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Shara M. Marshall, M.S.

ANATOMICAL REGIONS, POSITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

Overview

Anatomy:

Physiology:

Function:

Levels of Structural Organization

Chemical:

Cellular:

Tissue:

Organ:

Organ system:

Organismal:

Survival Needs

Nutrients

Oxygen

Water

Normal body temperature

Appropriate atmospheric pressure

Homeostasis

Definition:

Components of a Control Mechanism (contain at least the following three components)

Receptor (sensor)

Control center

Effector

Negative Feedback

Example: Regulation of body temperature

Positive Feedback

Example:

Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin

Anatomical Position

Purpose:

Standard anatomical body position:

Directional Terms

• Superior (cranial) -

• Inferior (caudal) -

• Ventral (anterior) -

• Dorsal (posterior)-

• Medial-

• Lateral-

• Intermediate-

• Proximal –

• Distal -

• Superficial-

• Deep -

Regional Terms

Regional terms:

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View: View:

Body Planes and Sections

Sagittal plane

Midsagittal (median) plane

Parasagittal plane

Frontal (coronal) plane

Transverse (horizontal) plane

Body Cavities

Two Large Cavities:

Dorsal cavity encloses:

Two subdivisions:

Cranial cavity

Encases:

Vertebral cavity

Encases:

Ventral cavity

Houses:

Two subdivisions (separated by diaphragm):

Thoracic cavity subdivisions:

Two pleural cavities

Each one houses:

Mediastinum

Contains:

Also contains:

Pericardial cavity

Encloses:

Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions:

Abdominal cavity

Contains:

Pelvic cavity

Contains:

Abdominopelvic Regions

Nine divisions:

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BASIC CHEMISTRY

Matter and Composition of Matter

Definition:

Matter is composed of elements -

Atoms-

Atomic Structure

Neutrons

Mass =

Protons

Mass =

Electrons

Mass =

Equal in number to:

Energy

Definition:

Types of energy:

Kinetic:

Potential:

Electrical:

Identifying Elements

Atoms of different elements contain different numbers of protons

Compare hydrogen, helium and lithium

Atomic number =

Mass number =

Isotopes =

Atoms of Elements can Combine Chemically with other atoms to form Molecules and Compounds

Molecule: (e.g., H2 or C6H12O6)

Compound: (e.g., C6H12O6)

Chemical Bonds

Octet rule:

Chemically Inert Elements

Chemically Reactive Elements

TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS

Ionic Bonds

Ions are formed by:

Anions (– charge):

Cations (+ charge):

Attraction of opposite charges results in:

Covalent Bonds

Formed by sharing of two or more valence shell electrons

Sharing of electrons may be equal or unequal

Equal sharing produces:

CO2

Unequal sharing by atoms with different electron-attracting abilities produces:

H2O

Hydrogen Bonds

Attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom of another molecule

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Synthesis Reactions

A + B ( AB

Decomposition Reactions

AB ( A + B

CLASSES OF COMPOUNDS

Inorganic compounds

Do not contain: (ex’s. water, salts, and many acids and bases)

Organic compounds

Contain: (ex’s. carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids)

Water

Salts

Ionic compounds that dissociate in water

•

Acids

Acids:

HCl ( H+ + Cl–

Bases

Bases:

NaOH ( Na+ + OH–

Acid-Base Concentration

Acid solutions contain higher concentrations of H+

As [H+] increases:

Basic solutions contain higher concentrations of OH–

As [H+] decreases (or as [OH–] increases):

pH =

Neutral solutions:

pH =

Acidic solutions

pH =

Basic solutions

pH=

For the following organic compounds, they are formed by a synthesis type of chemical reaction and broken down by a chemical reaction called hydrolysis.

