J OURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY OF EDUCATION

[Pages:241]JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY OF EDUCATION

VOLUME 56, 2006 David Snelgrove, Editor

Editorial Advisory Board:

Bartley McSwine, Chicago State University Virginia Worley, Oklahoma State University Timothy J. Bergen, University of South Carolina Dalton B. Curtis, Southeast Missouri State University Charles Fazarro, University of Missouri, St. Louis Susan Laird, University of Oklahoma Taiebeh Hosseinali, University of Illinois Spencer J. Maxcy, Louisiana State University Douglas J. Simpson, Texas Tech University

Sam Stack, West Virginia University Martha Tevis, University of Texas-Pan American Jennifer J. Endicot, University of Central Oklahoma Gene Thibadeau, Indiana University of Pennsylvania James Van Patten, University of Arkansas Wayne Willis, Morehead State University Cornell Thomas, Oklahoma State University George Stone, University of the Ozarks

The Journal of Philosophy and History of Education is an annual publication of the Society of Philosophy & History of Education (formerly the Southwestern Philosophy of Education Society). Papers are selected from those delivered at the annual meeting of the Society of Philosophy and History of Education in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, September 2005. The opinions expressed in the respective works are those of the individual authors, and may not necessarily be the position of the Society, the editor, or the publishers.

Membership in the Society is open to anyone interested in the profession of education. Only members may present papers at the annual meeting. Dues vary in accordance with the vote of the membership and may be mailed to the Secretary-Treasurer. Other information may be obtained from the SOPHE Web page at: . Copies of the journal are available from the Editor of the Journal. The officers of the Society for 2004 are

President

Taiebeh Hosseinali University of Illinois at Springfield

President Elect Mike Boone

Texas State University, San Marcos

Past President

George Stone

University of the Ozarks

Secretary-Treasurer Doug Davis

Georgia State University

Journal Editor David Snelgrove

University of Central Oklahoma

The copyright of the Journal of Philosophy and History of Education in the name of the Society of Philosophy & History of Education protects the rights of the individual authors who have contributed their thoughts to this volume. For purposes of reproduction, written permission of the individual authors must be secured. A scholarly entry, moreover, must be used noting the Journal of Philosophy and History of Education as the source of first publication.

Copyright ? 2006 by the Society of Philosophy & History of Education Printed in the United States of America

JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY OF EDUCATION: VOLUME 56, 2006

David Snelgrove, Editor

Table of Contents

1. IMMERSING PRE-SERVICE PRINCIPALS IN CONSTRUCTIVIST-BASED LEARNING Shelly Albritton, Anita Johnston, Jack Klotz, The University of Central Arkansas

4. CREATING COMMUNITY: BARRIERS, BRIDGES, AND BENEFITS M ary Williams Aylor, Central M ichigan University

10. AN INTERESTING RELATIONSHIP: KNOWLEDGE AND THE POLITICAL M ary Woodard Bevel, Webster University

14. THE DARK SIDE OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP Mike Boone, Texas State University

23. FINDING AN AGNOSTIC SOCRATES: A PLAUSIBLE INTERPRETATION OF THE DELPHIC ORACLE Claudiu Cimpean, Baylor University

31. DERRIDA, PLATO, AND THE URBAN EDUCATION PROBLEM Douglas R. Davis, Georgia State University

37. THE OUGHT, THE IS, AND MODERN THOUGHT: PRINCIPLES AND PARADOX IN AMERICAN PUBLIC EDUCATION Charles J. Fazzaro, University of Missouri?St. Louis

42. JOURNEY INTO CREATIVITY: AN ENSEMBLE APPROACH TO EXPLORING CREATIVITY Clydia Forehand, Oklahoma University

49. AN INITIAL CONVERSATION ON REFLECTIVE RESEARCH AND AN EXPLORATION OF A SELECTED STUDY Malinda Hendricks Green, Jennifer J. Reynolds Endicott, and Susan C. Scott University of Central Oklahoma

54. MINORITY FEMALE URBAN SUPERINTENDENTS: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Lorrett Hibbert-Smith, Georgia State University

63. CHINA TODAY Taiebeh Hosseinali, University of Illinois at Springfield

65. EXISTENTIAL EDUCATION TODAY: UTILIZING THE ABSURD IN POPULAR CULTURE Neil O. Houser, University of Oklahoma

70. LIVING PRODUCTIVELY, REPRODUCTIVELY AND BILATERALLY AS EDUCATIONAL AIMS Karen M. Hudson, University of Oklahoma

73. INTERPRETING JIDDU KRISHNAMURTI: EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS Don Hufford, Newman University

