Hi Cindy, - A Social Work Portfolio



I. What will we talk about?

A. Elements used by workers to determine and apply theories, perspectives, models, and orientations

B. Relationships between human behavior and social environments

C. Theories on interactions between individuals, groups, societies, and economic systems

D. Theories on biological, sociological, cultural, psychological, and spiritual development

E. Discuss the range of social systems in which people live and the ways social systems promote or deter people

II. Purpose

A. This portion of the presentation will discuss theories, perspectives, and models that social workers apply and the elements social workers take into account when determining which model, theory, or perspective to utilize.

III. I will start off by defining theory, perspective, and model and discussing between the three.

A. Perspectives are a way of viewing the world, which are usually influenced by values, beliefs, and culture.

B. A theory helps to predict or describe a particular event or behavior. It provides a general description about the world, which can be supported by evidence. Theories assist social workers in determining which method or intervention is most appropriate for their clients.

C. Models are plans of action, what you do given your thoughts or speculations about a situation. The term model is interchangeable with intervention, technique, approach, or practice.

IV. Here are some of the major theories used in Social Work Practice

A. Systems Theory

B. Psychodynamic

1. Psychodynamic psychotherapy is concerned with how internal processes such as needs, drives, and emotions motivate human behavior.

2. Emotions have a central place in human behavior.

3. Unconscious, as well as conscious mental activity serves as the motivating force in human behavior.

4. Early childhood experiences are central in the patterning of an individual’s emotions, and therefore, central to problems of living throughout life.

5. Individuals may become overwhelmed by internal and/or external demands.

6. Individuals frequently use ego defense mechanisms to avoid becoming overwhelmed by internal and/or external demands.

C. Social Learning

1. Social learning theory suggests that human behavior is learned as individuals interact with their environment.

2. Problem behavior is maintained by positive or negative reinforcement.

3. Methods which stem from this theory are the gradual shaping of new behavior through positive and negative reinforcement, modeling, stress management: biofeedback, relaxation techniques, cognitive restructuring, imagery and systematic desensitization.

D. Conflict

1. This theory draws attention to conflict, dominance, and oppression in social life.

2. Groups and individuals try to advance their own interests over the interests of others.

3. Power is unequally divided, and some social groups dominate others.

4. Social order is based on the manipulation and control of non-dominant groups by dominant groups.

5. Lack of open conflict is a sign of exploitation.

6. Social change is driven by conflict, with periods of change interrupting long periods of stability.

E. Developmental Theories

1. Human development occurs in clearly defined stages

2. Each stage of life is qualitatively different from all other stages.

3. Stages of development are sequential, with each stage building on earlier stages.

4. Stages of development are universal.

5. All environments provide the support necessary for development.

a. Theories of moral reasoning (Kohlberg, Gilligan)

a) Preconventional – Heteronymous morality – Accepting what the world says is right –Instrumental purpose – Defining the good as whatever is agreeable to the self and those in the immediate environment.

b) Conventional – Interpersonal experiences – Seeking conformity and consistency in moral action with significant others. The societal point of view – Seeking conformity and consistency with what one perceives to be the opinions of the larger community.

c) Post-conventional – Ethics – Observing individual and group (societal) rights.

d) Conscience and logic – Seeking to apply universal principles of right and wrong.

e) Formal operations (11- adulthood) – The person becomes able to solve real and hypothetical problems using abstract concepts.

b. Theories of cognition (Piaget)

c. Transpersonal theories of human development

a) Transpersonal – means beyond or through the persona or mask. Going beyond identity rooted in the individual body or ego to include spiritual experience or higher levels of consciousness.

d. Stage theories – Erikson

a) Infancy– Trust vs. mistrust

b) Early childhood – Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt

c) Play age – Initiative vs. guilt

d) School age – Industry vs. Inferiority

e) Adolescence – Identity vs. Identity diffusion

f) Young adulthood – Intimacy vs. isolation

g) Adulthood – Generativity vs. self-absorption

h) Mature age – Integrity vs. Disgust and despair

V. Primary Perspectives

A. Strengths

1. The Strengths perspective assumes people have multiple strengths. This perspective helps the worker find, assess, and emphasize the client’s strengths. The strengths perspective is appropriate across problems and populations (Schatz & Flagler, 2004) Overall, the Strengthens perspective works well with disadvantaged, disenfranchised, and oppressed populations. The Strengthens perspective is widely applied in child welfare, substance abuse, family services, and services for older adults. Furthermore, research suggests the Strengthens perspective works well with immigrants, low-income groups, and patients with chronic illnesses.

