PUB2605 – Culture & Education – Examination Notes (Study ...



Write an Essay on Intergovernmental relations as form of Interaction between various levels / spheres of Government . – (25marks)

Intergovernmental Relations is the way in which different spheres of government hierarchy relate to one another, it is a creative mechanism to maintain cooperative relationships and coordination between vertical and horizontal sites.

Intergovernmental Relations refer to the mutual relations between all spheres of government and all organs of state in South Africa.

The legislative framework for such relations and the hierarchical order of governmental institutions are specified in the South African 1996 Constitution.

The 1996 Constitution promotes intergovernmental relations by setting out principles of cooperative government and intergovernmental relations that must be followed by all spheres of government and all government bodies of South Africa.

Intergovernmental relations can be subdivided into intergovernmental relations that occur between various governmental bodies at a horizontal and vertical level.

Vertical Intergovernmental Relations is between government institutions in different spheres of government. In South Africa, they are relations between national, provincial and local authorities. The National sphere holds more power than the lower authorities. The lower authorities depend on the higher authorities for resources that they need to achieve goals. This dependence limits the discretion that can be used by lower authorities in deciding which community goals should be achieved. While there is a dependence on higher authorities, this takes the form of interdependence between the authorities (implying that the relations are reciprocal), and it is this interdependence that gives the lower authority a circumscribed power to bargain/negotiate. In vertical intergovernmental relations resources such as policy and finance are relevant.

Horizontal Intergovernmental Relations refer to the relations between governmental authorities in the same sphere of government. In South Africa, this is the relations between the 9 provincial authorities or the various relations that exist at local government between the ±840 local government bodies. There is no horizontal intergovernmental relations at national level within South Africa. In horizontal intergovernmental relations there is no formal concept of power, there is no difference in the negotiating ability and powers of governmental authorities at the same level of government and although there is still interdependence at the horizontal level, it differs in terms of the resources needed. At horizontal level, resources such as information and physical assistance are more applicable. For example local authorities could agree to provide mutual assistance in areas such as traffic services.

How would Education be governed and managed in a Contempory South Africa

Governing and managing education and training in contemporary South Africa

South Africa has a Department of Basic Education, a Department of Higher Education and provincial departments of education. Formal education is not a municipal function here.

5 Features determine the way in which education is administered overall at macro level.

1. The financial exposure of the state in respect of public education in a country like South Africa is massive. Education is currently the most important service in terms of government expenditure. This implies that financial control of the budget is essential. By far the largest portion of the educational budget is spent on the remuneration of teachers. Therefore the salaries of teachers are a important item in government finance.

2. In South Africa, various governments are involved in education: provincial and national. Intergovernmental relations should therefore be managed carefully in terms of the Constitution, where education is listed in Part A of Schedule 4 as one of the functional areas with synchronized provincial and national legislative ability. At the same time, other bodies such as school boards and university councils also exercise some governing powers.

3. There are still inequalities in the quality of educational facilities available to learners, but in some areas a culture of learning and teaching with an accompanying work ethic is not well established after decades of opposition to the system. Redress is therefore a crucial issue in the governance and management of education.

4. Education is a service where the actual work is done by professionals (eg qualified teachers). Labour relations are crucial and the unions are extremely powerful. Teaching at universities, colleges and private schools is done by professionals who are not in the employ of the state.

5. The existence of, inter alia, a private school and college sector means that not all of the education is provided by the state,. Training, which is closely related to education, is also provided largely by the private sector and falls under the Department of Labour. Coordination is therefore clearly a vital task for education managers in South Africa.

How would Science and Technology be governed and managed in a Contempory South Africa

Governing and managing Science and Technology in Contemporary South Africa

The responsible department is the Department of Science and Technology, although other departments such as Trade and Industry also have an interest in this field. Officials responsible for managing the state’s involvement in the science and technology system should keep the following 5 factors in mind:

1. Science and technology are essential to a country’s competitiveness. It has been shown that a highly significant correlation exists between a country’s overall ranking and its science and technology ranking in, inter alia, the 1992 World Competitiveness Report.

