produced in tiny quantities. Uranium (U) is the most well-known naturally occurring member of this group of elements. Mendelevium (Md), element number 101, is named for Dmitri Mendeleev, the Russian chemist who first arrange the elements in a table in order of increasing atomic mass. Examining radioactive nuclei in solar wind is one of the measurement objectives of the Genesis mission. Other Metals Other metals include heavier elements of Groups IIIA, IVA, and VA. They form a staircase inside the periodic table. The metals in Group IIIA are aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), and thallium (Tl). The metals in Group IVA are tin (Sn) and lead (Pb), and the only metal in Group VA is bismuth (Bi). As atomic number decreases within each group, their metallic character gets weaker. For instance, boron (B), above aluminum in Group IIIA, is a metalloid rather than a metal. Aluminum, tin, and lead are readily recognized as metals by non-chemists. Aluminum (Al) is the only true metal in Group IIIA. Aluminum ores are found in great abundance in the Earth’s crust, but the metal’s manufacture by an electrochemical process from bauxite ore requires ten times the energy needed to produce steel. Because aluminum is light, strong, very malleable and resists corrosion, it is an especially good industrial and construction metal. The principal use of tin (Sn) is as a corrosion-resistant coating for iron, although it is widely used in alloys, such as bronze and solder. Lead (Pb) is the principal constituent of lead storage batteries, but it is also used to form solder. Its use in paints has been discontinued because of its toxic effect on the human body. Bismuth (Bi) is hard and brittle; it is used in alloys with low melting points that are used for electrical safety appliances. METALLOIDS The metalloids include boron (B), silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge), arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te) and polonium, (Po). Note that they are arranged in stair steps between the metals and nonmetals. Metalloids have some of the properties of metals and nonmetals—and each metalloid has its own unique mixture. A few are shiny like metals, but do not really have a metallic luster. Some metalloids have very high melting and boiling points; others do not. Others conduct electricity, but their electrons are mobile in only certain directions, so they are called semi-conductors. This makes them useful in designing transistors and other solid state electronic components. Genesis scientists are interested in boron because the collection wafer material is pure silicon. NONMETALS The nonmetallic elements are in the upper right portion of the periodic table. At room temperature and pressure, many of them exist as gases, but one is a liquid. Others are either the hardest or the softest of solids. The nonmetals have few chemical properties in common. They range from fluorine, the most active nonmetal, to the most nonreactive of the elements, the noble gases. Millions of compounds formed from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen are known as organic chemicals.Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen have been identified as atmospheric pollutants. Nonmetallic compounds also include salts as well as many acids and bases. Many of these salts are found in soil or dissolved in ocean water. Any ions formed by nonmetals are negatively charged. Almost eighty percent of our atmosphere is made up of nitrogen gas and most of the rest is oxygen, which is necessary for human respiration and metabolism. There are negligible amounts of noble gases in our atmosphere. Many of the nonmetals are colored, including yellow sulfur, red and yellow phosphorus, yellow-green fluorine, pale yellow chlorine, red-brown bromine, and violet-black iodine. Others, like oxygen, nitrogen, and the noble gases are colorless. Only sulfur is found as a free element in nature. Some of the nonmetals are molecular, such as the diatomic halogens, nitrogen, and oxygen; phosphorus forms molecules of four atoms and sulfur is found in rings of eight atoms. The noble gases exist as monoatomic gases. On the other hand, any sample of carbon, whether it be the graphite in your pencil lead or a diamond, is one large molecule of carbon atoms. If metal atoms are closely packed like stacked building materials, leading to high densities, then the low density of nonmetals is like the same building materials widely distributed with open spaces between them in the constructed building. Electrons in the crystalline structures of nonmetallic solids are tightly held in chemical bonds; so, nonmetals are notably good electrical and thermal insulators. Halogens The halogens are the gases in Group VIIA of the periodic table. Their name indicates that they are salt-formers. This is appropriate since they react easily with other elements, especially the alkali and alkaline earth elements in the left columns of the periodic table. They are all considered highly reactive elements. Chlorine (Cl) is one of the halogens. It is a