An Introduction to Muscle Tissue



An Introduction to Muscle Tissue

Muscle Tissue

A primary tissue type, divided into

Skeletal muscle

Cardiac muscle

Smooth muscle

Skeletal Muscles

Are attached to the skeletal system

Allow us to move

The muscular system

Includes only skeletal muscles

Functions of Skeletal Muscles

Produce skeletal movement

Maintain body position

Support soft tissues

Guard openings

Maintain body temperature

Store nutrient reserves

Skeletal Muscle Structures

Muscle tissue (muscle cells or fibers)

Connective tissues

Nerves

Blood vessels

Organization of Connective Tissues

Muscles have three layers of connective tissues

Epimysium:

exterior collagen layer

connected to deep fascia

Separates muscle from surrounding tissues

Perimysium:

surrounds muscle fiber bundles (fascicles)

contains blood vessel and nerve supply to fascicles

Endomysium:

surrounds individual muscle cells (muscle fibers)

contains capillaries and nerve fibers contacting muscle cells

contains myosatellite cells (stem cells) that repair damage

Muscle attachments

Endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium come together:

at ends of muscles

to form connective tissue attachment to bone matrix

i.e., tendon (bundle) or aponeurosis (sheet)

Nerves

Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles, controlled by nerves of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)

Blood Vessels

Muscles have extensive vascular systems that

Supply large amounts of oxygen

Supply nutrients

Carry away wastes

Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Are very long

Develop through fusion of mesodermal cells (myoblasts)

Become very large

Contain hundreds of nuclei

Internal Organization of Muscle Fibers

The sarcolemma

The cell membrane of a muscle fiber (cell)

Surrounds the sarcoplasm (cytoplasm of muscle fiber)

A change in transmembrane potential begins contractions

Transverse tubules (T tubules)

Transmit action potential through cell

Allow entire muscle fiber to contract simultaneously

Have same properties as sarcolemma

Myofibrils

Lengthwise subdivisions within muscle fiber

Made up of bundles of protein filaments (myofilaments)

Myofilaments are responsible for muscle contraction

Types of myofilaments:

thin filaments:

made of the protein actin

thick filaments:

made of the protein myosin

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

A membranous structure surrounding each myofibril

Helps transmit action potential to myofibril

Similar in structure to smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Forms chambers (terminal cisternae) attached to T tubules

Triad

Is formed by one T tubule and two terminal cisternae

Cisternae:

concentrate Ca2+ (via ion pumps)

release Ca2+ into sarcomeres to begin muscle contraction

Sarcomeres

The contractile units of muscle

Structural units of myofibrils

Form visible patterns within myofibrils

Muscle striations

A striped or striated pattern within myofibrils:

alternating dark, thick filaments (A bands) and light, thin filaments (I bands)

Sarcomeres

M Lines and Z Lines:

M line:

the center of the A band

at midline of sarcomere

Z lines:

the centers of the I bands

at two ends of sarcomere

Zone of overlap:

the densest, darkest area on a light micrograph

where thick and thin filaments overlap

The H Band:

the area around the M line

has thick filaments but no thin filaments

Titin:

are strands of protein

reach from tips of thick filaments to the Z line

stabilize the filaments

Transverse tubules encircle the sarcomere near zones of overlap

Ca2+ released by SR causes thin and thick filaments to interact

Muscle Contraction

Is caused by interactions of thick and thin filaments

Structures of protein molecules determine interactions

Four Thin Filament Proteins

F-actin (Filamentous actin)

Is two twisted rows of globular G-actin

The active sites on G-actin strands bind to myosin

Nebulin

Holds F-actin strands together

Tropomyosin

Is a double strand

Prevents actin–myosin interaction

Troponin

A globular protein

Binds tropomyosin to G-actin

Controlled by Ca2+

Initiating Contraction

Ca2+ binds to receptor on troponin molecule

Troponin–tropomyosin complex changes

Exposes active site of F-actin

Thick Filaments

Contain twisted myosin subunits

Contain titin strands that recoil after stretching

The mysosin molecule

Tail:

binds to other myosin molecules

Head:

made of two globular protein subunits

reaches the nearest thin filament

Myosin Action

During contraction, myosin heads

Interact with actin filaments, forming cross-bridges

Pivot, producing motion

Skeletal Muscle Contraction

Sliding filament theory

Thin filaments of sarcomere slide toward M line, alongside thick filaments

The width of A zone stays the same

Z lines move closer together

The process of contraction

Neural stimulation of sarcolemma:

causes excitation–contraction coupling

Cisternae of SR release Ca2+:

which triggers interaction of thick and thin filaments

consuming ATP and producing tension

The Neuromuscular Junction

Is the location of neural stimulation

Action potential (electrical signal)

