Social Cognition - Ms Shattock's stage 2 psychology



SOCIAL COGNITION

ATTITUDES AND IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

[pic]

Social Cognition

Key Ideas

Knowledge and understanding should be relevant to the following key ideas:

• The relationship between social cognition and behaviour is bidirectional. In particular, attitudes influence behaviour, but behaviour also influences attitudes.

• Our perceptions of others and of ourselves are vulnerable to a number of biases.

Areas of Learning

• The structure of attitudes and the functions they serve; the factors that influence attitude formation and attitude change (including source, message, and audience, and peripheral and central processing routes); the bidirectional relationship between attitudes and behaviour; the factors that influence impression formation; self-knowledge from social comparisons; impression management.

• Psychological principles concerning social cognition in everyday experiences and events

(e.g. meeting a new person, advertising) and in psychological interventions, including public safety campaigns that target attitude change.

• Application of these psychological principles to social issues (e.g. reducing prejudice, increasing the effectiveness of health promotion campaigns) and personal growth (e.g. more effective persuasive communication and impression management).

• Investigation designs and methods of assessing psychological responses used to study social cognition.

• Ethical issues associated with research and applications in the area of social cognition.

The structure of attitudes and the functions they serve

One of the most widely used theories is the tricomponent or ABC model of attitudes which proposes that any attitude has three related components.

Structure refers to

Affective, The affective component refers to the emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object, person, place, group, event or issue. It is based on judgement

▪ Positive response = liking or favouring

▪ Negative response = disliking or hating

▪ Neutral response = lack of interest or concern

Behavioural, The behavioural component of an attitude refers to the actions that we do in response to an towards an object, person, place, group, event or issue. Eg doing exercise, attending rallies, saying no.

Cognitive , The cognitive component of an attitude refers to the beliefs we have about an object, person, place, group, event or issue. Our beliefs are linked to what we know and develop as a result of experience Some beliefs are based on fact, some beliefs are false. Some beliefs can be verified, others cannot (aliens).

The tricomponent theory assumes that all three components must be present before it can be said that an attitude exists.

Functions refer to

Knowledge function – This function of attitudes deals with how we process information from our social world. It enables us to make our world a more predictable and familiar place by organising our perceptions and beliefs. We use out previous attitudes and knowledge to decide howt o react to the new situation. This is how stereotypes can help shape an attitude.

Value – expressive / self-expressive – This allows attitudes to give meaning to our lives by allowing us to tell others about orselves. As such this value is a part of our self-concept

Ego defensive – This function also relates tot eh self, but it protects out self-esteem by shielding us from the harsh realities of our own lives. This function helps us to avoid admitting negative things about ourselves. (developing a negative image of a group of people to convince ourselves we are better than them)

Instrumental (adaptive) - this allows a person to maximise the rewards and minimise the punishments by guiding their behaviour towards desired goals and away from those that are undesired. (Eg attitudes to exercise, political issues that can help us – eg education issues)

The one attitude may serve all four functions: take the attitude to travel

Utilitarian: if it influences you whether and where to travel (not Iraq)

Self-expressive: if you share experiences you cherish with peers

Ego defensive: if it protects you from your fear of flying

Knowledge: if it enables you to carefully select an itinerary you are comfortable with

The bidirectional relationship between attitudes and behaviour

Bi-directional relationship between attitudes and behaviour

The bi-directional relationship between attitudes and behaviour means that attitudes can affect behaviour and behavior can also affect attitudes. If we like something, we will engage in that type of behaviour eg tennis. Sometimes attitudes and behaviour can be inconsistent.

Factors affecting the attitude – behaviour link

Attitude strength

Stronger attitudes have a stronger influence on behaviour, endure over time and are more resistant to change than weaker ones.

Attitude specificity

An attitude is more likely to be found to affect a person’s behaviour if the attitude being examined is specific. If an attitude is specific (negative attitude to jogging rather than a negative attitude to exercise) the attitude is more likely to affect the behaviour.

