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AIM: Analyze the societies and cultures of the ancient world (with a focus on culture and social class) How did women’s status compare in many of the civilizations in our course?Under what circumstances did someone in ancient Sumer become a slave?Do Now: 1) Social Class – (CLASS SET) Please do NOT keep. “Life in Sumerian Society” “Spartan Daily Life”a) Compare and contrast women in Sumer to women in Sparta. b) Compare and contrast women in Sumer to other civilizations where women’s status was lower.c) Spartan society was fairly harsh. Why did women have a higher status in Sparta compared with Athens?d) Under what circumstances did someone in ancient Sumer become a slave?“Women in Ancient Egypt Article (ancient.edu)by Joshua J. Mark published on 04 November 2016 One of the central values of ancient Egyptian civilization, arguably the central value, was ma'at - the concept of harmony and balance in all aspects of one's life. This ideal was the most important duty observed by the pharaoh who, as mediator between the gods and the people, was supposed to be a role model for how one lived a balanced life. Egyptian art, architecture, religious practices, even governmental agencies all exhibit a perfect symmetry of balance and this can also be seen in gender roles throughout the history of ancient Egyptian civilization. HYPERLINK "" Egyptian Royal WomanWomen in ancient Egypt were the equals of men in every area except occupations. Historians Bob Brier and Hoyt Hobbs note how women were equal to men in almost every area except for jobs: "Men fought, ran the government, and managed the farm; women cooked, sewed, and managed the house" (89). Men held positions of authority such as king, governor, general, and a man was considered the head of the household but, within that patriarchy, women exercised considerable power and independence. Egyptologist Barbara Watterson writes:In ancient Egypt a woman enjoyed the same rights under the law as a man. What her de jure [rightful entitlement] rights were depended upon her social class not her sex. All landed property descended in the female line, from mother to daughter, on the assumption, perhaps, that maternity is a matter of fact, paternity a matter of opinion. A woman was entitled to administer her own property and dispose of it as she wished. She could buy, sell, be a partner in legal contracts, be executor in wills and witness to legal documents, bring an action at court, and adopt children in her own name. An ancient Egyptian woman was legally capax [competent, capable]. In contrast, an ancient Greek woman was supervised by a kyrios [male guardian] and many Greek women who lived in Egypt during the Ptolemaic Period, observing Egyptian women acting without kyrioi, were encouraged to do so themselves. In short, an ancient Egyptian woman enjoyed greater social standing than many women of other societies, both ancient and modern. (16)The respect accorded to women in ancient Egypt is evident in almost every aspect of the civilization from the religious beliefs to social customs. The gods were both male and female, and each had their own equally important areas of expertise. Women could marry who they wanted and divorce those who no longer suited them, could hold what jobs they liked - within limits - and travel at their whim. The earliest creation myths of the culture all emphasize, to greater or lesser degrees, the value of the feminine principle.The Divine FeminineIn the most popular creation myth, the god Atum lights upon the primordial mound in the midst of the swirling waters of chaos and sets about creating the world. In some versions of this tale, however, it is the goddess Neith who brings creation and, even where Atum is the central character, the primordial waters are personified as Nu and Naunet, a balance of the male and female principles in harmony which combine for the creative act.Following the creation and beginning of time, women continue to play a pivotal role as evidenced in the equally popular story of Osiris and Isis. This brother and sister couple were said to have ruled the world (that being Egypt) after its creation and to have taught human beings the precepts of civilization, the art of agriculture, the proper worship of the gods. Osiris is killed by his jealous brother Set, and it is Isis who brings him back to life, who gives birth to his child Horus and raises him to be king, and who, with her sister Nephthys and other goddesses such as Serket and Neith, helps to restore balance to the land. HYPERLINK "" IsisThe goddess Hathor, sent to earth as the destroyer Sekhmet to punish humans for their transgressions, becomes people's friend and close companion after getting drunk on beer and waking with a more joyful spirit. Tenenet was the goddess of beer, thought to be the drink of the gods, who provided the people with the recipe and oversaw successful brewing. Shay was the goddess of the written word and librarians, Tayet the goddess of weaving, Tefnut the goddess of moisture. Even the passage of the year was viewed as feminine as personified by Renpet who notched her palm branch to mark the passage of time. The goddess Bastet, one of the most popular in all of Egypt, was a protector of women, of the home, and of women's secrets. Egyptian religion