highly poisonous yellow and green-colored gas. It combines easily with an explosive alkali metal called sodium (Na) to form a compound called sodium chloride. The compound’s chemical formula is NaCl, and it goes by the common name of table salt. Actually the term salt is used in a more general sense to mean any compound of a halogen with an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal. These can combine in many different arrangements. Some types of salts include magnesium bromide (MgBr2) and potassium iodide (KI). Except for the noble gases, the chemical reactivity of nonmetals decreases as the size of the family member increases. Fluorine is the most electronegative of the elements, which means that it has the most attraction for a pair of electrons being shared. It is so reactive that metal flakes, glass, and even water will react brightly in it, so it requires special handling and great care in its use and storage. Melting points and boiling points increase as the size of the atom in the family increases. Note the physical states of the halogens. Fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is a solid at room temperatures. Astatine is a radioactive member of the halogen family and radon has some radioactive isotopes that are dangerous to human health. Fluorine (F), the lightest halogen, is also the most reactive element on Earth. It is also the most electronegative, having the ability to steal electrons from other elements easily. Fluorine is so reactive that metal flakes, glass, and even water will burn brightly in it. This dangerously reactive element requires special handling and great care in its use and storage.Noble Gases The noble gases were unknown in Mendeleev's time. The lightest and most stable of these gases, helium, was discovered from its bright yellow solar spectral line in 1868. The existence of helium on Earth was not discovered until 1895. The noble gases are Group 0 in the periodic table. These elements are termed noble because they do not interact with other elements to form compounds. Another way to say this is that they are inert. Their atoms do not even interact with each other, so they exist as mono atomic gases. Examining noble gas elements and isotopic ratios in solar wind is a major science objective of the Genesis mission. The foil collectors returned from the moon on Apollo missions provided precise solar wind helium (He) and neon (Ne) isotope ratios not previously known. One surprise was a 20Ne/22Ne ratio that was 38% higher than that of samples of Earth’s atmosphere. The results of the Genesis mission may help scientists better understand the solar system’s diversity of noble gas distribution. Hydrogen Chemists are not in agreement about the placement of hydrogen on the periodic table. In the periodic table in this module, hydrogen is shown as a nonmetal, but placed above Group 1A metals, because it also exhibits some chemical properties similar to those metals. It exists in the free state as diatomic molecules and it reacts with active metals in much the same manner as the halogens. But it also found bonded to other nonmetals in organic compounds. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. It is estimated that ninety percent of the atoms in the universe are hydrogen atoms. The Sun and other stars appear to be composed largely of hydrogen, as do the gases found in interstellar space. Hydrogen is a component of more compounds than any other element and makes up 11% of the mass of water, its most abundant compound. It is found in only negligible quantities uncombined on the Earth, even though it is the ninth most abundant element in the Earth's crust. Hydrogen is the principal energy source in the Sun's high temperature nuclear fusion reaction. This major nuclear reaction, which occurs at temperatures in excess of 40,000,000°C, is thought to involve the combination of the nuclei of a deuterium atom and a tritium atom to form a helium nucleus and a neutron. In examining the modern periodic table, one notices the chemical elements arranged in groups and periods. They are classified by their general physical and chemical properties into their groups: metals, metalloids, and nonmetals, which can be further subdivided. These classifications help chemical researchers understand known elements and predict the properties of new manmade elements. References:, A. (1998). Chemistry (4th ed.). New York, NY: Addison-Wesley.Functional Lesson Plan 6: Periodic trendsHSCEs: C1.1D Identify patterns in data and relate them to theoretical models.C1.1E Describe a reason for a given conclusion using evidence from an investigation. C4.9 Periodic Table In the periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing number of protons (called the atomic number). Vertical groups in the periodic table (families) have similar physical and chemical properties due to the same outer electron structures.C4.9A Identify elements with similar chemical and physical properties using the periodic table.C4.9x Electron Energy Levels The rows in the periodic table represent the main