Travels along nerve axon

Ends at synaptic terminal

Synaptic terminal:

releases neurotransmitter (acetylcholine or ACh)

into the synaptic cleft (gap between synaptic terminal and motor end plate)

The Neurotransmitter

Acetylcholine or ACh

Travels across the synaptic cleft

Binds to membrane receptors on sarcolemma (motor end plate)

Causes sodium–ion rush into sarcoplasm

Is quickly broken down by enzyme (acetylcholinesterase or AChE)

Action Potential

Generated by increase in sodium ions in sarcolemma

Travels along the T tubules

Leads to excitation–contraction coupling

Excitation–contraction coupling:

action potential reaches a triad:

releasing Ca2+

triggering contraction

requires myosin heads to be in “cocked” position:

loaded by ATP energy

The Contraction Cycle

Five Steps of the Contraction Cycle

Exposure of active sites

Formation of cross-bridges

Pivoting of myosin heads

Detachment of cross-bridges

Reactivation of myosin

Fiber Shortening

As sarcomeres shorten, muscle pulls together, producing tension

Contraction Duration

Depends on

Duration of neural stimulus

Number of free calcium ions in sarcoplasm

Availability of ATP

Relaxation

Ca2+ concentrations fall

Ca2+ detaches from troponin

Active sites are re-covered by tropomyosin

Sarcomeres remain contracted

Rigor Mortis

A fixed muscular contraction after death

Caused when

Ion pumps cease to function; ran out of ATP

Calcium builds up in the sarcoplasm

The Contraction Cycle

Skeletal muscle fibers shorten as thin filaments slide between thick filaments

Free Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm triggers contraction

SR releases Ca2+ when a motor neuron stimulates the muscle fiber

Contraction is an active process

Relaxation and return to resting length are passive

Tension Production

The all–or–none principle

As a whole, a muscle fiber is either contracted or relaxed

Tension of a Single Muscle Fiber

Depends on

The number of pivoting cross-bridges

The fiber’s resting length at the time of stimulation

The frequency of stimulation

Tension of a Single Muscle Fiber

Length–tension relationship

Number of pivoting cross-bridges depends on:

amount of overlap between thick and thin fibers

Optimum overlap produces greatest amount of tension:

too much or too little reduces efficiency

Normal resting sarcomere length:

is 75% to 130% of optimal length

Frequency of stimulation

A single neural stimulation produces:

a single contraction or twitch

which lasts about 7–100 msec.

Sustained muscular contractions:

require many repeated stimuli

Three Phases of Twitch

Latent period before contraction

The action potential moves through sarcolemma

Causing Ca2+ release

Contraction phase

Calcium ions bind

Tension builds to peak

Relaxation phase

Ca2+ levels fall

Active sites are covered

Tension falls to resting levels

Treppe

A stair-step increase in twitch tension

Repeated stimulations immediately after relaxation phase

Stimulus frequency 50/second

Causes increasing tension or summation of twitches

Incomplete tetanus

Twitches reach maximum tension

If rapid stimulation continues and muscle is not allowed to relax, twitches reach maximum level of tension

Complete Tetanus

If stimulation frequency is high enough, muscle never begins to relax, and is in continuous contraction

Tension Produced by Whole Skeletal Muscles

Depends on

Internal tension produced by muscle fibers

External tension exerted by muscle fibers on elastic extracellular fibers

Total number of muscle fibers stimulated

Motor units in a skeletal muscle

Contain hundreds of muscle fibers

That contract at the same time

Controlled by a single motor neuron

Recruitment (multiple motor unit summation)