82. MODELS AND METAPHORS Stanley D. Ivie, Texas Woman's University

93. ROUSSEAU, THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM, AND CIVIC CONSTRUCTED EDUCATION Samuel Katz, Ohio Wesleyan University

101. INTELLECTUAL INDEPENDENCE AS AN ELUSIVE EDUCATIONAL AIM Harrel L. Kennedy, University of Oklahoma

106. IMPROVISATION AND THE CREATION OF A MORAL COMMUNITY IN THE CLASSROOM: A DIALOGUE P. Diane Knapp, Tulsa Community College/Southeast

109. FROM SOCIAL STUDIES ON THE BACK BURNER TO MAKING SOCIAL STUDIES POWERFUL Michele Ballentine-Linch, Andrew L. Hunt, University of Arkansas at Little Rock

112. DEATH AND LOSS: A GENEALOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OR HOW DID WE GET TO THE PLACE WHERE WE NEED HELP COPING WITH DEATH AND LOSS? Marsha Little Matthews, University of Oklahoma

116. GOOD CHRISTIAN BOYS: SCOUTING FOR MASCULINITY Charles Joseph Meinhart, University of Oklahoma

121. FACES OF PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION: THE MISSES WHITE'S SCHOOLS, 1886-1928 Linda C. Morice, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville

130. EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS FOR TEACHERS: WHY WE LOST AND WHAT TO DO ABOUT IT J. Wesley Null, Baylor University

134. DALE'S CONE OF EXPERIENCE, PRENSKY'S GAMEPLAY AND THE "DIGITAL NATIVES" Ralph Olliges, Webster University

138. BECOMING HURSTON: JOURNEY AND QUEST IN THEIR EYES WERE WATCHING GOD Stacy Otto, Illinois State University

143. THE INTERSECTION BETWEEN POWER AND LEGITIMATE AUTHORITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CATALYST Sandra E. Riegle and Lee S. Duemer, Texas Tech University

150. RUNNING TOWARD HOPE: THE EVOLUTION OF A TEACHER Tracey A. Rose, University Oklahoma

159. COMING OF AGE IN OKLAHOMA: CLEAR, CONTRARY AND BORDERLINE CASES OF GIRLS LEARNING TO LIVE WISELY AND WELL Deborah S. Shinn, University of Oklahoma

166. EDUCATION FOR FALSE DEMOCRACY David Snelgrove, University of Central Oklahoma

173. AN INTELLECTUAL JOURNEY FOR COMMUNITY Sam Stack, University of West Virginia

180. WOMEN PRINCIPALS AND EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS Lu Anna Stephens, Angelo State University

184. THE IMPORTANCE OF CAUSATION THEORY IN EDUCATION: HUME, SCIENTIFIC REALISM AND DEWEY George C. Stone, University of the Ozarks

192. TEACHER EDUCATION AND CULTURAL LITERACY George C. Stone, Ph.D., University of the Ozarks

198. OKLAHOMA'S MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT: `EMBODIED READINGS' IN CONVERSATION Robin Mitchell Stroud, Charles Joseph Meinhart, Susan Laird, Deborah Shinn, University of Oklahoma Susan Birden, SUNY-Buffalo State

210. A MAN AND A MISSION: JULIUS ROSENWALD AND SCHOOLS FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN RURAL CHILDREN IN THE SOUTH Martha May Tevis, University of Texas, Pan American

214. STRUGGLING WITH IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND ACT: MOVING ON WITH A NEW CHAPTER HIGH SCHOOLS James J. Van Patten, University of Arkansas

218. PEDAGOGY AND ON-LINE TEACHING: RADICAL OR REACTIONARY, ANALYTICAL OR SUPERFICIAL? (OR, HOW MANY DICHOTOMIES CAN DANCE ON THE HEAD OF A MOUSE?) Wayne Willis, Morehead State University

223. MAKING GOOD LESSONS GREAT: INCORPORATING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND CREATIVE THINKING INTO EVERYDAY LESSON PLANS Betty K. Wood and Andrew L. Hunt, University of Arkansas at Little Rock Sarah C. Wood-Jenkins, Ball State University

232. USING WINNICOTT'S OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY TO ESCAPE FOUCAULT'S DISCIPLINING STRUCTURE: "GROWING" A PHILOSOPHY OF SCHOOL LIBRARIANSHIP Virginia Worley, Oklahoma State University

JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY OF EDUCATION: VOLUME 56, 2006