honored and elevated the feminine, and so it is hardly surprising that women were important members of the clergy and temple life.Women & ReligionThe most important position a woman could hold, beginning in the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (2040-1782 BCE), was God's Wife of Amun. There were many "God's Wives" associated with different deities, and initially, in the Middle Kingdom, the God's Wife of Amun was simply one among many. The God's Wife was an honorary title given to a woman (originally of any class but later of the upper class) who would assist the high priest in ceremonies and tend to the god's statue. Throughout the New Kingdom of Egypt (1570-1069 BCE) the position increased in prestige until, by the time of the Third Intermediate Period (1069-525 BCE), the God's Wife of Amun was equal in power to a king and effectively ruled Upper Egypt. During the New Kingdom period, the most famous of the God's Wives was the female pharaoh Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE) but there were many other women to hold the office before and after her. HYPERLINK "" Portrait of Queen HatshepsutWomen could be scribes and also priests, usually of a cult with a feminine deity. The priests of Isis, for example, were female and male, while cults with a male deity usually had only male priests (as in the case of Amun). The high prestige of the God's Wife of Amun is another example of the balance observed by the ancient Egyptians in that the position of the High Priest of Amun was balanced by an equally powerful female.It must be noted that the designation 'cult' in describing ancient Egyptian religion does not carry the same meaning it does in the modern day. A cult in ancient Egypt would be the equivalent of a sect in modern religion. It is also important to recognize that there were no religious services as one would observe them in the present. People interacted with their deities most completely at festivals where women regularly played important roles such as the two virgins who would perform The Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys at the festivals of Osiris. Priests maintained the temples and cared for the statue of the god, and the people visited the temple to ask for help on various matters, repay debts, give thanks, and seek counsel on problems, decisions, and dream interpretation.Dreams were considered portals to the afterlife, planes on which the gods and the dead could communicate with the living; they did not always do so plainly, however. Skilled interpreters were required to understand the symbols in the dream and what they meant. Egyptologist Rosalie David comments on this:In the Deir el-Medina texts, there are references to 'wise women' and the role they played in predicting future events and their causation. It has been suggested that such seers may have been a regular aspect of practical religion in the New Kingdom and possibly even earlier. (281)These wise women were adept at interpreting dreams and being able to predict the future. The only extant accounts of dreams and their interpretation come from men, Hor of Sebennytos and Ptolemaios, son of Glaukius, (both c. 200 BCE), but inscriptions and fragments indicate that women were primarily consulted in these matters. David continues, "Some temples were reknowned as centres of dream incubation where the petitioner could pass the night in a special building and communicate with the gods or deceased relatives in order to gain insight into the future" (281). The most famous of these was attached to the Temple of Hathor at Dendera where the clergy was largely female. HYPERLINK "" The Temple of HathorOccupations of WomenThe clergy of ancient Egypt enjoyed great respect and a comfortable living. History from the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt (c. 3150- c. 2613 BCE) through the Late Period of Ancient Egypt (525-332 BCE) abounds in records of the clergy, especially that of Amun, amassing land and wealth. In order to become a priest, one had to first be a scribe, which required years of dedicated study. Once a woman became a scribe she could enter the priesthood, go into teaching, or become a physician. Female doctors were highly respected in ancient Egypt, and the medical school in Alexandria was attended by students from many other countries. The Greek physician Agnodice, denied an education in medicine in Athens because of her sex, studied in Egypt c. 4th century BCE and then returned to her home city disguised as a man to practice.As the course of study to become a scribe was long and hard, however, not many people - men or women - chose to pursue it. Further, scribes were usually from families of scribes,?where great value was placed on literacy and children were expected to follow in their father's or mother's occupation. Women, therefore, were regularly employed as weavers, bakers, brewers, sandal-makers, basket weavers, cooks, waitresses, or as a "Mistress of the House," which today would be an estate owner. When a woman's husband died, or when they divorced, a woman could keep the home and run it as she liked. This aspect of gender equality is almost astounding when one compares it with women's rights over just the past 200 years. A widow living in America in the early 19th century CE, for example, did not have any rights in