electron energy levels of the atom. Within each main energy level are sublevels that represent an orbital shape and orientation.C4.9c Predict general trends in atomic radius, first ionization energy, and electronegativity of the elements using the periodic table.Objectives:The learner will be able to:Identify families with similar chemical and physical properties using the periodic table.Identify the pattern of a general trend and relate them to the periodic table.Predict the general trends of the atomic radius, first ionization energy, and electronegativity of the elements using the periodic table. Materials:Lab periodic trends handoutsRulersBlank Periodic Tables Safety: Except for basic and standard preparation for the average classroom, there are no special safety features necessary.Hazardous Materials: NoneFirst Aid Procedures: None. Procedure:The Students will have answered pre-lab questions prior to coming to class in order to do a P.O.G.I.L.-like activity, Lab: Periodic Trends. They will be graphing the given numbers of a atomic radii, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity plotted along the atomic number to discover periodic trends. They will then apply these trends to a blank periodic table.Engage: Students should answer the following prelab questions before coming to class to be prepared for their lab. They can use whatever resource necessary to answer the questions. If they cannot find their own resource, they can contact the instructor. Prelab: Questions 1. What do we mean by trends on the periodic table? +12. How are the radii of atoms measured? +1 The atomic size of an atom, also called the atomic radius, refers to the distance between an atom's nucleus and its valence electrons. 3. What is ionization energy? +1 The ionization energy is the energy it takes to fully remove an electron from the atom.4. What is second ionization energy? +1When several electrons are removed from an atom, the energy that it takes to remove the first electron is called the first ionization energy, the energy it takes to remove the second electron is the second ionization energy, and so on. In general, the second ionization energy is greater than first ionization energy.5. What is electron affinity? +1 An atom's electron affinity is the energy change in an atom when that atom gains an electron.6. What is electronegativity? +1 Electronegativity refers to the ability of an atom to attract the electrons of another atom to it when those two atoms are associated through a bond.Explore: Have students complete the following lab based on their handout. Lab: Periodic Trends The creators of the Periodic table grouped the elements according to their chemical and physical properties. The elements exhibit trends or periodicity that can be predicted examining the groups and periods. These trends are based on the element?s electron configurations. All elements desire a stable configuration and will gain or lose valence electrons to obtain that important stability. This is called the “Octet Rule” and will determine reactivity of the element. Two other important factors occur while looking at the trends of the groups and periods. As the electrons increase along with increasing protons across a period, there is a strong attraction that increases with increasing positive charge in the nucleus. Secondly, the electrons become less attracted to the nucleus as energy levels increase because of shielding of the inner energy level electrons. These two factors can affect period trends such as the ones being examined in this activity: Atomic Radii, Ionization Energy, Electron Affinity and Electronegativity. Procedure: 1. For the previous data, plot the atomic number on the x-axis and the property on the y-axis. Each property should be graphed on a separate sheet of graph paper. Make a key on the bottom right side of the Period 1, 2, 3, 4. With Period 1 being blue, 2 – green, 3 – yellow LAB: PERIOD TRENDS ANSWER SHEET 7. Make a prediction as to what will happen to the sizes of atoms as one progresses from left to right across a period on the periodic table. (Example: the sizes of atoms will (increase, decrease, remain constant) as one goes left to right across a period. Then do the same for first ionization energy, electron affinity and electron negativity. According to your prediction, make a sketch of how you would EXPECT a graph to appear if you plotted atomic number on the X-axis and atomic radius (size of the atom) on the Y-axis. Then do the same for first ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity. (You don?t have to do this on graph paper. Just on your paper.) Atomic Radii +1 Ionization Energy +1 Electron Affinity +1 Electronegativity +1 Explain: Have students complete the analysis of the data. LAB: PERIOD TRENDS Analysis of DATA 1. Based on your graphs, what is the trend in atomic radius across a period? down a family? +2 Moving from left to right across a period, the atomic radius decreases. The atomic radius increases moving down a group. 