In a whole muscle or group of muscles, smooth motion and increasing tension are produced by slowly increasing the size or number of motor units stimulated

Maximum tension

Achieved when all motor units reach tetanus

Can be sustained only a very short time

Sustained tension

Less than maximum tension

Allows motor units rest in rotation

Muscle tone

The normal tension and firmness of a muscle at rest

Muscle units actively maintain body position, without motion

Increasing muscle tone increases metabolic energy used, even at rest

Two Types of Skeletal Muscle Tension

Isotonic contraction

Isometric contraction

Two Types of Skeletal Muscle Tension

Isotonic Contraction

Skeletal muscle changes length:

resulting in motion

If muscle tension > load (resistance):

muscle shortens (concentric contraction)

If muscle tension < load (resistance):

muscle lengthens (eccentric contraction)

Isometric contraction

Skeletal muscle develops tension, but is prevented from changing length

Note: iso- = same, metric = measure

Resistance and Speed of Contraction

Are inversely related

The heavier the load (resistance) on a muscle

The longer it takes for shortening to begin

And the less the muscle will shorten

Muscle Relaxation

After contraction, a muscle fiber returns to resting length by

Elastic forces

Opposing muscle contractions

Gravity

Elastic Forces

The pull of elastic elements (tendons and ligaments)

Expands the sarcomeres to resting length

Opposing Muscle Contractions

Reverse the direction of the original motion

Are the work of opposing skeletal muscle pairs

Gravity

Can take the place of opposing muscle contraction to return a muscle to its resting state

ATP and Muscle Contraction

Sustained muscle contraction uses a lot of ATP energy

Muscles store enough energy to start contraction

Muscle fibers must manufacture more ATP as needed

ATP and CP Reserves

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

The active energy molecule

Creatine phosphate (CP)

The storage molecule for excess ATP energy in resting muscle

Energy recharges ADP to ATP

Using the enzyme creatine phosphokinase (CPK or CK)

When CP is used up, other mechanisms generate ATP

ATP Generation

Cells produce ATP in two ways

Aerobic metabolism of fatty acids in the mitochondria

Anaerobic glycolysis in the cytoplasm

Aerobic metabolism

Is the primary energy source of resting muscles

Breaks down fatty acids

Produces 34 ATP molecules per glucose molecule

Anaerobic glycolysis

Is the primary energy source for peak muscular activity

Produces two ATP molecules per molecule of glucose

Breaks down glucose from glycogen stored in skeletal muscles

Energy Use and Muscle Activity

At peak exertion

Muscles lack oxygen to support mitochondria

Muscles rely on glycolysis for ATP

Pyruvic acid builds up, is converted to lactic acid

Muscle Fatigue

When muscles can no longer perform a required activity, they are fatigued

Results of Muscle Fatigue

Depletion of metabolic reserves

Damage to sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum

Low pH (lactic acid)

Muscle exhaustion and pain

The Recovery Period

The time required after exertion for muscles to return to normal

Oxygen becomes available

Mitochondrial activity resumes

The Cori Cycle

The removal and recycling of lactic acid by the liver

Liver converts lactic acid to pyruvic acid

Glucose is released to recharge muscle glycogen reserves

Oxygen Debt

After exercise or other exertion

The body needs more oxygen than usual to normalize metabolic activities

Resulting in heavy breathing

Skeletal muscles at rest metabolize fatty acids and store glycogen

During light activity, muscles generate ATP through anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates, lipids, or amino acids

At peak activity, energy is provided by anaerobic reactions that generate lactic acid as a byproduct

Heat Production and Loss

Active muscles produce heat

Up to 70% of muscle energy can be lost as heat, raising body temperature

Hormones and Muscle Metabolism

Growth hormone

Testosterone

Thyroid hormones

Epinephrine

Muscle Performance

Power

The maximum amount of tension produced

Endurance

The amount of time an activity can be sustained

Power and endurance depend on

The types of muscle fibers

Physical conditioning

Muscle Fiber Types

Three Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Fast fibers

Slow fibers

Intermediate fibers

Fast fibers

Contract very quickly

Have large diameter, large glycogen reserves, few mitochondria

Have strong contractions, fatigue quickly

Slow fibers

Are slow to contract, slow to fatigue

Have small diameter, more mitochondria

Have high oxygen supply

Contain myoglobin (red pigment, binds oxygen)