B. Feminist

1. This perspective focuses on the historical lack of power experienced by women. This perspective emphasizes the importance of equality and empowerment of women.

C. Systems

1. Human beings are constantly interacting with their environments. This perspective views systems as interrelated, dynamic, constantly changing, and influencing an individual’s behavior, interactions, and thought processes.

VI. Current Social Work Practice Models

A. Problem Solving

1. The problem solving model focuses on understanding the problem, brainstorming possible solutions, having the client pick a solution, having the client try out a solution and then evaluating how the solution worked.

B. Task-Centered

1. This model focuses on breaking down the problem into small tasks that the client can accomplish. The social worker may use rehearsal, deadlines, and contracts, in order to help the client feel successful and motivated towards solving the problem.

C. Solution – Focused

1. This model starts with the solution and then helps the client establish the steps that will lead to the solution.

D. Narrative

1. This model uses letters and other methods to help the client re-author their lives.

E. Cognitive-Behavioral

1. Cognitive- behavioral therapy looks at what role thoughts play in maintaining the problem. Emphasis is on changing dysfunctional thoughts which influence behavior.

F. Crisis

VII. Explain the importance of theoretical orientation. Discuss theoretical orientation.

A. Selecting a theoretical orientation requires both knowledge of theories and yourself. Knowing yourself, understanding your own philosophy on life, and being familiar with your values is the first step to integrating theory with practice.

1. Here are ten ways to determine your theoretical orientation…

a. Find yourself

a) To find yourself you should consider your own values, life philosophy, and world view.

i) Ask yourself a few questions…

1. Are you more orientated to the past, present, or future? Are you more focused on working on current issues, past issues, or think the client needs to focus on the future?

2. How do you view people; are they essentially good, bad or neutral?

3. How do you view your role as a helping professional?

4. What do you want the client to learn? Do you want the client to gain insight, become active, or both?

ii) These questions will help you determine how you view the helping process and your role as a professional.

b. Articulate your values

a) These activities will help you figure out personal values and life philosophy.

i) Imagine you could change three things about yourself…

ii) What three things would you change and why?

iii) What would you change in your neighborhood, town, or city? Why?

iv) If your power was extended to people, what would you change?

v) What would you permanently change about the world? Why?

vi) How do your views of multiculturalism and diversity relate to the things you selected to permanently change?

1. Examine your answers…

a. What themes emerged?

b. What are your priorities?

c. How are those priorities related to the way you work with clients?

d. What kind of changes do you want to make for yourself and your community?

e. How do those changes impact your role as a helping professional?

c. Survey your preferences

a) Finally, the Selective Theory Sorter Survey is designed to give you insight into your theoretical orientation and intended for self-discovery.

i) Provide a copy of the STS

ii) Explain….

1. The survey consists of sixty questions.

2. When you finish the survey, total your score for each column (both positive and negative).

3. Transfer your score onto the scoring table.

4. The theories you scored the highest in are the theories most likely to match your life philosophy.

iii) The elements in the STS reflect the views and beliefs inherent in each school of thought.

d. Use your personality

a) Test

e. Capture yourself

a) Another technique to determine your theoretical orientation involves recording yourself. Audio and video tapes can provide insight into your theoretical orientation. Also, you can determine if your techniques/skills actually convey your theoretical orientation. In addition, this will help you track your progress. Furthermore, you can receive feedback from others.

f. Let others inspire your learning

a) Attend professional conferences, workshops, or other opportunities for professional growth

g. Read original works

a) It is recommended that students read original works because every time a theory is paraphrased, something is lost.

h. Get real

a) Apply theories or perspectives to real life situations to understand human behavior.

i. Study with a master

a) Study with someone who is a master in the field or specializes in the theory you are interested in.

j. Broaden your experiences

a) Live outside your comfort zone…

i) Gain experience in working a in wide variety of settings

ii) Study abroad

iii) Join an international student group

iv) Host an international student

1. Learning about different cultures will provide an opportunity for you to compare your beliefs and values to others and add diversity to your life.