2. Based on your graphs, what is the trend in ionization energy across a period? down a family? +2 Ionization energy predictably increases moving across the periodic table from left to right. Ionization energy decreases moving down a group. 3. Based on your graphs, what is the trend in electron affinity across a period? down a family? +2 Electron affinities becoming increasingly negative from left to right. Electron affinities change little moving down a group, though they do generally become slightly more positive (less attractive toward electrons). 4. Based on your graphs, what is the trend in electro negativity across a period? down a family? +2 Electronegativity generally increases moving across a period and decreases moving down a group. 5. What can you deduce about the relationship between ionization energy and reactivity of metals? +1 The lower the ionization energy, the more reactive a metal will be. 6. What can you deduce about the relationship between electron affinity and reactivity of nonmetals? +1 The reactivity of the nonmetals should increase as you go from left to right across the periodic table. 7. Is the property of reactivity different for metals than nonmetals? +1 Non-metals are less reactive than metals 8. Based on your graphs, can a prediction for chemical or physical properties of an unknown element be predicted? Explain in detail. +2 PERIODIC LAW states that many of the physical and chemical properties of the elements tend to recur in a systematic manner with increasing atomic number.Elaborate: Based on the information founded, have students draw the periodic trends on a large blank period table. Evaluate:Collect Lab Trends HandoutScientific Background (Personal):Atomic Radii Ionization Energy Electron Affinity Electronegativity Atomic Size (Atomic Radius)The atomic size of an atom, also called the atomic radius, refers to the distance between an atom's nucleus and its valence electrons. Remember, the closer an electron is to the nucleus, the lower its energy and the more tightly it is held.Moving from left to right across a period, the atomic radius decreases. The nucleus of the atom gains protons moving from left to right, increasing the positive charge of the nucleus and increasing the attractive force of the nucleus upon the electrons. True, electrons are also added as the elements move from left to right across a period, but these electrons reside in the same energy shell and do not offer increased shielding.The atomic radius increases moving down a group. Once again protons are added moving down a group, but so are new energy shells of electrons. The new energy shells provide shielding, allowing the valence electrons to experience only a minimal amount of the protons' positive charge.A cation is positively charged, meaning that it is an atom that has lost an electron or electrons. The positive charge of the nucleus is thus distributed over a smaller number of electrons and electron-electron repulsion is decreased, meaning that the electrons are held more tightly and the atomic radius is smaller than in the normal neutral atom. Anions, conversely, are negatively charged ions: atoms that have gained electrons. In anions, electron-electron repulsion increases and the positive charge of the nucleus is distributed over a large number of electrons. Anions have a greater atomic radius than the neutral atom from which they derive.Ionization Energy and Electron AffinityThe process of gaining or losing an electron requires energy. There are two common ways to measure this energy change: ionization energy and electron affinity.Ionization EnergyThe ionization energy is the energy it takes to fully remove an electron from the atom. When several electrons are removed from an atom, the energy that it takes to remove the first electron is called the first ionization energy, the energy it takes to remove the second electron is the second ionization energy, and so on. In general, the second ionization energy is greater than first ionization energy. This is because the first electron removed feels the effect of shielding by the second electron and is therefore less strongly attracted to the nucleus. If a particular ionization energy follows a previous electron loss that emptied a subshell, the next ionization energy will take a rather large leap, rather than follow its normal gently increasing trend. This fact helps to show that just as electrons are more stable when they have a full valence shell, they are also relatively more stable when they at least have a full subshell.Ionization energy predictably increases moving across the periodic table from left to right. Just as we described in the case of atomic size, moving from left to right, the number of protons increases. The electrons also increase in number, but without adding new shells or shielding. From left to right, the electrons therefore become more tightly held meaning it takes more energy to pry them loose. This fact gives a physical basis to the octet rule, which states that elements with few valence electrons (those on the left of the periodic table) readily give those electrons up in order to attain