home ownership and had to depend on a male relative's intercession to keep her home after the death or departure of her husband. In ancient Egypt, a woman could decide for herself how she would make money and keep her estate in order. Scholar James C. Thompson writes:?There were many ways in which a 'Mistress of the House" could supplement her income. Some had small vegetable gardens. Many made clothing. One document shows an enterprising woman purchasing a slave for 400 deben. She paid half in clothing and borrowed the rest from her neighbors. It is likely the woman expected to be able to repay the loan by renting out the slave. Indeed, we have a receipt showing that one woman received several garments, a bull, and sixteen goats as payment for 27 days work by her slave. Those who could not raise the money on their own sometimes joined with neighbors to buy a slave. Women were often part of such a consortium. We know that a woman could inherit and operate a large, wealthy estate. A man who owned such an estate would hire a male scribe to manage it and it would seem reasonable that an heiress would do the same thing. We have little evidence of elite women with paying jobs whether full or part time… (3)Love, Sex, & MarriageAs noted above by Watterson, women were considered legally capable in every aspect of their lives and did not require the supervision, consultation, or approval of a man in order to pursue any course of action…Women could marry anyone they chose to, marriages were not arranged by the males of the family, and they could divorce when they pleased. There was no stigma attached to divorce even though a life-long marriage was always regarded as preferable. Brier and Hobbs comment on this:Whether rich or poor, any free person had the right to the joys of marriage. Marriage was not a religious matter in Egypt - no ceremony involving a priest took place - but simply a social convention that required an agreement, which is to say a contract, negotiated by the suitor on the family of his prospective wife. The agreement involved an exchange of objects of value on both sides. The suitor offered a sum called the "virginity gift" when appropriate, to compensate the bride for what she would lose, indicating that in ancient times virginity was prized in female brides. The gift did not apply in the case of second marriages, of course, but a "gift to the bride" would be made even in that case. In return, the family of the bride-to-be offered a "gift in order to become a wife". In many cases, these two gifts were never delivered since the pair soon merged households. However, in the event of divorce, either party could later sue for the agreed gift. (88)Ancient Egyptian couples also entered into prenuptial agreements which favored the woman. If a man initiated the divorce, he lost all right to sue for the gifts and had to pay a certain sum in alimony to his ex-wife until she either remarried or requested he stop payment. The children of the marriage always went with their mother and the home, unless it had been owned by the husband's family, remained with her. HYPERLINK "" Sabu's Family Group Statue…Further, the ancient Egyptians believed that one's earthly life was only a part of an eternal journey and one was expected to make one's life, including one's marriage, worth experiencing forever.Reliefs, paintings, and inscriptions depict husbands and wives eating together, dancing, drinking, and working the fields with one another. Even though Egyptian art is highly idealized it is apparent that many people enjoyed happy marriages and remained together for life. Love poems were extremely popular in Egypt praising the beauty and goodness of one's girlfriend or wife and swearing eternal love in phrases very like modern love songs: "I shall never be far away from you/While my hand is in your hand/And I shall stroll with you/In every favourite place" (Lewis, 201). The speakers in these poems are both male and female and address all aspects of romantic love. The Egyptians took great joy in the simplest aspects of life and one did not have to be royalty to enjoy the company of one's lover, wife, family, or friends.Egyptian Queens & the Lost Gifts of IsisStill, there is no denying that Egyptian royalty lived well and the many queens and lesser wives who lived in the palace would have experienced enormous luxury. The palace of Amenhotep III at Malkata, mentioned above, extended over 30,000 square meters (30 hectares) with spacious apartments, conference rooms, audience chambers, a throne room and receiving hall, a festival hall, libraries, gardens, storerooms, kitchens, a harem, and a temple to the god Amun. The palace's outer walls gleamed brightly white, while the interior colors were a lively blue, golden-yellow, and vibrant green. The women who lived in such palaces experienced a life far above that of the lower classes but still had their duties to fulfill in keeping with ma'at.Egyptologist Sally-Ann Ashton writes, "In a world that was dominated by the male pharaoh, it is often difficult to comprehend fully the roles of Egyptian queens. A pharaoh would have a number of queens but the most important would be elevated to "principal wife" (1). The role of the principal?or great wife varied with the pharaoh. In the case of Queen Tiye (1398-1338 BCE), the wife of Amenhotep