IMMERSING PRE-SERVICE PRINCIPALS IN CONSTRUCTIVIST-BASED LEARNING

Shelly Albritton, Anita Johnston, Jack Klotz, The University of Central Arkansas

Introduction Standards developed by the Interstate School

Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) in the 1990's challenged the design and delivery of post-baccalaureate programs charged with preparing tomorrow's school leaders. Found in each of the six ISLLC standards are indicator statements describing the knowledge, dispositions, and performance skills necessary for the exemplary leader needed in today's schools. To address the ISLLC standards, pre-service programs are compelled to include the following three dimensions in their delivery design: 1. Awareness, defined as acquiring concepts, information, definitions, and procedures; 2. Understanding, defined as interpreting knowledge to school environments, integrating concepts with practice, and using knowledge and skills in context; 3. Capability, defined as applying knowledge and skills to specific problems of practice. (NPBEA, 2002, p. 9)

The first and foremost underlying assumption that guided the development of the ISLLC standards for today's school leaders states, "The central responsibility of leadership is to improve teaching and learning" (NPBEA, 2002, p. 8).

At the heart of the ISLLC standards is clearly the push for pre-service programs to develop school leaders with awareness, understanding and capabilities to lead school reform efforts that improve student outcomes. Regarding teacher education programs, Brooks and Brooks (1993) assert that

The philosophical underpinnings of the theories and practices to which preservice teachers are exposed have a lasting impact on their perception of the teaching role.... Both preservice and inservice teacher education must promote teaching practices that mediate student construction of their own understandings, therefore, teacher education programs must themselves be constructivist-based ... unless teachers are given ample opportunities to learn in constructivist settings and construct for themselves educational visions through which they can reflect on educational practices, the instructional programs they learn will be trivialized into `cookbook' procedures. (pp. 121-22) This assertion is no less true for pre-service educational leadership programs. Accordingly, it is incumbent upon pre-service principal programs to model what is expected in real-world leadership

applications and practices. "A constructivist approach provides a much greater range of outcomes for all participants in all grades since effective decision making and active participation are called for in every setting" (Shapiro, 2002, p. 15). As emergent leaders exit their pre-service programs, it is reasonable to expect that the approach taken to teaching and learning which is modeled in the preparatory program will be replicated in the field of service by a school leader whose central responsibility is to improve teaching, learning, and ultimately, student outcomes at the K-12 level. The Shifting Focus

Designing an ISLLC standards-based pre-service principal program necessitates a paradigm shift from an instructor-centered design to a learner-centered design with the main focus squarely placed on the learner taking a proactive role in acquiring his or her knowledge and finding solutions to problems through autonomous exploration and discovery. Just as learning is an active process, school leadership is an active endeavor, and as such, utilizing the constructivist-based teaching and learning approach is congruent with the standards-based approach to preparing future school leaders. "In the constructivist approach, we look not for what students can repeat, but for what they can generate, demonstrate, and exhibit" (Brooks & Brooks, 1993, p. 16). Jonassen (1991) outlines the following design principles to a constructivist-based learning environment: 1. Create real-world environments that employ the context in which learning is relevant; 2. Focus on realistic approaches to solving real-world problems; 3. The instructor is a coach and analyzer of the strategies used to solve these problems; 4. Stress conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representations or perspectives on the content; 5. Instructional goals and objectives should be negotiated and not imposed; 6. Evaluation should serve as a self-analysis tool; 7. Provide tools and environments that help learners interpret the multiple perspectives of the world; 8. Learning should be internally controlled and mediated by the learner (pp.11-12). Constructivist Approach in Action: One Program's Effort to Shift the Focus

In the graduate program for educational leadership and administration at the University of Central Arkansas, the leadership students realize their primary

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focus is on developing knowledge, dispositions, and skills relative to the principal as instructional leader of the school. They direct their discussions and activities on leadership for and supervision of the instructional program intended for continuous school improvement. Once the leadership student accepts a position in school administration, the student must have had rich prior experiences that simulate as closely as possible the real world of the principal during their pre-service program. In an effort to immerse pre-service students in the constructivist-based learning, the collaborative approach taken by the instructors and students affords numerous opportunities for the students to engage in strategic, content-driven and contextually-embedded experiences.

One of the most valuable simulation experiences, dualistic in nature, is developed during this period of the instructional program as each student constructs a Teacher Case Study reflecting the inseparable nature of teacher and the culture in which he or she holds membership. Recognizing that the world of the teacher is heavily influenced by many organizational factors, the student first composes a description of the school culture then moves forward to examine the professional performance of a selected teacher. In the university classroom, the students are exposed to a number of theoretical frameworks and models relative to motivation, expectancy, decision-making, supervision, and leadership which will enable them to prepare an analysis of the teacher in context of his or her school setting.

