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A Short Notes onIndustrial SociologyPrepared byDr. Satish Kr. TripathiUnit-IIndustrial SociologyBefore starting discussion on “Industrial Sociology”, it would be better if we understand the meaning of the two terms: Industry and Sociology.IndustryIndustry may be defined as “the application of complex and sophisticated methods to the production of economic goods and services”. The complex and sophisticated methods refer to the use of machines which improve the quality and quantity of production. The term “industry” does not simply refer to activities related to manufacturing, trade or business. In Industrial Sociology, it has a broader meaning and includes all sorts of operating or working organizations such as business, educational, governmental and religious.SociologySociology is a way of studying people. Sociology can be defined as the scientific study of social relation, institutions and society. In brief, sociology is the scientific study of the social aspects of human life. Sociology is concerned with man in society and with the human group. Hence, sociology is the study of human society and human behaviour as well as a study of social relationships and its forms.Nature and Scope of Industrial SociologySociology is a scientific discipline. It is a science in the sense that it involves objective and systematic methods of investigation and evaluation of social reality in the light of empirical evidence and interpretation. But, it cannot be directly modelled on the patterns of natural sciences because human behaviour is different from the world of nature, among other differences, the subject matter of natural sciences is relatively static and unchanging whereas human behaviour as the subject matter of sociology is flexible and dynamic.Sociology is systematic and objective study of human society. Sociologists study individual’s actions. The bases of sociological enquiry are:Social relationships such as between husband and wife, teacher and student, buyer and seller etc.Social processes namely cooperation, competition,Organizations, communities and nations,Social structures, i.e., family, class and state.Relevance of SociologySociology is a subject with important practical relevance in our life. It can contribute to social criticism and practical social reform in several ways. There are:The improved understanding of a given set of social circumstances often gives us a better chance of controlling them.Sociology provides the means of increasing our cultural sensitivities, allowing policies to be based on an awareness of divergent cultural values.We can investigate the consequences of the adoption of particular policy programmes.Sociology provides self-enlightenment, offering groups and individuals an increased opportunity to alter the conditions of their own lives.Definition: Industrial sociology is the application of the sociological approach to the reality and problems of industry.Psychology, Sociology and EconomicsWhy people behave as they do, is subject of study, full of mystery. Here study of Psychology plays great role paving the way for Sociology and Economics. Industrial Sociology & Related DisciplinesPsychology & Industrial PsychologyAnthropologyEconomicsPersonnel Management/Industrial or Social WelfareMethods used in Industrial SociologyObservationSurveyInterviewIndustrial Sociology in IndiaLike most modern nations, India has also choosen Industrial development as a necessary means to solve its economic and social problems. India experiences industrial revolution nearly a century after the west. The scope and value of industrial sociology in India is in the following areas: Knowledge of labour classLabour welfareProblems of urbanizationSolution of the problems of industrialization & automationDivision of labourHelp in family re-organizationEconomic progressSocial welfareAid to industrial policy & managementBetterment of employer-employee relationshipDevelopment of Industrial SociologyIndustrial RevolutionIndustrial revolution is a word used to describe a number of changes which took place in England between 1760 and 1850. It bought about far reaching changes in the economic life of people. The use of machines involved a change in the methods of industrial organization. It also brought a change from the domestic system to the factory system of production involving large scale and complex division of labour. The discovery of steam, as an important source of power, helped to increase the production many times. The impact of industrial revolution was:Factory systemLarge scale productionChange of form of ownershipSpecializationScientific ManagementScientific Management was the first big management idea to reach the mass audience. It swept through the corporate sector of America in the early years of 20th century. Scientific Management (also called Taylorism) is a theory of management that analyzes work flow for improving worker’s productivity. The idea was first originated by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). Scientific management required managers to walk around with stop watches & note pads carrying out time-and-motion studies on workers in different departments. Taylor’s first publication which came out in 1895 was called “a piece-rate system.” His book Principles of Scientific Management was published in America in 1911. According to F.W. Taylor, “Scientific Management is the substitution of exact scientific investigations & knowledge for the old individual judgement or opinion in all matters relating to the work done in the shop.”Principles of Scientific