III, she regularly took part in the affairs of state, acted as a diplomat, and even had her name written in a cartouche, like a king. Nefertiti (c. 1370-1336 BCE), the wife of Akhenaten, cared for their family while also helping her husband run the country. When her husband essentially abandoned his duties as pharaoh to concentrate on his new monotheistic religion, Nefertiti assumed his responsibilities. HYPERLINK "" NefertitiGreat queens are recorded as far back as the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt with Queen Merneith (c. 3000 BCE) who ruled as regent for her son Den. Queen Sobeknefru (c. 1807-1802 BCE) took the throne during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and ruled as a woman without regard for the trappings of tradition that only a male could reign over Egypt. Hatshepsut of the 18th Dynasty took Sobeknefru's example further and had herself crowned pharaoh. Hatshepsut continues to be considered one of the most powerful women of the ancient world and among the greatest pharaohs of Egypt.Although female rulers are in the minority in ancient Egypt, powerful queens are not. Their duties and many of their activities remain undocumented or, at least, untranslated, but there is no doubt - based on the information that is available - that these women exerted considerable influence over their husbands, the court, and the country.Women's status in Egypt was incredibly advanced for any time in world history, including the present.?In the beginning of time, when Osiris and Isis ruled over the world in peace and justice, Isis is said to have given gifts to humanity and, among them, the gift of equality between men and women. This Egyptian legend is exemplified by the high status women enjoyed throughout Egypt's history. Brier and Hobbs note how "the status of women in Egypt was incredibly advanced for the time" (89). This is no doubt true, but one could argue that women's status was incredibly advanced for any time in world history, including the present. A woman in ancient Egypt had more rights than many women living in the present day.Equality and respect for women continued through the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BCE), the last to rule Egypt before it was annexed by Rome. Cleopatra VII (c. 69-30 BCE), the last queen of Egypt, is among the best representatives of women's equality as she ruled the country far better than the males who preceded her or thought to co-rule with her. Women's status began to decline in Egypt with the rise of Christianity in the 4th century CE and its belief that sin had entered the world through Eve's disobedience and that women were of less value and less to be trusted than men. The Arab Invasion of the 7th century CE brought Islam to Egypt and effectively ended the kind of equality women had known in the country for almost 3,000 years.”?About the AuthorJoshua J. MarkA freelance writer and former part-time Professor of Philosophy at Marist College, New York, Joshua J. Mark has lived in Greece and Germany and traveled through Egypt. Patriarchy in Shaping Gender and Family Relationships?RomeWithin the Roman civilization, women played a large role in helping shape their family life, businesses, religious rituals and even politics. Although during this time period women were considered inferior to men, they still held a great influence on their family. It was custom that Roman women would marry and bear children. Once the children were born, the wives held authority over them and were responsible for raising them to be well-educated and good citizens of Rome. For a Roman woman to really succeed in teaching her children all that they needed to know, the mother needed to be well-educated herself. With this being said, it was procedure that the boys would attend school, but it was not uncommon for girls to attend a public primary school. Along with schooling as an education, both boys and girls went to dinner parties and religious festivals to learn appropriate social behaviors. Not only did the wife play a large role in the family realm, but Roman women could also own property which allowed them to enter the business world because they could trade and sell land. It was not unusual during this time if wives supervised a family business or estate. Some women even completely ran businesses by themselves, although this usually was because they were widowed. Although at this time women could not hold political office or vote, elite Roman women did work behind the scenes and influence the politics through private negotiations. Livia Drusilla Augusta acted several times as a regent and was considered a faithful adviser to Augustus, which shows how women could still influence politics. As for religion, Roman women were considered essential. Although women could not offer animal sacrifices and their participation was limited, women priests played a very important role. The Vestals were a priestly office which only women could hold. These women never married or had children but instead were completely devoted to making sure religious rituals took place correctly, something that was viewed as crucial to Rome's survival.?Although it was the men who took part in the public life, women were considered a very important asset to Roman civilization because of the influence they held on religion, home-life, politics and business.Roman boys and girls playing together showed that they were not completely separated, and that girls were able to participate in a lot of the same activities that boys did.A statue of a Vestal Priestess who was held in high regard because she made sure religious rituals were done correctly.Livia Drusilla Augusta was considered a faithful adviser to Augustus which shows that women at this time could help to influence politics.