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Tests Used in the Various Components of a Comprehensive Evaluation

COGNITIVE INSTRUMENTS:

Measure ability to process different types of information, resulting in an analysis of thinking skills

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – Third Edition (WPPSI-III) “The

WPPSI-III is an individually administered clinical instrument for assessing the intelligence of children aged 2 years, 6 months through 7 years, 3 months.” “The WPPSI-III provides composite scores that represent intellectual functioning in specified cognitive domains” such as verbal skills, nonverbal skills, and processing speed “as well as providing a composite score that represents a child’s general intellectual ability.”

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-IV) – an individually administered clinical instrument for assessing the intellectual ability of children aged 6 through 16. The WISC-IV consists of several subtests, each measuring a different aspect of intelligence.

Wechlser Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III) – an individually administered clinical instrument for assessing the intellectual ability of adults aged 16 through 89. The WAIS-III consists of several subtests, each measuring a different facet of intelligence.

Kaufman Adolescent Intelligence Test – an individually administered measure of general

intelligence for people ages 11 to 85 years.

Test of Nonverbal Intelligence, Third Edition – an individually administered, nonverbal, language free measure of a person’s abstract problem solving ability.

Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Ability – an individually administered battery of tests used to measure intellectual functioning.

Binet V- an individually administered battery of tests used to measure intellectual functioning.

ACHIEVEMENT TESTS:

Measure skill levels in Reading, Math and Written Expression

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition (WIAT-II) – a comprehensive, individually administered test for assessing the academic achievement of children, adolescents, college students, and adults who are in grades Pre-Kindergarten through 16 or who are aged 4 through 85 years in Reading, Math and Written Expression.

Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement – an individually administered battery of tests used in the assessment of academic skills in Reading, Math, Spelling and Written Expression.

Test of Early Reading Ability – Second Edition (TERA-2) The TERA-2 assesses pre-reading skills in children aged 3 years, 0 months through 9 years, 11 months. It specifically “measures children’s ability to attribute meaning to printed symbols, their knowledge of the alphabet and its functions, and their understanding of the conventions of print.”

Test of Early Mathematical Ability – Second Edition (TEMA-2) The TEMA-2 assesses early mathematical thinking, both informal and formal, in children aged 3 years, 0 months through 8 years, 11 months. Informal “mathematical thinking begins before a child enters school and is based largely on counting experiences.” Formal mathematical thinking consists of “written mathematics with explicit rules, principles, and procedures.”

Test of Written Language – Third Edition (TOWL-3) The TOWL-3 is used to evaluate writing skills in children aged 7 years, 0 months through 17 years, 11 months. It uses both spontaneous and contrived (measuring isolated skills such as punctuation, spelling, etc.) formats in order to determine a child’s level of writing skill and his or her strengths and weaknesses as a writer.

SOCIAL/EMOTIONAL INSTRUMENTS

Measure numerous aspects of behavior and personality through rating scales, drawings and written assessments of feelings and attitudes.

Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) – includes parent, teacher, and self-report questionnaires used to evaluate the behavior, emotionality, and self-perceptions of children aged 2 ½ to 18 years. The BASC measures numerous aspects of behavior and personality, including positive (adaptive) as well as negative (clinical) characteristics.

Conners’ Rating Scales-Revised (CRS-R) – includes parent and teacher report questionnaires used to evaluate the behavior and emotionality of children aged 3 to 17 years old. The CRS-R is a multidimensional instrument whose criteria for various clinical conditions is based in large part on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM IV). This instrument is particularly useful for examining Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and comorbid disorders.

Brown Attention-Deficit Disorders Scales for Children and adolescents – an initial screening tool used to indicate how much/little difficulty a child or adolescent is having on a wide variety of cognitive functions that are associated with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (SIQ) – a self-report inventory designed to assess thoughts about suicide and potential suicidal risk in adolescents and young adults.

Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale – a self-report inventory used to assess depression-like symptoms in adolescents.

The Beck Depression Inventory, Second Edition – a self-report instrument used for measuring the severity of depression-like symptoms in adults and adolescents.

Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank, Second Edition – a semi-structured, projective technique used to assess characteristics of a person’s personality.

Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI) The CDI evaluates the presence and severity of depressive symptoms in children aged 7 through 17. On the CDI, each child rates the “ degree to which” a series of statements “describes him or her for the past two weeks.”

The Differential Test of Conduct and Emotional Problems (DT/CEP) The DT/CEP “is a screening instrument designed to identify” children with conduct problems, emotional problems, and to differentiate them from “noninvolved” peers. It is administered to parents and teachers who evaluate whether or not certain behavioral statements describe the student and his or her behavior.

Roberts’ Apperception Test for Children (RATC) The RATC is a projective measure of

social/emotional functioning. Children ages 6 through 15 are asked to look at ambiguous pictures of social situations or scenarios and then tell a story about the pictures. The premise of this activity is that a child will project his or her own thoughts and feelings into the stories. The examiner evaluates the themes in the stories and scores them in comparison to children within the same age range.

Draw-A-Person (D-A-P) The D-A-P is a projective drawing technique used to gain insight into an individual’s social/emotional functioning. On the D-A-P, children aged 5 through 17 are asked to draw a person and then to answer questions about their drawing. The premise of this activity is that a child will project his or her own thoughts and feelings into the drawing and subsequent inquiry.

House-Tree-Person (H-T-P) This technique is used to gain insight about an individual’s perception of his or her self, social interactions and home life. On the H-T-P, children are asked to draw a house, a tree, and a person and then to answer questions about their drawings. The premise of this activity is that a child will project his or her own thoughts and feelings into the drawings and subsequent inquiry.

FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR INSTRUMENTS

Measure abilities/performance on tasks related to everyday living both at home and school

Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA) – This type of assessment is utilized to determine the function of a behavior. Such a procedure examines the situational factors, history of the behavior, events precipitating the behavior and consequences of the behavior in an effort to determine the function of the behavior. Once the behavior is analyzed and understood, this information and the FBA are used to devise a Behavioral Intervention Plan (BIP). The FBA/BIP are used to help staff, parents and student understand the behavior and create a plan that will be put in place to decrease/eliminate the target behavior that is interfering with the student’s ability to be successful in school.

Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, Second Edition (ABAS-II) – assesses an individual’s ability to function independently in his/her environment across a number of personal, social, school related and work related domains. This instrument has three versions: teacher rating form, parent rating form and self-report.

Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale - “The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales assess personal and social sufficiency of individuals from birth to adulthood.” It is administered to “a respondent who is familiar with the individual’s behavior.” “There are three versions of the Vineland: The Interview Edition, Survey Form, the Interview Edition Expanded Form, and the Classroom Edition. Each version measures adaptive behavior in four domains: Communication, Daily Living Skills, Socialization, and Motor Skills. In addition, the Survey and Expanded Forms include a Maladaptive Behavior domain, which is optional.”

OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY INSTRUMENTS AND ASSESSMENTS

The following tests may be used for an occupational therapy screening or evaluation. It should be noted that during the course of an occupational therapy screening, it may be determined that further testing is needed in an identified area, and the appropriate evaluation tool will then be used. This is also true of the evaluation process, and poor student performance in one testing area may necessitate the need to conduct further testing with the use of another evaluation tool.

Motor Abilities

Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency – Assess both gross and fine motor abilities in children ages 4.5 to 14.5 years of age. It is comprised of 4 subtests in the gross motor domain, 3 subtests in the fine motor domain, and 1 individual upper-limb coordination subtest. The whole

assessment, or only select subtests may be administered based on the student’s area of difficulty.

Portions of this assessment may also be used for screening purposes.

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales – Second Edition – Assess both gross and fine motor abilities in children from birth to 5 years of age. It is comprised of 6 subtests, 4 in the gross motor domain, and 2 in the fine motor domain. All, or select subtests may be administered based on the student’s area of difficulty or age level.

Detroit Motor Speed and Precision Test - This is a screen of a student’s ability to maintain accuracy of pencil control in a timed for speed format where an X needs to be drawn within bounds of circles. It often gives an impression of a student’s work habits, consistency when sequencing pencil strokes, and endurance.