Ambivalence

Ambivalence refers to the idea that we can have both positive and negative responses to the same thing. (eg like chocolate but avoid it because it is not healthy) Ambivalent attitudes do not lead to predictable behaviours.

Social Situation

The social situation we are in affects how freely we express our attitudes. Eg smoking, or eating broccoli at a friends house. Attitudes are a better predictor of behaviour if conflicting social situations are not present.

Behaviour affects attitudes

Peer pressure is an example of how behaviour can affect attitudes. When teenagers experiment with smoking and drinking often enough this behaviour may in turn change their attitude to these behaviours. If we are forced to exercise we may find that our attitudes to exercise changes.

▪ Cognitive dissonance: People prefer their attitudes and behaviour to be consistent. Inconsistency between our behaviour and attitudes gives us an uncomfortable feeling (heightened arousal, fight flight response).

▪ Self perception theory: this theory assumes we learn about ourselves the same way other people see us. We can become aware of what our attitudes towards something is bu observing our own actions. Eg meeting a person from a different race for the first time. We would learn about our own attitudes by seeing how we behave in that situation.

The factors that influence attitude formation and attitude change (including source, message, and audience, and peripheral and central processing routes);

Note: 2004 – 2006 attitude formation and attitude change were seen as separate concepts, however in 2007, examiners interpreted the phrase “attitude formation and attitude change” to be one phrase and hence all the theory below was considered to be a correct response.

Attitude Formation

▪ Direct experience: attitudes formed through direct experience (experiencing something yourself – listening to a band live, living with a smoker) are generally stronger attitudes. We are more likely to think and talk about things that happen to us personally – this in turn strengthens the attitude.

▪ Indirect experience: Indirect experience or ‘mere exposure’ involves forming an attitude in a way that is less personal. This could include reading about or being told about something. Advertising is an example of indirect experience. Attitudes formed this way are more vulnerable to change. They are less emotionally intense and do not evoke the same levels of thinking or talking that attitudes formed through direct experience do.

▪ Learning: Learning is the third factor affecting attitude formation.

o Learning by association is called classical conditioning. Simply pairing or associating an object with a positive or negative experience leads us to associate that object with the positive or negative feeling. Eg attitudes to seafood if experienced off seafood at a restaurant. Racism develops this way.

o Learning via rewards or punishment is called operant conditioning. The attitudes we form are affected by the consequences we receive for expressing that attitude. Eg attending revision sessions because of previous positive remarks.

o We also learn attitudes by observing the behaviour of others (usually our parents)

Principles governing attitude change

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Central route of persuasion

The central route of persuasion is about

making the audience of the message

think carefully about the message

to evaluate the information.

This route is most effective for those

people who are more likely to think about the message and analyse the content. These people need a message that is credible, presented clearly and simply and backed up by evidence.

They will be persuaded by a message that focuses on the quality of the product.

Peripheral route of persuasion

The peripheral route is about persuading people using “peripheral” cues. It requires little thinking by the audience. Instead it uses images of beauty and pleasure. Attractive people, popular people, Hollywood stars.

The audience that is targeted by the peripheral route is often one that is young, has low self esteem and children through cartoons and jingles.

Evidence shows that over a long period of time the central route is more likely to have a longer lasting effect upon a person’s attitudes as the person has to process the cues more carefully.

|Source |Message |Audience |Channel of Communication |

|The source is the person who conveys the |For the message to be effective you need |Features of the audience also affect |Direct contact with people is more persuasive|

|message. The more favourably we view the |to evoke strong emotions or strong |how easy it is to persuade attitude |than a message delivered through the media. |

|source the more likely we are to view the |processing in the audience. |change. | |

|message more favourably. | | |However through continuous indirect methods |

| |The message could include statistics or a |Older generations have more |the media becomes a powerful route of |

|The effectiveness of the source is |story to arouse emotions. |conservative views, they are more |persuasion – especially for children. |

|determined by their credibility, | |likely to have formed attitudes | |

|trustworthiness, expertise, and |Good feelings can make a message more |through direct experience –harder to |Video images are more persuasive than written|