Carbohydrates

Sugars and starches whose building blocks =

Three classes

Monosaccharides-

Disaccharides-

Polysaccharides-

Functions

Primary role:

Lipids

Main types:

Triglycerides

Phospholipids

Steroids

Triglycerides

Defined as:

Building blocks =

Main functions

Phospholipids

Similar to triglycerides:

Building blocks =

“Head” and “tail” regions:

Important in:

Steroids

Steroids—

Ex’s. -Cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts

Proteins

Building blocks =

After amino acids are linked together:

This folding process results in four different levels of protein structure:

Protein Denaturation

Definition:

A denatured protein is:

Enzymes

Biological catalysts

Function:

Nucleic Acids

DNA and RNA

Building blocks =

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Four bases:

adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T)

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Four bases:

adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U)

Three varieties of RNA carry out the DNA orders for protein synthesis

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Function:

Phosphorylation:

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Generalized Cell

All cells:

Human cells have three basic parts:

Plasma membrane—

Cytoplasm—

Nucleus—

The Plasma Membrane is a bimolecular layer of phospholipids and proteins and plays a dynamic role in cellular activity:

The plasma membrane separates:

The plasma membrane is semi-permeable which means that:

Types of Membrane Transport

A concentration gradient is:

Passive Transport

Substance moves:

Active Transport

Substances are moved/”pumped”:

Passive Transport

What determines whether or not a substance can passively cross the plasma membrane?

Three Types of Passive Transport Across Cellular membranes

Simple diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

Osmosis

Passive Transport: Simple Diffusion

What types of substances use simple diffusion to cross the plasma membrane?

Passive Transport: Facilitated Diffusion

What types of substances use facilitated diffusion to cross the plasma membrane?

Can pass through:

Passive Transport: Osmosis

Water diffuses through plasma membranes:

Mainly through channels called aquaporins (AQPs)

Importance of Osmosis

When osmosis occurs:

A change in cell volume:

Tonicity

Defined as:

Isotonic:

Hypertonic:

Hypotonic:

Active Transport

• Defined as:

• The Sodium-potassium pump (Na+-K+ ATPase) is a specific example of active transport

o

o

Other Cellular Organelles:

• Membranous structures

o Nucleus with chromatin-

o Mitochondria –

o Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (rough and smooth) –

o Golgi Apparatus-

o Lysosomes-

• Non-membranous structures

o Centrioles –

o Cytoskeleton -

• Extensions of the plasma membrane

o Cilia are –

o Flagella are –

o Microvilli are -

The Cell Cycle

Includes:

Interphase

3.

4. Three Subphases:

5. Gap 1 (G1)-

6. Synthesis Phase (S phase)-

7. Gap 1 (G2)-

8. Cell Division (mitotic phase or mitosis)

9. Includes four sub phases of mitosis (PMAT) and cytokinesis

Mitosis

• Purpose:

• Does not occur in:

During the S-phase of Interphase DNA is Replicated

Helicase:

DNA polymerase:

End result:

This process is called:

After DNA has been replicated:

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Mitosis—four stages of nuclear division:

Prophase -

Metaphase -

Anaphase -

Telophase -

Cytokinesis -

There are four tissue types in the body

116 Epithelial tissue

117 Connective tissue

118 Muscle tissue

119 Nerve tissue

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

Cells have polarity—

Are composed of closely packed cells

Avascular

•

High rate of regeneration

•

Classification of Epithelia

Ask two questions:

How many layers?

1 =

>1 =

What type of cell?

(If stratified, name according to apical layer of cells)

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Overview of Epithelial Tissues

Epithelia: Simple Squamous

Description:

Function:

Location:

Epithelia: Simple Cuboidal

Description:

Function:

Location:

Epithelia: Simple Columnar

Description:

Function:

Location:

Epithelia: Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

Description:

Function:

Location:

Epithelia: Stratified Squamous

Description:

Function:

Location:

Epithelia: Stratified Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelium

Description:

Function:

Location:

Epithelia: Transitional Epithelium

Description:

Function:

Location:

Glandular Epithelia

← Gland:

← Two major types:

o Endocrine glands-

o

o Exocrine glands-

Connective Tissue

Most abundant and widely distributed tissue type

Flow Chart:

Characteristics of Connective Tissue

Connective tissues have:

Cells separated by nonliving extracellular matrix (ground substance and fibers)

Extracellular Matrix

Ground substance

Components

Fibers (three types)

Collagen

Elastic

Reticular

Cells of Connective Tissue

“blasts” = Mitotically active and secretory cells

“cytes” = Mature cells

Fibroblasts in :

Chondroblasts and chondrocytes in:

Osteoblasts and osteocytes in:

Hematopoietic stem cells in:

Overview of Connective Tissues

Connective Tissues: Osseous

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Hyaline Cartilage

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Elastic Cartilage

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Fibrocartilage Cartilage

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Dense Regular Tissue

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Dense Irregular Tissue

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Areolar Connective Tissue

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Adipose Connective Tissue

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Reticular Connective Tissue

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Blood

Description:

Function:

Location:

Muscle Tissue (Three Types)

Skeletal Muscle

Description:

Function:

Location:

Cardiac Muscle

Description:

Function:

Location:

Smooth muscle

Description:

Function:

Location:

Nervous Tissue

Description:

Function:

Location:

Steps in Wound Repair

• Inflammation

• Organization and restored blood supply

• Regeneration and fibrosis

SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES

Epithelial Membranes

The cutaneous membrane is the:

Mucous membranes

Mucosae

(e.g., digestive and respiratory tracts)

Serous Membranes

Paired membranes that line:

Parietal layer -

Visceral layer –

Serous Membranes are named based on their location:

13. Parietal and visceral pleura surround:

14. Parietal and visceral pericardium surround:

15. Parietal and visceral peritoneum surround:

Skin (Integument)

Consists of three major regions

Epidermis—

Dermis—

Hypodermis (superficial fascia)—

Epidermis

Cells of epidermis

Keratinocytes—

Melanocytes

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Basale

Also called stratum germinativum:

Cells travel from basal layer to surface

Takes 25–45 days

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Spinosum

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Granulosum

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Lucidum

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Corneum

Functions

Dermis

Made up of Two layers:

Papillary layer

Reticular layer

Layers of the Dermis: Papillary Layer

Papillary layer

Composed of:

Contains dermal papillae which may have:

Layers of the Dermis: Reticular Layer

Reticular layer

18. Composed of:

Skin Color

Three pigments contribute to skin color:

Melanin

19.

Carotene

Hemoglobin

Appendages of the Skin

Derived from the epidermis

Sweat Glands

Two main types of sweat (sudoriferous) glands

Eccrine sweat glands— abundant on palms, soles, and forehead

Sweat:

Apocrine sweat glands—confined to:

Sebum:

Sebaceous (Oil) Glands

Sebum

Hair

Functions

Consists of:

Hair Follicle

Two-layered wall consisting of:

Hair bulb:

Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus):

Arrector pili

Structure of a Nail

Structures of the nail:

Functions of the Integumentary System

Protection—

Chemical

Physical/mechanical barriers

Biological barriers

Body temperature regulation

Cutaneous sensations

Metabolic functions

Blood reservoir—

Excretion—

Skin Cancer

Three major types:

Basal cell carcinoma

Squamous cell carcinoma

Melanoma

Basal Cell Carcinoma

Appearance:

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Appearance:

Melanoma

Appearance:

Melanoma

Characteristics (ABCDE rule)

A: Asymmetry-

B: Border-

C: Color-

D: Diameter-

E: Evolution-

Partial-Thickness Burns

First degree

Second degree

Full-Thickness Burns

Third degree

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Bones: An Overview

Functions of Bones

Support

Protection

Movement

Storage

Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) in:

Classification of Bones by Shape

Long bones

Short bones

Flat bones

Examples:

Irregular bones

Examples:

Bone Markings (Refer to Table 5.1)

Bone Markings: Projections

Sites of muscle and ligament attachment

Tuberosity—rounded projection

Crest—narrow, prominent ridge

Trochanter—large, blunt, irregular surface

Tubercle—small rounded projection

Epicondyle—raised area above a condyle

Spine—sharp, slender projection

Process—any bony prominence

Projections that help to form joints

Head - bony expansion carried on a narrow neck

Facet - smooth, nearly flat articular surface

Condyle - rounded articular projection

Ramus -armlike bar

Bone Markings: Openings

Meatus -canal-like passageway

Sinus - cavity within a bone

Fossa -shallow, basinlike depression

Groove- furrow

Fissure -farrow, slitlike opening

Foramen -round or oval opening through a bone

Bone Textures

• Compact bone

•

•

• Spongy bone

•

Membranes of Bones

• Periosteum (fibrous connective tissue)

197 Surrounds:

198 Contains:

199 Secured to compact bone by:

Endosteum (areolar CT)

201

Structure of a Long Bone

Diaphysis (shaft)

Epiphyses

Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones

“think of a stiffened spongy bone sandwich”

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Compact Bone

Haversian system, or osteon—structural unit

Lamellae

Central (Haversian) canal

Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals

Lacunae—

Canaliculi—

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Spongy Bone

Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic

Bone cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts

Osteoid—organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts

Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic

Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)

Bone Formation, Growth and Remodeling

Ossification—

Stages

Bone formation—

Postnatal bone growth—

Bone remodeling and repair—

Growth in Length of Long Bones

Interstitial growth:

Growth in Width of All Bones

Appositional growth:

Control of Remodeling

What controls continual remodeling of bone?

Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+

Primarily controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH)

( Blood Ca2+ levels

(

__________________________

(

PTH stimulates osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+

(

____________________________________

Response to Mechanical Stress

Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle

Trabeculae form along lines of stress

Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

Hematoma forms

The break is splinted by a fibrocartilage callus

Bony callus formation

Bone remodeling

Homeostatic Imbalances: Read about Osteoporosis and understand its risk factors, symptoms and characteristics.

The Skeleton

Two Major Divisions of the Skeletal System:

The Axial Skeleton Includes Three Regions:

1

2

3

The Skull

Two sets of bones

Cranial bones (8 cranial bones)

1 Enclose the brain in the cranial cavity

1 Calvaria:

2 Cranial base:

Facial bones (14 Facial bones)

1 Cavities for:

2 Provide sties of attachment for:

4 All skull bones are joined by:

Frontal Bone

Parietal Bones and Major Associated Sutures

Four sutures mark the articulations of parietal bones with frontal, occipital, and temporal bones:

Coronal suture—

Sagittal suture—

Lambdoid suture—

Squamous (squamosal) sutures—

Occipital Bone

Contains:

Temporal Bones

Inferior to parietal bones

External acoustic canal:

Zygomatic process:

Mastoid process:

Styloid process:

Mandibular fossa:

Sphenoid Bone

Three pairs of processes:

Contains the:

Ethmoid Bone

Superior part of :

Contains:

Mandible

Temporomandibular joint:

Mandibular condyle articulates w:

Maxillary Bones

•

Zygomatic Bones

Nasal Bones and Lacrimal Bones

Nasal bones

Form:

Lacrimal bones

Lacrimal fossa houses:

Palatine Bones and Vomer

Palatine bones

Vomer

Inferior Nasal Conchae

Form part of lateral walls of nasal cavity

Orbits

Encase:

Sites of attachment for:

Formed by:

Hyoid Bone

Site of attachment for:

Vertebral Column

Flexible curved structure containing 26 irregular bones (vertebrae)

Cervical vertebrae (7)—vertebrae of:

Thoracic vertebrae (12)—vertebrae of:

Lumbar vertebrae (5)—vertebra of:

Sacrum—bone inferior to:

Coccyx—terminus of vertebral column

Vertebral Column: Curvatures

Increase the resilience and flexibility of the spine

Primary curvatures

•

Secondary curvatures

•

Read about Abnormal spine curvatures (Scoliosis, Kyphosis, Lordosis)

General Structure of Vertebrae

Body or centrum

Vertebral arch

Formed from:

Vertebral foramen

Seven processes per vertebra:

Spinous process—

Transverse processes (2)—

Superior articular processes (2)—

Inferior articular processes (2)—

Cervical Vertebrae

C1 to C7:

C3 to C7 share the following features

Transverse foramen in:

C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) have unique features

Atlas (C1)

Consists of:

Superior articular facets articulate with:

Axis (C2)

Thoracic Vertebrae

T1 to T12

Lumbar Vertebrae

L1 to L5

Sacrum and Coccyx

Sacrum

1

2 Forms:

3 Contains the sacral canal for:

4 Articulates with:

Coccyx

1

2

3 Articulates superiorly with:

Thoracic (Rib) Cage

Composed of

Thoracic vertebrae

Sternum

Ribs and their costal cartilages

Sternum

Three fused bones

2 Manubrium

3 Body

4 Xiphoid process

Ribs and Their Attachments

12 pairs

2 All attach:

Pairs 1 through 7

1

2 Attach:

Pairs 8 through 10

1 False ribs

1

Pairs 11-12

4

6

The Appendicular Skeleton consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs and their girdles (pectoral and pelvic)

Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder Girdle)

Clavicles and the scapulae

1 Attach:

2 Provide:

Clavicles

Acromial (lateral) end:

Sternal (medial) end:

Scapulae (Shoulder Blades)

Three fossa are the site of origin for the rotator cuff muscles:

The Upper Limb

Arm

1

Forearm

1

Hand

1 8 carpal bones in the wrist

2 5 metacarpal bones in the palm

3 14 phalanges in the fingers

Humerus

Head of Humerus Articulates with:

Contains:

Articulates inferiorly with the radius and ulna via the:

Bones of the Forearm

Ulna

1

3 Contains:

Radius

1

3 Contains:

Hand: Carpus

Eight bones in two rows

Only scaphoid and lunate:

Hand: Metacarpus and Phalanges

Metacarpus

1

Phalanges

1 Each finger (digit), except the thumb, has three phalanges-

3 The thumb:

Pelvic (Hip) Girdle

Consists of:

Attaches:

Transmits:

Each coxal bone consists of three fused bones: ilium, ischium, and pubis

2 Iliac crest, sacroiliac joint

Ischium-

2

Pubis

2 Pubic symphysis, pubic arch

Comparison of Male and Female Pelves

Female pelvis

1 Adapted for:

2 True pelvis:

3 Cavity of the true pelvis is:

Male pelvis

1 Adapted for:

3 Cavity of the true pelvis is:

The Lower Limb

Three segments of the lower limb

1 Thigh:

2 Leg:

3 Foot: 7 tarsal bones in the ankle, 5 metatarsal bones in the metatarsus, and 14 phalanges in the toes

Femur

Femoral head articulates:

Contains:

Bones of the Leg

Tibia

1

3 Articulates with:

5 Contains:

Fibula

1

3 Articulates with:

5 Contains:

Foot: Tarsals

1

2

Foot: Metatarsals and Phalanges

Metatarsals:

1

Phalanges

3 Each digit (except the hallux) has three phalanges –

5 The great toe:

JOINTS

Joints (Articulations)

Articulation—

Functions of joints:

Joints can be classified Functionally and Structurally

Functional Classification of Joints

Three functional classifications:

Synarthroses—

Amphiarthroses—

Diarthroses—

Structural Classification of Joints

Based on:

Three structural classifications:

Fibrous (As a general rule, these are immovable)

Cartilaginous (Both movable and immovable, most are amphiarthroses)

Synovial (All are freely movable)

Fibrous Joints

Bones joined by:

Three types: Sutures, Syndesmoses, Gomphoses

Fibrous Joints: Sutures

Fibrous Joints: Syndesmoses

Examples:

Interosseous membrane btwn. Radius/ulna and btwn. Tibia/fibula (distal tibiofibular joint)

Cartilaginous Joints

Examples, Symphyses (pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs)

Synovial Joints

Four Distinguishing features:

Articular Cartilage-

Articular Capsule-

3. Joint cavity-

Encloses synovial fluid

4. Reinforcing Ligaments

Synovial Joints: Friction-Reducing Structures

Bursae:

Contain:

Commonly act as “ball bearings” where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together

Tendon sheath:

Classification of Synovial Joints

Six types, based on shape of articular surfaces:

Plane

Hinge

Pivot

Condyloid

Saddle

Ball and socket

Plane Joints

Example(s):

Hinge Joints

Example(s)

Pivot Joints

Example(s)

Condyloid Joints

Example(s)

Saddle Joints

Example(s)

Ball-and-Socket Joints

Example(s)

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Three Types of Muscle Tissue

Skeletal muscle tissue:

Cardiac muscle tissue:

Smooth muscle tissue:

Muscle Functions

Skeletal Muscle

Each muscle is served by one artery, one nerve, and one or more veins

Connective tissue sheaths of skeletal muscle:

Epimysium:

Perimysium:

Endomysium:

Skeletal Muscle: Attachments

Muscles attach to bone by an origin and insertion

Origin-

Insertion-

Microscopic Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Myofibrils

Exhibit striations:

Sarcomere

Regions of a Sarcomere

A band (Dark Band)-

H zone:

M line:

I band (Light Band)-

Z disc:

Structure of a Thick Filament

Composed of many myosin proteins

A single myosin protein contains:

A tail

A head which can:

Structure of Thin Filament

Other Skeletal Muscle Organelles

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)

• Network of:

• Stores:

• T (transverse) Tubules:

• Continuous with:

• Penetrate cells interior at each:

o T tubules:

Sliding Filament Theory

In the relaxed state:

During contraction:

As H zones shorten and disappear:

The Neuromuscular Junction

Defined as:

Axons of motor neurons:

Each axon:

Each axon ending forms:

Axon terminal and muscle fiber are:

Synaptic vesicles within axon terminal contain:

Junctional folds of the sarcolemma contain:

Events at the Neuromuscular Junction

A nerve impulse:

1. Ca2+:

2. Ca2+ entry causes:

3. Ach diffuses:

4. Ach binding:

5. Na+:

6. Once threshold is reached:

The Action Potential

The AP is:

Repolarization:

Destruction of Acetylcholine

ACh effects are quickly terminated by:

Prevents:

Role of Calcium (Ca2+) in Contraction

At low intracellular Ca2+ concentration:

At higher intracellular Ca2+ concentrations:

Cross Bridge Cycle

Continues as long as:

Cross bridge formation:

Power stroke:

Cross bridge detachment:

“Cocking” of the myosin head:

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Motor Unit: The Nerve-Muscle Functional Unit

Motor unit =

Graded Muscle Responses

• Defined:

Changing:

Changing:

Response to Change in Stimulus Frequency

A single stimulus results in a single contractile response called a:

Increase frequency of stimulus(

Ca2+ release stimulates further contraction (

Further increase in stimulus frequency (

If stimuli are given quickly enough, (

Muscle Metabolism: Energy for Contraction

ATP is regenerated by:

Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP)

Anaerobic pathway

Aerobic respiration

Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP)

CP is:

When ATP stores are depleted:

Products are:

Provides energy for:

Anaerobic Pathway

Under intense muscle activity or when oxygen delivery is impaired:

Begins just like aerobic pathway (glycolysis) but pyruvic acid is:

Products are:

Provides energy for:

Aerobic Pathway

Produces:

1. Fuels:

2. Products are:

3. Provides energy for:

Muscle Fatigue

Defined:

Results from:

Skeletal Muscles: Functional Groups

• Antagonists

o

• Synergists

o

Naming Skeletal Muscles

• Location—bone or body region associated with the muscle

• Shape—e.g., deltoid muscle (deltoid = triangle)

• Relative size—e.g., maximus (largest), minimus (smallest), longus (long)

• Direction of fibers or fascicles—e.g., rectus (fibers run straight), transversus, and oblique (fibers run at angles to an imaginary defined axis)

• Naming Skeletal Muscles

• Number of origins—e.g., biceps (2 origins) and triceps (3 origins)

• Location of attachments—named according to point of origin or insertion

• Action—e.g., flexor or extensor, muscles that flex or extend, respectively

Muscles of Facial Expression

• Epicranius (Frontal belly and Occipital belly)

o

o

• Orbicularis Oculi

o

• Orbicularis Oris

o

• Buccinator

o

• Zygomaticus

o

• Platysma

o

Muscles of Mastication

• Temporalis

o Prime movers of jaw closure

• Masseter

o

Muscles of the Neck

• Sternocleidomastoid

o

Anterior Trunk Muscles

• Pectoralis Major

o

• Rectus Abdominis

o

• External and Internal obliques

o

• Transversus Abdominis

o

Posterior Trunk Muscles

• Trapezius

o

• Latissimus Dorsi

o

• Erector Spinae

o

▪

Arm Muscles

• Anterior Flexor muscles

o Brachialis, Biceps brachii, Brachioradialis

▪

• Posterior Extensor muscles

o Triceps brachii

▪

Shoulder Muscles

• Deltoid

o

• Rotator cuff Muscles

o Supraspinatus

o Infraspinatus

o Subscapularis

o Teres Minor

Muscles of the Forearm

• Actions:

• Most anterior muscles are :

• Most posterior muscles are :

Hip/Thigh Muscles

• Iliopsoas and Sartorius

o

• Gluteus Maximus

o

o

• Gluteus Medius

o

• Adductor Muscles

o

o

• Hamstrings (Biceps Femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus)

o

o

• Quadriceps Group (Vastus Medialis, Lateralis, intermedius and rectus femoris)

o

o

Muscles of the Anterior Compartment of the Lower Leg

• Tibialis anterior and Extensor digitorum longus

o

Muscles of the Lateral Compartment of the Lower Leg

• Fibularis longus

o

Muscles of the Posterior Compartment of the Lower Leg

• Gastrocnemius and Soleus

o

o

SPECIAL SENSES – THE EYE

The Eye and Vision

Eyebrows

Function in

Eyelids

Palpebral fissure—

Medial and Lateral Canthi-

Caruncle—

Tarsal plates—

Levator palpebrae superioris—

Eyelashes

Lubricating glands associated with the eyelids

Tarsal glands-

Conjunctiva

Mucous membranes of the eye

Palpebral conjunctiva:

Bulbar conjunctiva:

Lacrimal Apparatus

Consists of:

Releases: Lacrimal secretion (tears)

The solution also contains:

Blinking spreads the tears towards the:

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

The movement of the eye is controlled by six muscles on the external surface of each eye:

Superior rectus:

Inferior rectus:

Lateral rectus:

Medial rectus:

Inferior oblique:

Superior oblique:

The innervations to each muscle can be remembered by the following equation: (LR6SO4)O3

Which means:

Lateral rectus:

Superior oblique:

All others:

Structure of the Eyeball

The eyeball is composed of three layers

Fibrous layer

Vascular layer

Sensory layer

Fibrous Layer

Two regions: sclera and cornea

Sclera

2. Cornea:

Vascular Layer

Middle layer

Three regions: choroid, ciliary body, and iris

Choroid region

2. Ciliary body

3. Iris

The anterior colored part of the eye

Pupil—

Close vision and bright light—

Distant vision and dim light—

Sensory Layer: Retina

Delicate two-layered membrane

Pigmented layer –

Neural layer -

The Retina

Ganglion cell axons

Optic disc (blind spot)

Photoreceptors

Rods

More numerous at:

Operate in:

Provide:

Cones

Found in:

Operate in:

Provide:

Cones

There are three types of cones named for the colors of light absorbed:

Intermediate hues are perceived by:

Color blindness is due to:

Internal Chambers and Fluids

The lens and ciliary zonule separate the anterior and posterior segments

Posterior segment contains vitreous humor that:

Anterior segment is composed of two chambers

Anterior chamber—

Posterior chamber—

Anterior segment contains aqueous humor

Supplies:

Glaucoma:

Lens

Lens fibers—

Lens becomes denser, more convex, and less elastic with age

Cataracts (clouding of lens) occur as a consequence of aging, diabetes mellitus, heavy smoking, and frequent exposure to intense sunlight

Light

Our eyes respond to:

Light:

Rods and Cones:

Refraction and Lenses

Refraction

Light passing through a convex lens:

The image formed at the focal point:

Focusing Light on the Retina

Pathway of light entering the eye: cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor, neural layer of retina, photoreceptors

Light is refracted

Change in lens curvature allows for fine focusing of an image

Focusing for Distant Vision

Light rays from distant objects are:

Ciliary muscles are:

Lens is:

Focusing for Close Vision

Light from a close object diverges as it approaches the eye; requires that the eye make active adjustments

Close vision requires

Accommodation—

Near point of vision is determined by:

Presbyopia—

Constriction—

Convergence—

Problems of Refraction

Myopia (nearsightedness)—

Hyperopia (farsightedness)—

Functional Anatomy of Photoreceptors

Rods and cones

Outer segment of each contains visual pigments -

Once light is absorbed by the visual pigments:

The Visual Pathway from the optic nerve to the occipital lobe of brain

SPECIAL SENSES- THE EAR

The Ear

Three parts of the ear

External (outer) ear

Middle ear (tympanic cavity)

Internal (inner) ear

The Ear: Hearing and Balance

External and middle ear are involved with:

Internal ear (labyrinth) functions in both:

External Ear

The auricle (pinna) is composed of:

External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)

Tympanic membrane (eardrum)

Middle Ear

Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube—connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx

Ear Ossicles

Three small bones in tympanic cavity: the malleus, incus, and stapes

Transmit :

Tensor tympani and stapedius muscles :

Internal Ear

Bony labyrinth

Three parts:

Filled with:

Filled with:

Vestibule

Contains two membranous sacs (saccule and utricle) that:

Semicircular Canals

Three canals that:

Membranous semicircular ducts:

Ampulla (swelling) of each canal houses:

Receptors respond to:

Equilibrium

•

The Cochlea

A spiral, conical, bony chamber

Contains the cochlear duct:

Sound and the Cochlea

•

•

•

•

•

Transmission of Sound to the Internal Ear

Deafness

• Hearing loss can be temporary or permanent

• Common causes:

•

• Conduction deafness

• Can be caused by:

•

•

•

•

• Nerve Deafness

• Can be caused by:

•

•

•

•

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A

B

C

Cranial Bones (8)

Facial Bones (14)

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