School-Aged Performance Appraisal – This screening assess student’s abilities in 9 functional skill areas to include construction, manipulatives, scissor skills, grapho-motor, design copy, sensory, body scheme, ocular motor, and self-help skills. It is used to determine if a student’s abilities in the areas are at or below his or her age level. The whole screen, or only portions of the screen will be used based upon referral or level of concern. The SPA is useful in helping to determine the next course of action and if further evaluation is needed. It is used with elementary school aged students.

Evaluation Tool of Children’s Handwriting (ETCH)- Writing samples are obtained in (manuscript, cursive, both manuscript and cursive). Total legibility scores are reported.

Fine Motor Evaluation – This evaluation may include assessment of the child’s upper extremity stability and generalized upped extremity strength, shoulder control, forearm mobility, wrist positioning and movement, finger isolation, control of arm and fine finer movements, prehension patterns, scissor control, speed of movement while writing and while performing non-writing tasks, bilateral hand use, dominance/laterality, and hand grip strength. These skills are needed for functional and successful participation in educational tasks, inclusive of writing, drawing, cutting, object manipulation, and self-care skills.

Handwriting Evaluation – This evaluation assesses a child’s manuscript and/or cursive hand-writing skills. Areas assessed may include legibility, pencil management, motor memory, copying abilities, and handwriting speed.

PHYSICAL THERAPY SCREENINGS AND EVALUATIONS

The following tests may be used during a physical therapy screening or evaluation. More than one test may be utilized to check multiple gross motor skill areas.

Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (B & O)– Assesses both gross and fine motor abilities in children ages 4.5 to 14.5 years of age. The gross motor subtests that are commonly assessed include Running Speed & Agility, Balance, Bilateral Coordination, Strength, and Upper-Limb Coordination.

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales – 2nd Edition (PDMS-2) - Assesses both gross and fine motor abilities in children from birth through 5 years of age. The gross motor subtests that are commonly assessed include Stationary, Locomotion, and Object Manipulation.

Test of Gross Motor Development – 2nd Edition (TGMD-2) – Assesses gross motor skills in

children ages 3 to 11. The two subtests are Locomotor and Object Control.

Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development II – Assesses gross and fine motor skills in children birth to 7 years of age. May obtain assessment through clinician observation, as well as parent and/or teacher interview. This test estimates the child’s developmental age based on their abilities performed in specific areas.

Battelle Developmental Inventory – Assesses gross and fine motor skills in children birth to 8 years of age. The gross motor sub domains that are commonly assessed include Muscle Control, Body Coordination, and Locomotion. Assessment may be obtained from clinician’s observation, as well as from parent/guardian interview.

School Functional Assessment (SFA) – This assessment is a judgment-based questionnaire that is completed by school professionals familiar with the student. It is used for students in kindergarten through 6th grade. The areas that are assessed include Participation, Task Supports, and Activity Performance. Parents, guardians, teachers, and support staff may assist the clinician in filling out the questionnaire by describing specific skills that they have observed.

Developmental Gross Motor Profile – Assesses gross motor skills in children 10 months to 12 years of age. The sub-categories include Physical Condition, Locomotion, Balance, Coordination, Visual Motor Arms, and Visual Motor Legs. The results provide an estimated developmental age based on the child’s performance and abilities.

Functional Assessment - This assesses the student’s functional abilities/performance within the educational environment. It specifically examines their success in areas of mobility in the

classroom and school environment (including the cafeteria, playground, gym, & bathroom). It

also assesses the fine and gross motor skills required for daily living skills, which often impact the educational performance of the student.

Classroom/Phys. Ed. Observation – General observations that may be beneficial in examining how the student’s physical, social, or cognitive impairments, developmental delays, and/or functional mobility impacts their participation & performance in the school setting.

Clinical Observations and Developmental Checklists – This may include assessment in any of the following areas: Neurological, Postural Control, Gait (walking), Bilateral Motor Integration, Reflex Integration, Dominance/Preference (of limb), Muscle Tone, Motor Planning (execution of new movements), Balance/Equilibrium, Quality of Movement, Visual Motor Skills, and Locomotor Skills.

Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM) is a standardized observational instrument designed and validated to measure change in gross motor function over time with children with cerebral palsy. Items on the GMFM span the spectrum from activities in lying and rolling to walking, running, and jumping skills.

Goniometry (ROM) – This is a specific assessment of range of motion. Results are compared with norms.

Manual Muscle Testing (MMT) – This is a test that may rate the muscle strength of specific muscle or muscle groups throughout the body. Results are compared to norms.

ADDITIONAL INSTRUMENTS:

Battelle Developmental Inventory-2nd Edition- is a standardized assessment of developmental skills in children from birth through seven years. Within the Motor Domain subtests of Gross Motor, Fine Motor and Perceptual Motor combine for a Total Motor score. Gross Motor items assess the development of large muscle systems used in locomotion skills such as walking, running, jumping and coordinated movements such as throwing. Fine Motor items assess the development of muscle control and coordination, particularly the small muscles in the arms and hands that allow performance of increasingly complex tasks such as picking up objects and releasing them, tracing designs with corners or curved edges and cutting paper on a straight line. Perceptual Motor items asses the student’s ability to integrate fine motor and perceptual skills for tasks such as building block structures, copying, drawing, printing and writing.

Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development- is an assessment that can be used as a standardized or criterion-referenced measure for children to seven years of age. This sequence of skills assessment covers most developmental areas. The areas used for this evaluation include pre-ambulatory motor, gross motor, fine motor, self-help, readiness and manuscript writing skills.

Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency- Second Edition (BOT-2) is an individually administered test that measures a wide array of fine and gross motor skills in students age 4 through 21 years. The total motor composite includes four sub-composites of Fine Manual Control, Manual Coordination, Body Coordination and Strength & Agility. Gender-specific norms are available as well as norms combined from female and male scores.

Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory (PEDI) is a comprehensive assessment that samples key functional capabilities and performance in students from the ages of 6 months to 7.5 years. The three content domains are self-care, mobility and social function. Functional Skills Scales are a direct measure of the student’s functional capability. Performance of daily functional activities is measured by the level of caregiver assistance needed to accomplish major functional activities. The Caregiver Assistance Scale is a measure of the extent of help the caregiver typically provides.

Sensorimotor Performance Analysis (SPA) is a criterion reference assessment designed to evaluate the student’s underlying sensorimotor components of their performance in several gross and fine motor tasks. The SPA obtains sensorimotor information on seven tasks of which some are unfamiliar and others common tasks. These include Rolling, Belly Crawling, Bat the Ball From 3-Point, Kneeling Balance, Pellets in Bottle, Paper and Pencil Task, and Scissor Task.

Asperger Syndrome Diagnostic Scale (ASDS) The ASDS is a diagnostic instrument that can identify individuals with Asperger Syndrome. The ASDS is appropriate for children ages 5 through 18. It is administered to parents and teachers who evaluate the occurrence of behavioral symptoms associated with Asperger Syndrome.

Gilliam Autism Rating Scale (GARS) The GARS is used for the assessment of individuals aged 3 through 22 who have severe behavioral problems in order to help professionals diagnose autism. It is administered to parents and teachers who evaluate the occurrence and frequency of behavioral symptoms associated with Autism.

SPEECH LANGUAGE TESTS

Caroline Picture Vocabulary Test for Deaf/Hard of Hearing- Measures listening comprehension of vocabulary, for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students (ages 4-11).

Cottage Acquisition Scales for Listening, Language, and Speech (CASLLS)- Designed as a tool to assess the development of language for deaf children. Five parts focused on development of language-related cognitive goals, social interaction and discourse, semantics and syntax, and on sound awareness (phonetic/phonemic discrimination and articulation). Ages 2-6 years.

Comprehensive Receptive and Expressive Diagnostic Test (CREVT)- Measures both receptive and expressive language using common standardization for both areas. Ages 4-18 years.

Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised – Assesses student’s expressive vocabulary, or his/her ability to utilize words to convey meaning..

Receptive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised – Assesses student’s ability to recognize the meaning of a word.

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III A – Assesses student’s ability to recognize the meaning of a word.

Structured Photographic Expressive Language Test-II – Assesses expressive grammar.

Comprehensive Receptive/Expressive Vocabulary Test –2 – Assesses both the ability to understand the meaning of a word and the ability to use words to convey meaning.

CELF- Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals – Assesses receptive and expressive language in the areas of grammar, comprehension of language, and auditory processing.

OWLS – Oral Written Language Scales – Assesses listening comprehension, oral expression and written expression.

Rhode Island Test of Language Structure- Provides a broad picture of a child’s understanding of language structure (age 5-16).

TOWL-3 – Test of Written Language – 3 – Assesses written language.

Test of Word Finding-2 – Assesses student’s ability to recall words.

Test of Problem Solving – Measurement of child’s language processing ability

Test of Semantic Skills – Primary – Assesses skills in categorizing, describing and defining.

Test of Pragmatic Language – Assesses student’s use of social language.

Non-Speech Test – Determines approximate receptive and expressive language age of student.

AUDITORY PROCESSING

TAPS-R – Test of Auditory Perceptual Skills – Revised – Assesses student’s ability to discriminate words, recall words, sentences and directions, as well as thinking and reasoning skills.

SCAN - Screening Test for Central Auditory Disorders – Assesses the ability to discriminate words in quiet and noisy backgrounds as well as determine their level of auditory maturity.

TACL-3 – Test of Auditory Comprehension of Language – Assesses student’s auditory

comprehension at varying levels of difficulty.

Token Test – Assesses student’s ability to follow directions at increasing levels of difficulty.

ARTICULATION

Arizona Articulation Proficiency – Assesses speech sound errors.

Goldman-Fristoe 2 – Assesses speech sound error.

TOSF – Test of Oral Structures and Functions - Assesses student’s oral structures and ability to produce sounds.

SMIT – Hand Articulation and Phonology Evaluation - Assesses speech sound errors.

PHONEMIC AWARENESS

COPP - Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing – Assesses awareness or the

understanding that our language is made up of individual sounds that blend together to make

syllables and words..

LAC – Lindamood Test of Auditory Conceptualization – Assesses student’s ability to discriminate one speech sound from another as well as sequence sounds in patterns.

FLUENCY

Stuttering Severity Index – Assesses a student’s level of fluency.

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VISUAL MOTOR SKILL TEST:

Measure ability to integrate visual and motor functioning

The Beery-Buktenica Test of Visual-Motor Integration – a standardized instrument used to identify significant difficulties some children have in integrating, or coordinating, their visual perceptual and motor (finger and hand movement) abilities.

Developmental Test of Visual Perception - Second Edition (DTVP-2) is a battery of eight subtests that measure different but interrelated visual perceptual and visual-motor abilities. The battery, which is designed for use with children ages 4 through 10 years old, is a reliable, valid and nationally standardized individual perception test. The eight subtests scores are assigned to the General Visual Perception composite and to either the Motor-Reduced Visual Perception or Visual Motor Integration composite. Students who perform well in the composite show mastery of eye-hand coordination skills and visual perception abilities. Visual perception skills are integrated with manual skills.

abilities and a child’s ability to coordinate visual perceptual and motor (finger and

hand movement) abilities. In addition to an overall standard score, a student can also be scored on their abilities to complete forms in relation to closure, angles, intersecting and or overlapping lines, size, rotation or reversal, line length, over/under penetration of forms, and modification of

form. It can be used to assess children age 3 to 13 years 11 months.

Visual Perception

Motor-Free Visual Perception Test – Third Addition (MVPT-3) – This evaluation assesses visual perceptual abilities without the need for a motor or graphic response. It can be used for screening as well as diagnostic purposes. It can be used with children ages 4 through adult.