ManagementScientific management is based on the following five principles:Develop a science for each element of an individual’s work.Select & train workers for specific tasks.Maximum output in the place of restricted output.Divide work & responsibility equally between managers & workers.Give individuals clear instructions on what they have to do, then supervise them while they do it.General Approach of Scientific ManagementTaylor’s concept of Scientific management was based on a clear cut separation of authority between:The production employees, who carries out their boss’s order, andThe engineers & supervisors, who decide how to organize the work.Benefit of Scientific ManagementAccording to the workers point of view-Better utilization of various resources (good tools & favourable working condition).Detailed instruction & constant guidance to the workers.Satisfaction of the need of the costumers by providing higher quality products at lower prices.Incentives wages to the workers for higher production.Opportunity for training & development to increase skills.According to the employers point of view-Establishment of harmonious relationship (workers-management).Replacement of traditional rule of thumb method by scientific techniques for each element of a man at work.Achievement of equal division of responsibilities (workers-management).Proper selection & training of the workers leading to better workforce.Criticism of Scientific ManagementIntroduction of scientific management is quite expensive. It was argued that the principles of scientific management were confined mostly to production management. It creates the problem of monotony among the workers, who start looking for better jobs in other organizations.Mental RevolutionThe basic idea behind the principles of scientific management is to change the mental attitudes of the workers and the management towards each other. Taylor called it ‘Mental Revolution’. The mental revolution has three aspects: All out efforts for increase in production,Creation of the spirit of mutual trust and confidence,Inculcating and developing the scientific attitude towards problems.Summarizing, we can say that Taylor laid emphasis on:Science and not rule of thumb.Harmony in group action, rather than discord.Maximum output in place of restricted output.Scientific selection, training and placement of the workers.Development of all workers to the fullest extent possible for their own and organisation’s highest prosperity.Hawthorne StudiesThe term was coined in 1955 by Henry. A. Landsberger when analysing older experiments from 1924-1932 at the Hawthorne works. Hawthorne works had commissioned a study to see if the workers would be more productivity in higher or lower levels of light. The workers’ productivity seemed to improve, other changes such as maintaining clear work stations, clearing floors of obstacles, & even relocating workstation resulted in increased productivity for short period of time. These effects are called Hawthorne effects.Experiments Hawthorne Studies were intended to be a study in scientific management in the tradition of F.W. Taylor & there were 5 major projects carried out:Illumination Experiment (1924-27)Relay Assembly test room Experiment (1927-28)Mass Interviewing Programmes (1928-30)Bank wiring Observation room Experiment (1931-32)Personnel counselling (1936 & afterwards as permanent service)Illumination Experiment (1924-27)Illumination experiments were undertaken to find out how various level of illumination (amount of light at the workplace, a physical factor) affected the production. It was concluded that illumination does not have any effect on productivity but something else was interfering with the productivity.Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment (1927-28)Relay Assembly test room experiment was designed to determine the effect of changes in hours & other working condition on productivity. The researchers set up relay assembly test room & two girls were chosen. These girls were asked to choose more girls as co-workers. The work was related to the assembly of telephone, relay. In some cases they were allowed to express their view point’s & concerns to the supervisors and to take decisions on matters concerning them. Following were the changes & the resulting outcomes:The incentive system was changed so that each girl extra pay was based on the other five rather than the output of larger group, say to worker on the productivity increased as compared to before.Two five minutes rests one in the morning session & other in evening session were introduced which were increased to ten minutes the productivity increased.Mass Interviewing Programmes (1928-30)During the course of experiments about 20,000 interviews were conducted between 1928-1930 to determine employees’ attitudes towards company supervision, insurance plans, promotion & wages. It gave valuable insights about the human behaviour in the company. Major findings are:A complaint is not necessarily, an objective recital of facts; it is a symptom of personal disturbances the cause of which may be deep seated.Objects, persons & events are carriers of social meaning. They become related to employees’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction.Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiment (1931-32)The purpose of this study was to find out how payment incentives would affect group productivity. The surprising result was that productivity actually decreased. These experiments were carried on (Nov. 1931- May 1932) with a view to analyse the functioning of small groups & its impact on individual behaviour. 