a full octet within their inner shells, while those with many valence electrons tend to gain electrons. The electrons on the left tend to lose electrons since their ionization energy is so low (it takes such little energy to remove an electron) while those on the right tend to gain electrons since their nucleus has a powerful positive force and their ionization energy is high. Note that ionization energy does show a sensitivity to the filling of subshells; in moving from group 12 to group 13 for example, after the d shell has been filled, ionization energy actually drops. In general, though, the trend is of increasing ionziation energy from left to right.Ionization energy decreases moving down a group for the same reason atomic size increases: electrons add new shells creating extra shielding that supersedes the addition of protons. The atomic radius increases, as does the energy of the valence electrons. This means it takes less energy to remove an electron, which is what ionization energy measures.Electron AffinityAn atom's electron affinity is the energy change in an atom when that atom gains an electron. The sign of the electron affinity can be confusing. When an atom gains an electron and becomes more stable, its potential energy decreases: upon gaining an electron the atom gives off energy and the electron affinity is negative. When an atom becomes less stable upon gaining an electron, its potential energy increases, which implies that the atom gains energy as it acquires the electron. In such a case, the atom's electron affinity is positive. An atom with a negative electron affinity is far more likely to gain electrons.Electron affinities becoming increasingly negative from left to right. Just as in ionization energy, this trend conforms to and helps explain the octet rule. The octet rule states that atoms with close to full valence shells will tend to gain electrons. Such atoms are located on the right of the periodic table and have very negative electron affinities, meaning they give off a great deal of energy upon gaining an electron and become more stable. Be careful, though: the nobel gases, located in the extreme right hand column of the periodic table do not conform to this trend. Noble gases have full valence shells, are very stable, and do not want to add more electrons: noble gas electron affinities are positive. Similarly, atoms with full subshells also have more positive electron affinities (are less attractive of electrons) than the elements around them.Electron affinities change little moving down a group, though they do generally become slightly more positive (less attractive toward electrons). The biggest exception to this rule are the third period elements, which often have more negative electron affinities than the corresponding elements in the second period. For this reason, Chlorine, Cl, (group VIIa and period 3) has the most negative electron affinity.ElectronegativityElectronegativity refers to the ability of an atom to attract the electrons of another atom to it when those two atoms are associated through a bond. Electronegativity is based on an atom's ionization energy and electron affinity. For that reason, electronegativity follows similar trends as its two constituent measures.Electronegativity generally increases moving across a period and decreases moving down a group. Flourine (F), in group VIIa and period 2, is the most powerfully electronegative of the elements. Electronegativity plays a very large role in the processes of Chemical Bonding.References: 3: Power Point --> Prezi 4: Unit ExamName:__________________________Hour:________DIRECTIONSTeacher will read the following: Today you will be taking a test to measure your understanding of key concepts we learned in the past unit on light and atomic spectra, atomic orbitals and electron configurations, and periodic classifications and trends. Please take your time and read all directions carefully. When the tests are graded and handed back to you, you will have the opportunity to evaluate yourselves on your study habits, strengths and weaknesses. The test is made up of 21 questions and will be worth 25 * 2 =50 points. Be sure to put your name and hour on the upper right-hand corner of your assessment. There are ___ different sections to this test: Section one: Multiple choice (1 point each, 18 questions)Section two: Short Answers and Calculation (points indicated, 3 questions)This test will be taken independently and there is NO talking until all the tests have been handed in. If you have any questions, remain seated and please raise your hand. I will come to your desk. You may not have any materials out besides your assessment and a writing utensil. When you are finished, please raise your hand and I will come collect it. You can begin the assignment written on the board. You are not allowed to walk around the room. Please read all directions and questions carefully. Record all answers directly on the assessment given to you. There is no time limit, so take your time. What questions do you have? You may now begin. Good luck!!!Section 1: Multiple Choice Read each question below and choose the statements that best answers the question. Write your selection on the line next to the question number. After answering each question, please circle the appropriate term indicating if you are sure or unsure.