Test of Visual Perceptual Skills Revised – (TVPS-R) – This evaluation assess visual perceptual abilities without the need for a motor or graphic response. It is comprised of 7 subtest areas to include visual discrimination, visual memory, visual spatial relationships, visual form constancy, visual sequential memory, visual figure-ground, and visual closure. All or only a portion of subtests may be administered for screening or diagnostic purposes.

Jordan Left-Right Reversal Test (1990 edition) – This test assesses visual reversals of letters, numbers, and words in students from ages 5 – 12.

Vision

Visual Skills Appraisal – (VSA) – This screening test is used to identify visual inefficiencies that affect school performance. It is comprised of six subtests that assess pursuits, scanning, aligning, and locating movements, eye-hand coordination, and fixation unity. It is normed for students in kindergarten through fourth grade and is a valuable instrument in determining if a student should be referred to a vision specialist for further testing.

Teaching Age Appropriate Purposeful Skills-(TAPS)- This comprehensive assessment tool is designed to be used by university-trained O&M instructors to identify a student’s current functioning level in all areas of O&M in order to determine student needs for programming (ages 3-21).

BRAILLE FUNdamentals- This is an assessment tool that is grouped into three sections including: Pre Braille (a sample list of essential concepts for students with visual impairments for Braille reading and writing), Braille Checklist (a checklist to determine students’ present level of functioning), and Additional/Alternative Braille Assessment (a different arrangement of same as described in Braille Checklist).

FVE- Inclusive of assessing the following: near and distance visual acuity, pupillary response, tracking, eye alignment, accommodation and convergence, visual fields, color vision, refractive error (per ophthalmologist or optometrist report), contrast sensitivity, light sensitivity

Learning Media Assessment- Objective process of systematically selecting learning and literacy media as well as literacy tools for students with visual impairments. Starts with assessment of use of tactual, auditory, and visual sensory channels. Inclusive of print assessment (timed readings).

Learning Media are defined as the broad range of general instructional materials and teaching methods used to teach students with visual impairments for academic programs.

Literacy Media are defined as materials and tools used to complete reading and writing tasks in print and Braille for students with visual impairments.

Literacy Tools are defined as specific methods for gaining access to literacy media and accomplishing literacy tasks, such as print, Braille, low vision devices, live readers, Braille note takers, word processing, and recorded media.

Visual Efficiency Scale (for Low Vision Kits)- Designed to assess functioning of visual behaviors and responses to items of increasing complexity in size, detail, and interpretation.

Sensory

Sensory Profile Winnie Dunn - This parent answered questionnaire is used to measure a child’s sensory processing, modulation, and behavioral/emotional response abilities and their impact on daily functional performance. The Profile is most appropriate for children ages 5-10 years of age.

Sensory-Motor History Questionnaire for Teachers – This teacher answered questionnaire is used to determine a child’s sensory processing behaviors within the school environment.

ENGLISH FOR SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES

Language Assessment Battery, Revised- (LAB R)- This assessment battery is utilized on a one time basis to determine a child's eligibility for ESOL services.

New York State English Speaking Language Achievement Test (NYSESLAT)- This test (comprised of Reading, Listening, Speaking, and Writing sections) is administered to ESOL students each May to determine the level of ESOL services appropriate for the upcoming year.

Clinical and Classroom Observations

Ayers Clinical Observation – This is a non-diagnostic subjective evaluation of neurological integration. It consists of 18 specific integration tasks including reflex integration, postural stability, motor planning, muscle tone, and tonic strength.

Classroom Observation – This would include general observations of classroom work behavior and the environment. Areas assessed may include chair/desk height, organization of work materials, attention to task, grasp patterns, handwriting legibility, and writing characteristics.

Parent/Teacher Developmental Checklists – A variety of checklists may be utilized to gain a better perspective on a child’s educational performance. Checklists may be used to assess skills in the following areas: fine motor skills, gross motor skills, visual perceptual skills, visual-motor skills, self-care skills, sensory processing skills, vision, and learning behavior.

Goniometry (ROM) – This is a specific assessment of range of motion. Results are compared with

norms.

Manual Muscle Testing – This is a test that may rate the muscle strength of specific muscles or muscle groups throughout the body. Results are compared with the norms.

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