2. Research in science and technology development takes place in the public and the private spheres. Hence government interventions in the science and technology system should always take the possible contributions of the private sector into account.

3. The development of technology benefits more people than those who originally invested in the project.

4. Scientific research is undertaken for commercial as well as intellectual reasons–compare. Public officials working in the field of science and technology have to be extremely intelligent because of the mixed nature of the economy involved.

5. Science and technology are highly dependent on the capacity of specialists (professionals) working in the field: developing the skills of science and technology workers is therefore an absolute requirement for the development of a country’s strength in the field.

Totalitarianism

“Totalitarianism ... [a system of government and ideology in which all social, political, economic, intellectual, cultural, and spiritual activities are subordinated to the purposes of the rulers of a state.

Several important features distinguish totalitarianism, a form of autocracy peculiar to the 20th century, from such older forms as despotism, absolutism, and tyranny.

In the older forms of autocracy people could live and work in comparative independence, provided they refrained from politics.

In modern totalitarianism, however, people are made completely dependent on the wishes and whims of a political party and its leaders”

Ideology

“Ideology, a comprehensive system of concepts and beliefs, often political in nature, held by a group or an individual .The modern concept of ideology originated in the writings of Karl Marx, who believed that ideologies were false systems of political, social, and moral concepts invented and preserved by ruling classes out of self-interest. According to Marx, religious hierarchies, for example, perpetuate systems of faith that at bottom protect the economic wellbeing of those in power.

How would Arts and Culture be governed and managed in a Contempory South Africa

Governing and managing Arts and Culture in contemporary South Africa

The responsible department at national level is the Department of Arts and Culture. At provincial level arts and culture are usually handled by the provincial education departments. Several factors are significant in the governing and managing of arts and culture from a macro perspective.

1. In view of the ideal of artistic freedom, the arts have traditionally been regarded as a field in which the state should not try to influence artistic decisions in any way. Artists are generally passionately opposed to controls such as censorship but are not known for refusing to accept handouts from the state. The involvement of the state is often described as an arm’s length approach.

2. In arts and culture various governments are involved. Besides provincial governments and the national government, some municipalities are also involved. Intergovernmental relations should be regarded in terms of the Constitution, where cultural affairs are listed in Part A of Schedule 4 as one of the functional areas with concurrent provincial and national legislative ability.

3. The concept of culture is extremely difficult to define and possibly even understand. Hence disputes regarding the areas of competency of various role players and confusion in the management of cultural affairs is not surprising. This is especially true in South Africa where a specific interpretation of the word culture was a significant underpinning of the apartheid ideology, where we have 11 official languages and where the role of traditional leaders in the constitutional setup of the country has not been settled

4. In practice, cultural affairs which is a fuzzy concept, covers many activities, and any manager at macro level in this field must be resourceful. The following areas may come into play: performing arts (eg music, drama and film), visual (plastic) arts (eg crafts, painting and sculpture), heritage conservation and language policy.

How would Sport be governed and managed in a Contempory South Africa

Governing and managing Sport in contemporary South Africa

South Africa has a national Department called Sport and Recreation South Africa and the South African Sports Commission in the national sphere, while some provinces have included this discipline under their education departments.

1. The management aspect in governmental sport promotion is that sport is controlled by bodies in civil society. Public officials working in this field will be mindful in dealing with sports controlling bodies to respect their independence in terms of their own rules, team selection and other household matters. However, if a sporting body is a receiver of public money, its money matters become a public concern.

2. Sport is closely linked with the quality of life of the citizens of the country. The South African government use its support of sport to also promote other upliftment plans such as RDP projects. South African black townships have traditionally been undersupplied with sports facilities and the government’s programmes to support sport infrastructure development are important.

3. Sport is regarded worldwide as a key contributor to the prestige of countries. South Africa also experienced exposure and prominence when it hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup. This exposure was enjoyed by most sub-Saharan Africa countries. South Africa experienced an increase in tourism and trade and national infrastructure development particularly in the cities. That is why countries spend millions of dollars supporting their elite sportsmen and women. Ironically, the state seems to be more involved in medium income countries than in rich countries. This issue brings serious ethical considerations to the fore.