___b Which model of the atom is most accepted today?Bohr ModelQuantum Mechahican ModelPlum Pudding ModelRutherford’s ModelSureUnsure___a__ In the wave-mechanical model, an orbital is a region of space in an atom where there isa. a high probability of finding an electron c. a circular path in which electrons are foundb. a high probability of finding a neutron d. a circular path in which neutrons are foundSureUnsure3. ___e_ Which of the following statements is true?The frequency of green light is higher than blue light, and the wavelength of green light is higher than blue light.The frequency of green light is higher than blue light, and the wavelength of green light is lower than blue light.The speed of green light is higher than blue light, and the frequency of green light is lower than blue light.The frequency of green light is lower than blue light, and the wavelength of green light is lower than blue light.The frequency of green light is lower than blue light, and the wavelength of green light is higher than blue light.SureUnsure___d_ When the electrons of an excited atom return to a lower energy state, the energy emitted can result in the production ofa. alpha particles c. protonsb. isotopes d. photonSureUnsure5. ___a_ As an electron in an atom moves from the ground state to the excited state, the electrona. gains energy as it moves to a c. loses energy as it moves to a higher energy level higher energy levelb. gains energy as it moves to a d. loses energy as it moves to a lower energy level lower energy levelSureUnsure6. ___c__ Which response includes all the following statements that are true, and no false statements? I. Each set of d orbitals contains 7 orbitals. II. Each set of d orbitals can hold a maximum of 14 electrons. III. The first energy level contains only s and p orbitals. IV. The s orbital in any shell is always spherically symmetrical. a. I and II b. I, III, and IV c. IV d. II and IV e. III SureUnsure7. ___c__ Energy is released when an electron changes from a sublevel ofa. 1s to 2p c. 3s to 2s2s to 3s d. 3p to 5sSureUnsure8. ___d__What trait does NOT exist with noble gases?a. exist as isolate atomsc. does not occur naturallyb. outermost energy levels are filledd. unstableSureUnsure9.__b__ Which principal energy level can hold a maximum of eight electrons?a. 1 c. 3b. 2 d. 4SureUnsure10.____d According to the Afbau order, which of the following has a half-filled subshell?CaSiSSbFeSureUnsure 11. __b___ Four valence electrons of an atom in the ground state would occupy thea. s sublevel, only c. p sublevel, onlys and p sublevels, onlyd. s, p, and d sublevelsSureUnsure 12. ___d__ Which orbital cannot exist?a. 2pc. 4d6sd. 3f SureUnsure 13. ___d__Which of the following is NOT a property of an alkali metal?a. good conductor of heat c. very reactiveb. has one electron in outer energy leveld. occurs ins nature in elemental formSureUnsure14. __b___ Which one of the following electron configurations is incorrect? a. Cl- 1s22s22p63s23p6 b. Ge [Ar]3d104s23p3 c. Sc [Ar]3d14s2 d. C [He]2s22p4 e. N3- 1s22s22p6 SureUnsure15. ___d__ Which element has the electron configuration below? 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p3 a. V b. Ca c. P d. As e. Se SureUnsure16.__1___Which orbital notation correctly represents the outermost principal energy level of a nitrogen atom in the ground state? SureUnsure17. __e___ Using a periodic table, which element has the lowest electronegativity? a. H b. Li c. Na d. K e. Cs SureUnsure 18. __a___ Using a periodic table, which element has the smallest radius? a. Cl b. Na c. Rb d. Mg e. K SureUnsureSection 1: Short Answers/Calculation Read each question below and best answer the question. Write your selection following the question in the designated space. After answering each question, please circle the appropriate term indicating if you are sure or unsure. 19. What is the most electronegative element on the periodic table? _Fluorine___1ptSureUnsure 20. Explain why atomic radius decreases as to go from left to right on the periodic table.2pts.Moving from left to right across a period, the atomic radius decreases. The nucleus of the atom gains protons moving from left to right, increasing the positive charge of the nucleus and increasing the attractive force of the nucleus upon the electrons. True, electrons are also added as the elements move from left to right across a period, but these electrons reside in the same energy shell and do not offer increased shielding.SureUnsure21. We found that Copper had a threshold wavelength of 263 nm. Calculate the threshold energy of the photons. Copper: 263 nm 2.63E-7m, v=1.14E15 m/s, E=7.56E-19 Jv=c/λ and E=hv1 pt each for calculating + 1 pt each for right answer= 4ptsSureUnsure ................
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