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Greece: Athens?Women were expected to perform household tasks, while men went to social events.For Athenian women, their rights were drastically limited, and because of this, women had little to no impact on the social life in Athens. Athenian women received a very limited education, and it was one that consisted of learning how to read and facts on religion and mythology. For women living during this time period, their main goal was to marry and bear children. Because of this, girls were taught from a young age how to sew, weave, cook and do other house hold chores. Women in Athens married very young and had absolutely no say in who they would marry because their future husband was chosen by the girl’s father, and the girl would never even meet her soon-to-be husband until her dowry was settled upon. After marriage, girls felt it was their duty to immediately have children. Once a child was born, it was taken to the father who would decide if he wanted to keep it or not, and it was not uncommon for a baby girl to be put in a jar and abandoned at the side of the road. This shows how women were not viewed as an important part of society and could easily be disposed of. Along with men being in charge of what children he would keep and what children he would discard of, men could also easily divorce their wives, while for the wives it was almost impossible to divorce their husband. The men of Athens were also in control of all property and any land that a woman may have owned before marriage was immediately given to her husband following their marriage. By taking away women’s right to own land, it stopped women from being economically independent and forced them to rely on men instead. Along with women relying on men financially, women had no political rights, meaning men were the only ones who could cast votes and take part in the operation of the state. Women also could not go outside without a cause, meaning women were trapped inside all day. For women of the upper class, this meant they had to focus on taking care of their home, children and slaves. For women of the lower class who could not afford slaves, they sometimes had to go outside but only to work in the fields or sell items at the market. Because women were limited on how much time they could spend outside of their homes, most men had a hetaerae who would be his sexual, social, and intellectual companion when he was in a social setting. While Athenian life offered great limitations on what women could and could not take place in, weddings, funerals and state religious festivals were jobs women were expected to handle. The Thesmophoria was a significant religious event that only women could participate in and they were expected to make sacrifices to the goddesses. For women living in Athens during this time, their political, business, and social involvement were greatly limited, and this caused them to have little impact on the society as a whole, but rather to only influence home-life.?Greece: SpartaFor Spartan women, life was considerably different compared to that of Athens. Although men were still viewed as dominant, women of Sparta were much more independent and were able to have some impact on Sparta, socially and politically, because the men were often at war, leaving the women in charge. Something that drastically sets Sparta apart from Athens is the fact that in Sparta, the women were considered citizens and were allowed to own land. This allowed for Spartan women to be economically independent. Even after a woman married she kept her property. Along with a woman keeping her property after marriage, if a dowry was given, the woman would gain control over it, and this could lead to woman becoming increasingly wealthy. Unlike Athens where the women were expected to marry, have children, and take care of the home, Spartan women could divorce and remarry if they chose. They were not in charge of domestic duties like cleaning, but rather were occupied with staying fit and bearing strong-bodied children. Not only did young Spartan girls undergo public education, but they also competed in gymnastics, wresting, and foot and horse races. Although women were not allowed to speak at the public assembly, women were still able to indirectly influence the politics by talking to their husbands and having him deliver their thoughts. Sparta society was still largely patriarchal, but it was exceedingly less so than the Han Dynasty and Athens. In Sparta, women were able to use the men’s absence during war to their advantage and influence Sparta in the business realm, social realm, and even the political realm.A statue of a spartan girl running which shows how a woman was expected to be fit and strong.A spartan woman with a bow and arrow which shows the military training she received.