Intermediate fibers

Are mid-sized

Have low myoglobin

Have more capillaries than fast fibers, slower to fatigue

Muscles and Fiber Types

White muscle

Mostly fast fibers

Pale (e.g., chicken breast)

Red muscle

Mostly slow fibers

Dark (e.g., chicken legs)

Most human muscles

Mixed fibers

Pink

Muscle Hypertrophy

Muscle growth from heavy training

Increases diameter of muscle fibers

Increases number of myofibrils

Increases mitochondria, glycogen reserves

Muscle Atrophy

Lack of muscle activity

Reduces muscle size, tone, and power

Physical Conditioning

Improves both power and endurance

Anaerobic activities (e.g., 50-meter dash, weightlifting):

use fast fibers

fatigue quickly with strenuous activity

Improved by:

frequent, brief, intensive workouts

hypertrophy

Improves both power and endurance

Aerobic activities (prolonged activity):

supported by mitochondria

require oxygen and nutrients

Improved by:

repetitive training (neural responses)

cardiovascular training

What you don’t use, you lose

Muscle tone indicates base activity in motor units of skeletal muscles

Muscles become flaccid when inactive for days or weeks

Muscle fibers break down proteins, become smaller and weaker

With prolonged inactivity, fibrous tissue may replace muscle fibers

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Structure of Cardiac Tissue

Cardiac muscle is striated, found only in the heart

Seven Characteristics of Cardiocytes

Unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle cells (cardiocytes)

Are small

Have a single nucleus

Have short, wide T tubules

Have no triads

Have SR with no terminal cisternae

Are aerobic (high in myoglobin, mitochondria)

Have intercalated discs

Intercalated Discs

Are specialized contact points between cardiocytes

Join cell membranes of adjacent cardiocytes (gap junctions, desmosomes)

Functions of intercalated discs

Maintain structure

Enhance molecular and electrical connections

Conduct action potentials

Coordination of cardiocytes

Because intercalated discs link heart cells mechanically, chemically, and electrically, the heart functions like a single, fused mass of cells

Four Functions of Cardiac Tissue

Automaticity

Contraction without neural stimulation

Controlled by pacemaker cells

Variable contraction tension

Controlled by nervous system

Extended contraction time

Ten times as long as skeletal muscle

Prevention of wave summation and tetanic contractions by cell membranes

Long refractory period

Smooth Muscle in Body Systems

Forms around other tissues

In blood vessels

Regulates blood pressure and flow

In reproductive and glandular systems

Produces movements

In digestive and urinary systems

Forms sphincters

Produces contractions

In integumentary system

Arrector pili muscles cause “goose bumps”

Structure of Smooth Muscle

Nonstriated tissue

Different internal organization of actin and myosin

Different functional characteristics

Eight Characteristics of Smooth Muscle Cells

Long, slender, and spindle shaped

Have a single, central nucleus

Have no T tubules, myofibrils, or sarcomeres

Have no tendons or aponeuroses

Have scattered myosin fibers

Myosin fibers have more heads per thick filament

Have thin filaments attached to dense bodies

Dense bodies transmit contractions from cell to cell

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Functional Characteristics of Smooth Muscle

Excitation–contraction coupling

Length–tension relationships

Control of contractions

Smooth muscle tone

Excitation–contraction coupling

Free Ca2+ in cytoplasm triggers contraction

Ca2+ binds with calmodulin:

in the sarcoplasm

activates myosin light–chain kinase

Enzyme breaks down ATP, initiates contraction

Length–Tension Relationships

Thick and thin filaments are scattered

Resting length not related to tension development

Functions over a wide range of lengths (plasticity)

Control of contractions

Multiunit smooth muscle cells:

connected to motor neurons

Visceral smooth muscle cells:

not connected to motor neurons

rhythmic cycles of activity controlled by pacesetter cells

Smooth muscle tone

Maintains normal levels of activity

Modified by neural, hormonal, or chemical factors

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