VIII. Explain what to take into account when evaluating a theory, model, or perspective

A. What to take into account when evaluating a perspective, theory, or intervention.

1. Is it clear and understandable? Or is it ambiguous and vague?

a. Do concepts make sense? Do they follow a logical order?

2. Is it testable? Is it evidenced based?

a. Can you test the theory? Is the theory you selected evidenced based?

3. Is it inclusive?

a. Does it cover different aspects?

a) For example,

4. Is it responsive to diversity and power?

a. Can the theory explain, examine, and address power relationships and diversity?

5. Will it be useful for practice? How so?

IX. Define the constructionist perspective

A. The Social Constructionist perspective attempts to understand human behavior. This perspective contends people learn about the world and themselves through social interactions and these understandings shape future interactions. The Social constructionist perspective argues everything is socially constructed. This perspective begins with understanding how the client views the situation and what the client would like to happen.

X. Discuss different models based off the constructionist perspective

A. Solution-focused, Narrative, and story-telling approaches or models are based off the Social Constructionist perspective.

1. The Solution-focused model helps clients create solutions. This model is based off the idea that clients want and are capable of envisioning desired change.

2. There are several strategies that are essential for solution focused methods, which involve the client envisioning a better life or life without current problems. These strategies encourage clients to think about potential solutions.

a. For example, the worker may ask the client…

a) The miracle question

i) The Miracle questions help the client to conceptualize life without their problems, life before their problem, or life when their problems were more manageable. This question is usually presented as, ‘‘if you were to go to sleep and a miracle occurred overnight and in the morning, the problem had gone away, how you would know it. What would be different?’’

b) Exception questions

c) Outcome questions

d) Coping questions

i) “Coping questions convey to the client the worker’s acknowledgement of how well they are doing in the face of adversity. This helps to strengthen the client’s own sense of self-efficacy”.

e) Scaling questions

f) Relationship questions

i) The latter questions help clients focus on behaviors that resulted in positive outcomes.

3. Research demonstrates the effectiveness of solution focused interventions with mandated clients. Solution focused interventions are effective with mandated clients because this approach helps clients recognize they make their own choices. Also, this intervention has been tested with many different cultural groups and research indicates it is effective with cross-cultural work. One reason this approach is effective with these populations is because it allows the client to tell their story and this allows the worker to gain an understanding of how the client perceives their situation. “Solution focused work assumes the importance of context in understanding behavior, a focus on behavior and cognition rather than on feelings, and future and solution foci rather than past problems (Corcoran 2000), all of which are consistent with the needs and norms of many ethnic minority clients”.

4. Another social constructionist intervention is the Narrative model. When you think of the Narrative model, think of that saying “starting where the client is at”.

a. Narrative strategies allow the client to share their stories and provide the worker with an opportunity to understand how the client perceives their situation. The Narrative Model attempts to help clients see other realities in their narration of their life and provide different interpretations of the client’s self narration. Narrative Strategies help clients identify their challenges through their self narrations. Furthermore, narrative strategies help clients openly express their challenges and issues, while providing the client with an opportunity to recount stories of competence and strength (Freeman & Couchonnal, 2006)

b. Narrative strategies fit well with the NASW Code of Ethics. “This model presupposes a high degree of client determination, worker respect for the client, mutuality, an understanding of the strengths and resiliency that are present (even if latent) in the client’s story, and is responsive to the differences in client experience and expression as a result of socio-cultural differences”.

c. This approach is highly relevant for social work practice, particularly as it pertains to responsive cross-cultural work.

d. Example….For example, I am a dislocated worker. I can’t find employment and I feel worthless and useless because I can’t provide for my family. If I retell my story and take into account context- unhealthy labor market, outsourcing, & recession-, then I realize unemployment is not a result of personal deficits but, environmental factor.