|attractiveness or likeability. |convincing. |change. |media. |

| | | | |

|Experts and trustworthy people would be |Negative emotions are also effective. Fear|Younger people often form attitudes |A complicated message in a written form may |

|regarded as credible. |is often used in health and safety |based on what other people have told |be more effective if people have time to read|

| |campaigns such as drink-driving, |them therefore easier to change. |and absorb all the issues |

|Talking quickly increases trustworthiness |anti-smoking and terrorism. | | |

|as it makes you seem more intelligent and | |People with low self esteem are | |

|knowledgeable. |A message is more effective when people |persuaded more easily. | |

| |don’t think they are being tricked. | | |

|Attractive people are also better at | |How much we know about a topic and | |

|changing the attitudes of others. |Repetition of a message is a good way for |personality are also factors. | |

| |people to remember it. | | |

Psychological principles concerning social cognition in everyday experiences and events (e.g. meeting a new person, advertising) and in psychological interventions, including public safety campaigns that target attitude change.

• Public safety campaigns

o How do advertisers make use of the message learning approach in trying to persuade us to buy their products or change our behaviour?

o What features of adverts use the peripheral route v central route

o Common to use fear arousal in health promotion and public safety campaigns. Fear creates arousal which creates emotional tension. People will change their attitudes to reduce the tension.

▪ Ethical considerations: exposing people to fear would be upsetting, especially to children

o Providing people with simple steps to follow increases the persons belief that they are capable of changing their behaviour. Eg the wearing of bike helmets, the 15 minute powernap, the recycling ads.

The factors that influence impression formation; self-knowledge from social comparisons; impression management.

Meeting a new person

• Impression formation

o When we interact with people we form impressions of them, we for first impressions

very quickly from a limited amount of information. First impressions are also influenced

by stereotypes. We categorise people into particular groups.

o Verbal communication (what is said and context of what is said)

▪ Swearing or polite, slang or formal language

o Non-verbal communication

o Visible cues – (distance, gestures, open and closed posture, eye contact,

facial expression, physical appearance)

o Paralinguistic cues – (emphasis, inflection, pitch, loudness, rhythm, hesitations)

▪ Self Handicapping

▪ Self handicapping is another way people protect their self image and manage the impression that others have of them. Self handicapping is making excuses for why you present a less than desirable impression in an activity in which you are about to engage. Handicapping happens before you engage in a behaviour.

▪ Real handicapping: when something has actually happened that will potentially affect your performance (not sleeping well, ill)

▪ Artificial handicapping: making an excuse for potential poor performance. (saying you didn’t sleep well even though you did)

o Social Comparison – tendency to make assessments of self by comparing to others

people need to know whether they meet

societies norms and expectations, in addition

to needing to know that their behaviour,

attitudes and feelings present favourably to

others.

o Downward Social Comparison: A downward social comparison is when we compare ourselves to someone who is slightly worse off than ourselves. It generally makes us feel good and gives our self esteem a boost. However it may have a negative effect which si that we don’t try as hard as we know we are better than others.

o Upward social comparison: We compare ourselves to someone who is more fortunate, happier or better at a task than us. This can give us something to aim for and try to improve ourselves. However this type of comparison may make us feel inadequate and discourage people from trying.

o Similar social comparison: People also seek out similar people to compare themselves with. Tend to try and fit in with their own peer group.

Application of these psychological principles to personal growth (eg more effective persuasive communication and impression management

Impression Management

▪ Non-verbal communication: clothing, hairstyle, eye contact, firm handshake, positive body language to show you like the person.

▪ Verbal communication: There are two techniques for impression management.

1. making statements that increase our own appeal – saying good thigns about yourself in a job interview, on a data.