How would Education, Science, Culture and Sport be governed and managed in a Contemporary South Africa (25 marks)

Education

South Africa has a Department of Basic Education, a Department of Higher Education and provincial departments of education. Formal education is not a municipal function here.

Education is currently the most important service in terms of government expenditure. This implies that financial control of the budget is essential.

Education is a service where the actual work is done by professionals (eg qualified teachers). Labour relations are crucial and the unions are extremely powerful. Teaching at universities, colleges and private schools is done by professionals who are not in the employ of the state.

The existence of, inter alia, a private school and college sector means that not all of the education is provided by the state,. Training, which is closely related to education, is also provided largely by the private sector and falls under the Department of Labour. Coordination is therefore clearly a vital task for education managers in South Africa.

Science

The responsible department is the Department of Science and Technology, although other departments such as Trade and Industry also have an interest in this field. Officials responsible for managing the state’s involvement in the science and technology system should keep the following 2 factors in mind:

Research in science and technology development takes place in the public and the private spheres. Hence government interventions in the science and technology system should always take the possible contributions of the private sector into account.

The development of technology benefits more people than those who originally invested in the project

Culture

The responsible department at national level is the Department of Arts and Culture. At provincial level arts and culture are usually handled by the provincial education departments. Several factors are significant in the governing and managing of arts and culture from a macro perspective.

In view of the ideal of artistic freedom, the arts have traditionally been regarded as a field in which the state should not try to influence artistic decisions in any way. Artists are generally passionately opposed to controls such as censorship but are not known for refusing to accept handouts from the state. The involvement of the state is often described as an arm’s length approach.

In practice, cultural affairs which is a fuzzy concept, covers many activities, and any manager at macro level in this field must be resourceful. The following areas may come into play: performing arts (eg music, drama and film), visual (plastic) arts (eg crafts, painting and sculpture), heritage conservation and language policy.

Sport

South Africa has a national Department called Sport and Recreation South Africa and the South African Sports Commission in the national sphere, while some provinces have included this discipline under their education departments.

Sport is closely linked with the quality of life of the citizens of the country. The South African government use its support of sport to also promote other upliftment plans such as RDP projects. South African black townships have traditionally been undersupplied with sports facilities and the government’s programmes to support sport infrastructure development are important.

Sport is regarded worldwide as a key contributor to the prestige of countries. South Africa also experienced exposure when it hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup. South Africa experienced an increase in tourism and trade and national infrastructure development particularly in the cities.

Discuss Intragovernmental relations in South Africa under the following headings: Vertical-, Horizontal- and Extra intragovernmental relations.

Intragovernmental relations refer to the internal relations of governmental authorities.

Vertical Intragovernmental Relations

Government institutions and the individuals within governmental institutions are grouped according to a vertical structure of authority.

At national level, the hierarchy of authority is the following (listed from the highest to the lowest level): Parliament, the legislature, Cabinet ministers and departments.

At local government level, the hierarchy would be as follows: city or town council, committees, town clerk and departments.

Vertical Intragovernmental Relations is important for 3 Reasons, namely:

1. They are necessary for creating a hierarchy of authority and establishing accountability and responsibility.

2. They enable the far-reaching delegation of powers that occurs in most government institutions.

3. They promote control over the policy and decisions of higher authority that have to be executed and the allocation of resources that have to be effectively applied to accomplish the institution’s identified goals.

Horizontal Intragovernmental Relations

Horizontal relationship is between the various executive departments that are on the same hierarchical level. In national government, the department head or director-general is not really the head of the department, because the minister is appointed by the State President to head the national department.

The formal location of horizontal intragovernmental relations between national departments is the Cabinet and the cabinet ministers.

The horizontal relations at national level differ considerably from those at local government level, where coordination between the departments is the duty of the municipal manager. However, as at the national level, departments have a horizontal relationship, communicating with each other on matters of common interest and negotiating on the distribution of resources.