XI. Evaluate the perspective

A. Coherence and conceptual clarity- Symbolic, phenomenological, and postmodern concepts are criticized for being vague. Furthermore, the fragmentation of the Social constructionist perspective contributes to an inability to clearly define and distinguish between concepts. The diversity within this perspective makes it difficult to comprehend and understand. Overall, the social constructionist theory has been criticized for being vague and unclear.

B. Testability and Evidenced based support-Social constructionist concepts are hard to measure because concepts are abstract. However, social constructionists have offered alternative criteria for evaluating theory.

1. Alternative research methodology-constructionist research

2. Mix of quantitative and qualitative research methodologies

C. Comprehensiveness-Social constructionist theories emphasis social interaction and therefore focuses on social environment. However, social constructionist theories do not focus on biological factors.

1. Biological constructivist

2. Some theories focus on construction of emotion

3. In other social constructionist theories, cognitive processes are central

D. Diversity and power- “With its emphasis on multiple social realities, the social constructionist perspective is strong in its ability to accommodate diversity”

E. Usefulness for Social Work Practice- The social constructionist perspective focuses on the person in the environment. Applying this perspective helps the worker gain an understanding of how the client views their situation.

XII. Social Behavioral Perspective OR sometimes called the Social Learning Perspective

A. Contends human behavior is learned through interacting with one’s environment

B. There are three major theories that explain how behavior is learned.

1. Classical Conditioning Theory (Pavor)

a. Behavior is learned when a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus.

2. Operant Conditioning Theory (Watson and Skinner)

a. Behavior is a result of reinforcement

b. Behavior is leaned as it is strengthened by positive consequences or weakened by negative consequences

a) For example, at my internship we have a behavior chart, which children receive stickers is they behave well. Other positive reinforcements include smiling at the child, thanking the child, or acknowledging they did something well.

3. Cognitive Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

a. Behavior is learned by imitation, observation, beliefs, and expectations

a) For example, one of the boys at my internship mentioned he plays call of duty. He imitated this behavior.

XIII. Evaluation of Social Behavioral Perspective

A. Coherence and Conceptual Clarity-Concepts are clearly defined.

1. For example, in the Classical Conditioning Theory a conditional response, unconditional response, conditional stimulus, and unconditional stimulus are clearly defined. Also, the process follows a logical manner.

B. Testability and Evidence of Empirical Support- Concepts are clearly defined and this makes it easier to test Social Behavioral Theories. It is fair to say all stems of social behavior theories are well supported.

C. Comprehensiveness-In order to gain logical consistency and testability, social learning theories has sacrificed a multidimensional understanding of human behavior.

1. Classical conditioning, cognitive social learning, and operant conditioning theories do not focus on biological factors.

2. Classical and operant conditioning theories don’t address cognition and emotion, or spiritual factors. This would be relevant if these factors affected behavior.

3. The Social Behavior perspective takes into account environment but, the role of environment is limited. Social behavior theories look for one environmental factor that has reinforced one specific behavior.

4. Furthermore, systems do not account for political, economic, social, or historical context.

5. Diversity and power

a. The Social Behavior Perspective pays little attention to issues of power and oppression.

a) For example, the Operant Conditioning Theory contends behavior is a result of reinforcement but, doesn’t take into account some behavior is the result of coercion and oppression.

b. Furthermore, Social Behavior Theories assume mechanisms for learning work the same for all populations.

6. Usefulness for Social Work Practice

a. Social Behavioral methods are used to change an undesirable behavior.

b. Furthermore, Social Behavioral methods are easy to implement.

c. Social Behavioral models are used to change atypical behaviors, not to create social reform or change

XIV. Overall, the Social Behavioral perspective, theories, and models work well when trying to change a client’s behavior. For example, if I had a client who is antisocial, then I may want to use this perspective as a framework for intervention.

XV. In conclusion, the activities provided, the ones to help determine your theoretical orientation, are intended for self-reflection and discovery. This process will help you determine which theories and perspectives align with your values and beliefs. When determining which theory or model to use, it is important to evaluate the theory and model. After evaluating the theory or model, then decide if it is appropriate for your client.

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