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Han DynastyIn the Han Dynasty, women were not considered citizens and were viewed as inferior to men. Women living in the Han Dynasty were taught to be submissive, beginning with their father arranging a marriage for them. The mother had little to no say in who her daughter married, but rather the grandfather could override the father's decision if he did not approve of the family she would be marrying into. To encourage all fathers to marry their daughters off, there was a law created that increased the poll tax for unmarried women between the ages of 15 to 30. While men could divorce their wives for numerous reasons, it was very uncommon and difficult for a woman to initiate divorce. However, if the husband died, a widow could choose to remarry and to whom. Along with it being expected that a woman would marry, it was also counted upon that the wife would have children. They hoped for a male who would be able to carry on the family name. While the sons were given a portion of property, girls were excluded from this until they were to be married and then, as part of their dowry, they would receive some land. Ban Zhao, a woman known for her work called Lessons for Women, wrote about how men were strong and strict, and women, as their loyal wives, needed to respect them and obey. Just as Ban Zhao wrote, women belonged to men. From the time they were born they had the job of serving men, beginning with their father, then their husband and lastly their son. Although a son was taught to have great respect for his mother, he was viewed as the head of the house if anything were to happen to the father. Chinese women's main job was to be good wives and mothers, which included cooking, sewing and helping with farming. However, if a woman was to be widowed, she often had to support the family, and this meant woman would take up a job like weaving or selling items in a market. The only time when women were not viewed as being inferior in society was in the imperial family, especially the empress, who was allowed to give orders to males and publicly humiliate them. While women played a small role in public affairs and were viewed as subordinate to men throughout their life, Chinese women influenced society by bearing children and raising them to be smart and respectful citizens. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Ban Zhao who wrote about how women needed to honor and obey their husband's wishes.A painting of women from the Han dynasty playing music which shows how women were expected to be quiet, graceful and submissive.The Persian Empire?Pourandokht was the first queen of Persia, which shows how women in Persia could be very involved in politics and the ruling of the civilization.Unlike any other civilizations during this time period, Persian women were viewed as a very valuable asset to Persian society and experienced large amount of equality in almost all aspects of life, including military, business, religion, ruling and marriage. Although Persian society was patriarchal and men held higher positions then women, women’s role in society was considered very important. Unlike the other civilizations that expected women to marry and have children, it was not uncommon for a woman to never marry or have children, and this was not looked down upon. If a woman did decide to marry, she was in control of who her spouse would be, and marriage was to be centered on the core values of love, truth, and righteousness. Unlike other civilizations where only the man could divorce the wife, in Persian society, a wife could divorce her husband as well. If a woman decided to have children, she would have a paid maternity leave, so it did not interfere with her working. It was also not unusual for women to fight. In fact, there are accounts of strong, capable women fighting in the Sassanid army. One of the great commanders of Persian history was a woman by the name of Pantea Arteshbod. She was the commander of Persian soldiers and also made sure law and order was kept after the conquest of Babylon. The Pahlavi texts discuss how Persian women could ?take part in religious ceremonies and become priests if they wanted to lead the ceremonies. Women could also own property, which allowed them to buy and sell land, and they were permitted to manage their assets. Women also had a slew of jobs they could choose from if they decided they wanted to work, and oftentimes they received the same pay as a male did. Lastly, women were involved in helping to rule Persia, which is shown by the fact that a queen could take the throne if the king died and the prince was still a minor. The first queen of Persia was Pourandokht, and she is described as wise and a strong leader. Although men were considered dominant in the Persian society, women were allowed large amounts of freedom and were not forced into simply being a homemaker unlike other civilizations. Instead, women were viewed with respect and able to largely participate in the social realm of Persia.()Video: If time permits, BBC, Egypt’s Lost QueensObjectives: To learn about Society and culture, to conduct a thematic review, to learn new material about topics we have previously learned about (women’s status, slavery, social class) ................
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