14 male workers were involved attaching wire to switches for certain equipment used in telephone exchange. Hourly wage rate on average output of each worker while bonus was to be determined on the base of average output. Certain conclusions as follows:Work is a group activity.The social environment on the job affects the workers & is also affected by them.The need for recognition, security & sense of belonging is more important in determining workers’ morale & productivity than the physical conditions under which he works.Money is one of the motivators, but not the sole motivator of human behaviour. Man is diversely motivated & socio-physiological factors act as important motivators.The informal organization does also exist within the framework of formal organization & it effects the formal organization.The social world of adult is primarily patterned about work activity.Man’s approach is not always rational. He may behave irrationally as far or rewards from the job are concerned.Group collaboration does not occur by accident; it must be planned & developed.Personnel Counselling Experiment (1936 & afterwards)The study started (1936 and afterwards as permanent service of the Western Electric Company) with the announcement that ‘personnel men’ would be around to talk to employees. The program was generally accepted and led to improvement in three fields- personal adjustments, supervisor-employee relations & employee-management relations.Human Behaviour in IndustryStimulus -----------------------------------------------→ Response/BehaviourStimulus -----------------[ Personality] ~~~~~~~~→ Response/Behaviour↑↑AttitudesSentimentsHuman Relations SchoolMany of the central ideas the Human relation school grew out of an investigation at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago. Professor Elton Mayo (1927-1932) conducted a series of experiments to investigate the relationship between working conditions & productivity. He believes that the physical conditions of the work environment, the aptitude of the worker & financial incentives were the main determinants of productivity. He therefore examined the relationship between productivity & variables such as levels of lighting & heating, the length & frequency of rest periods and the value of monetary incentives. Western Electric Company was a manufacturer of equipment for the bell telephone system & at the time of experiments, there was an acute problem of employees’ dissatisfaction. It was also quite evident that the employees were not producing up to their fullest capability. This happened in spite of the fact that it was one of the most progressive companies with pension schemes, sickness benefit schemes, and numerous other facilities offered to its employees.From the Hawthorne Studies, and research which they largely stimulated developed the Human Relations School. It stated that scientific management provided a narrow view of man & that financial incentives alone were insufficient to motivate workers & ensure their rmal Group Process The Hawthorne studies led to more on the importance of informal group process in an organization. One way of accomplishing this objective is to invite groups of workers to participate in decision making. This is based on the idea that workers will be more committed to their tasks if they have a voice in determining how those tasks are to be performed.Criticism of Human Relation TheoryWorkers legitimate economic interests were being neglected and emphasized, conflict was denied & “managed” and the new manager role were just another form of elitism. People like Landsberger & Braverman noted that the human relations school was actually another methodology to increase worker productivity, not to actually improve workers relations.Factors Affecting Human RelationsIndividual Work-groupWork-environmentLeaderRise of Industrial SociologySociology emerged in the 19th century as a response to the massive social changes associated with the rise of Industrial society in England, Germany and France. It focussed on understanding the causes and consequences of modern industrial life. Sociologist tried to understand and explain what held social groups together. They also tried to develop responses to social disintegration and exploitation. This motivated the sociologists to think in a disciplined way about the structure and process of society. The most important theoretical sociology in the 20th century moved in three directions:Conflict theory: it is based on the works of Karl Marx and emphasizes the role of conflict in explaining social change. Prominent conflict theorists include Ralf Dahrendorf and Lewis Coser.Structure-functional theory: it was developed by Talcott Parsons and advanced by Robert Merton. It assumes that large social systems are characterized by homeostasis or ‘steady states’. Now-a-days it is regarded as a conservative theory.Symbolic interaction theory: it was started by George Herbert Mead and further developed by Herbert Blumer. It focuses on subjective perceptions and other symbolic processes of communication.When the scope of any science increases, it gets split up into various branches or sub-disciplines. In the 1950s/60s, applied fields dealing with social behaviour emerged out of sociology such as criminology, rural sociology, urban sociology, family sociology, social sociology, social psychology, industrial sociology etc. Industrial Sociology became a speciality in schools of business and management as well as some psychology department. ................
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