In the first phase of the experience, the leadership student may conduct on-site visits to the school, examine school records, and converse with school faculty and staff, gaining the knowledge and insight necessary to write a thoroughly rich description of the school culture. Typically, the data collected will include the school demographics relative to staff and students, school achievement data, evidence of school vision, mission, and goals, facility or physical plant information, events or periods of historical significance, identification of campus administration and leadership, and any other information that the student might determine as influencers of the school culture.

Moving to the second phase of this learning experience, each leadership student selects a teacher for his or her Teacher Case Study. By way of personal conference with the selected teacher, the leadership student assures anonymity and gains permission to proceed. The student, working collaboratively with his or her selected teacher, will establish an `observation calendar' during which the student will visit the classroom on several occasions, conduct at least one formal observation of instructional delivery, and

schedule formative problem-solving conferences as either deems necessary. These observations and interactive conversations afford the leadership student an opportunity to appraise an individual teacher's performance and contribution to the school's well-being, as well as the opportunity to practice real-world engagement as the instructional leader of the school. Using data collected during the observation period, the leadership student and the selected teacher will collaboratively prepare a plan for professional development appropriate to the teacher's needs and in alignment with the school's mission and goals.

Through reflective analysis of his or her personal leadership behaviors in overlay with these opportunities of engagement, the leadership student constructs a personalized meaning of principal as the instructional leader. Each leadership student prepares a presentation of the Teacher Case Study to share with peers in the university classroom. The entire process has given the leadership student practice in observing, appraising, and analyzing teacher professional engagement as it relates to the overall instructional program. The presentation affords the leadership student an additional opportunity to articulate the process of supervision utilized and an analysis of instructional leadership behaviors relative to teachers and their efforts toward continuous, comprehensive school improvement. Conclusion

According to Dewey (1938), knowledge flows primarily from life experiences learners undertake that are authentic and meaningful. In the constructivist approach, instructors in educational leadership programs serve as facilitators of the learning experiences and coach students to construct meaningful connections essential to their own life experiences and learning. When leadership students are presented with opportunities to problem-solve, to determine how things work, and transfer their discoveries to practical leadership application in schools, learning becomes personal based upon their life experiences which in turn makes the acquisition of knowledge meaningful. One emphasis of the constructivist approach in an educational leadership program is to empower students to be active in their own learning process. Through performance-based opportunities, new life experiences engage the mind to construct knowledge relative to the many contextual intricacies of school leadership.

Learning is a social activity, another key element of a constructivist approach to learning in an educational leadership program. Through interaction in a risk-free environment (Klotz, Marshak, & Roberson, 2001), social interactions with peers, instructors, mentors, and others involved in the educational process enhance the construction and application of knowledge. Recognizing

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JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY OF EDUCATION: VOLUME 56, 2006

that learning happens in the mind (Dewey, 1916), performance-based activities relative to the context of the acquired knowledge contributes a vital link to deeper learning as the student engages in the activities. In other words, "All hands-on activities must also be minds-on" (Hansen, 2005). They are intricately intertwined in the learning process. Coupling the concept of hands-on, minds-on with social interactions further solidifies

authentic learning experiences evidenced through applied leadership practices. Furthermore, when students connect meaning with applied activities and work with peers in the classroom and colleagues in school settings, learning communities are formed where even deeper levels of understanding can be derived from the learning experiences.

REFERENCES

Brooks, J., & Brooks, M. (1993). In search of understanding the case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: MacMillan.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Kappa Delta Pi.

Hansen B. (2005). Strategies for teaching aural recognition. Paper presentation Pacific Northwest Chapter Conference, February 12, 2005. Retrieved August 24, 2005, from hansenb.pdx.edu/pdf/CM S05paper.pdf

Jonassen, D. (1991, September). Evaluating Constructivist Learning. Educational Technology, 36(9), 28-33.

Klotz, J.; Roberson, T., Marshak, J., Maulding, W. (2003). Using the DISC Profile of Behaviors as a tool for team building in educational administration. Paper presentation in Hilton Head, SC, February 26- March 1, 2003.

National Policy Board for Educational Admission. (2002). Instructions to implement

standards for

advanced programs in educational leadership for principals, superintendents, curriculum directors, and

supervisors. Arlington, VA: NPBEA.

Shapiro, A. (2002). Leadership for constructivist schools. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.

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