2. making statements that make the other person feel good – complimenting the date, the person interviewing you, using flattery

Effective persuasive communication

o Apply to situations you may find yourself in

▪ Formal presentation, job interview, persuading someone you know to rethink an attitude

▪ Consider – audience, message, relationship with the audience, use central or peripheral route – what type of source are you? Expert? Appearance? Verbal cues, non-verbal cues that you present

Application of these psychological principles to social issues , (eg reducing prejudice, increasing the effectiveness of health promotion campaigns)

o Reducing prejudice

▪ Need to understand structure, function and factors influencing prejudice

▪ Structure – ABC of (eg racism)

• Affective – feeling of hatred

• Behavioural – discrimination against that group – overt physical, or subtle prejudice – excluding

• Cognitive – thoughts and beliefs based on stereotype

▪ Function – helps us feel better about self to see others as different, minority, less superior – see ourselves as more superior

▪ Factors influencing prejudice – learnt through observations, rewards (peer approval, praise for having that attitude)

▪ Six suggestions for reducing prejudice

• Equal legal and economic status

• Normal for groups to have equality

• Increased contact

• Cooperation and superordinate goals

• Creating cognitive dissonance

• Cognitive intervention / retraining

o Health promotion campaigns

▪ Be able to apply all the theories to a specific example using public health promotion campaigns

▪ They aim to change a person’s behaviour by changing their attitudes

▪ Use of fear. Fear creates arousal which creates tension (cognitive dissonance). People change their behaviour to reduce tension.

Investigation designs and methods of assessing psychological responses used to study social cognition.

Self Reports – written or spoken answers. Data based on self reports are considered subjective.

Free response questions give qualitative data

Fixed response questions give quantitative data.

Rating scales include Thurston scale, ranking statements in order. Likert scales – SA, A, N, D, SD.

Semantic Differential

Ugly…………………….beautiful

Advantages: rating scales are simple to complete. Can collect qualitative or quantitative data

Disadvantages: cannot be used with illiterate people, children. People may misunderstand the questions or may give socially desirable responses. May be embarrassed to report their true attitudes.

Observations

Involves observing what someone does then inferring or assuming the underlying attitudes.

Advantages: unobtrusive helps ensure the participants do not realize their attitudes are being measured.

Disadvantage: does not always give accurate indication of a person’s attitude as behaviour and attitudes may be inconsistent. Also difficult to measure the strength of the attitude.

Research Designs

o Experimental: Dividing participants into two groups to observe cartoon versus graphic images for anti smoking campaign. Experimental because of the random allocation to experimental and control groups.

o Quantitative Observational: Observing people attitudes to smoking based on their own or family and friends smoking habits. Observational Quantitative because the smoking habits of self or family and friends is a pre-existing variable.

o Qualitative – Focus groups or Delphi technique questionnaire regarding attitudes to smoking

Ethical issues associated with research and applications in the area of social cognition

-----------------------

STRUCTURE OF

ATTITUDES

(ABC Model)

Affective

Component

Behavioural

Component

Cognitive

Component

FUNCTIONS THAT ATTITUDES SERVE

Knowledge

Value Self Expressive

Ego Defensive

Instrumental

(Utilitarianl)

Factors Affecting

Attitude Formation

Direct Experience

Indirect Experience

Behaviour Attitudes

Attitudes Behaviour

THE ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOUR LINK

(bi-directional relationship)

Self handicapping

Impression Management

Managing your self Verbally & Non-Verbally towards others

Impression Formation

Assessing personality through verbal and non verbal cues

IMPRESSIONS

Downward Social Comparisons

Upward Social Comparisons

GAINING KNOWLEDGE FROM

SOCIAL COMPARISONS

Central Processing

Peripheral Processing

Factors affecting ATTITUDE CHANGE

Channel of Communication

(How)

Audience

(To whom)

Message

(what)

Channel

(by what means)

Source

(Who)

FACTORS AFFECTING Attitude Change

Ethics

Informed Consent

Fairness

Deception

Debriefing

Voluntary Participation

ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT

Self Reports

Questionnaires, surveys, rating scales

Observation

Learning

Association

Reward & Punishment

Modeliing

Thurstone Scales

Likert Scales

Semantic Differential

Scales

................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download