Extra Intragovernmental Relations

Extragovernmental relations is that the main goal of government is to promote the general welfare of society, and it has already been established that government must recognise the values and norms of the community in all public actions.

Extragovernmental relations can be divided into four categories, namely social, political, economic and institutional relations.

1. Social extragovernmental relations - government is involved in welfare matters such as unemployment, housing shortages or other social incident.

2. Political extragovernmental relations - arise from the political office-bearer’s responsibility to recognise the community’s norms and values and this include the relationship with the voters during the election period, and so forth.

3. Economic extragovernmental relations - Government is responsible for ensuring the economic well-being of the community and the country and is setting up financial and commercial measures to serve as a frameworkwithin which the community and organised labour and industry must work.

4. Institutional extragovernmental relations - Government maintains relations with institutional bodies such as the Institute for Local Government Management. These relations are important because they establish communication between groups that are government oriented and represent governmental institutions at the same governmental level.

The inequalities in the South African Education System prior to 1994. (10 Marks)

The education system in South Africa prior to 1994 was an extremely complex structure with enormous duplication of positions and departments to ensure the protection of white youth from having to come into contact with other race groups during their education.

There were 15 different and uncoordinated education ministries, which included 10 separate departments for each of the black Bantustans, 4 for each of the government’s officially recognised racial groups (African, Asian, coloured and white), and one Department of National Education, which performed the role of establishing national norms and standards of education.

Each of the 15 departments had its own school model; each model had a different and independent funding formula, its own way of relating to parents and its own set of governance principles. The education system of the previous political dispensation was designed to institutionalise prejudice and inequality.

During the apartheid era, the South African Government established a differential education system, which separated the white and black schools. The white schools were well funded and had much more resources than those of non-white schools. Race and ethnicity have shaped the development of higher education in South Africa.

One of the oldest and predominantly Englishspeaking institutions of higher education, the University of Cape Town, was established in 1829. It was followed by the founding of the Afrikaans-speaking University of Stellenbosch in 1874. During this period only white students attended these universities. The faculty came mainly from Britain and other European countries.

Nationalist Party came to power and implemented its policy of apartheid, based upon white supremacy. Afrikaner nationalism, and the division of South African population along racial and ethnic lines. After the Nationalist Party’s victory during the elections, four new Afrikaans universities were established.

These institutions had admission policies which excluded blacks. The English speaking white universities admitted a tiny number of blacks, but they remained socially segregated at these universities.

Extra Intragovernmental Relations (25 Marks)

Extragovernmental relations is that the main goal of government is to promote the general welfare of society, and it has already been established that government must recognise the values and norms of the community in all public actions.

Extragovernmental relations can be divided into four categories, namely social, political, economic, institutional and elite relations.

1. Social extragovernmental relations

is where government is involved in welfare matters such as unemployment, housing shortages or other social incident.

2. Political extragovernmental relations

Arise from the political office-bearer’s responsibility to recognise the community’s norms and values and this include the relationship with the voters during the election period, efforts to gain support from the public and interest groups for policies, party politics and the relationship with the media.

3. Economic extragovernmental relations

Government is responsible for ensuring the economic well-being of the community and the country and is setting up financial and commercial measures to serve as a frameworkwithin which the community and organised labour and industry must work.

4. Institutional extragovernmental relations

Government maintains relations with institutional bodies such as the Institute for Local Government Management. These relations are important because they establish communication between groups that are government oriented and represent governmental institutions at the same governmental level. These institutions are also experts in their respective fields (eg local government) and can play a significant advisory or bargaining role in relations with government.

5. Elite extragovernmental relations

Every community has individuals with the capacity to influence any one of the above facets of extragovernmental relations. They can do this directly in relations with governmental bodies or indirectly through statements to the media or other forms of public announcements. Examples of such individuals are former state president Nelson Mandela or business leader Raymond Ackerman.

Discuss the Role of the Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) in Skills Development in South Africa (25 Marks)

The Skills Development Act of 1998 provides a framework for the development of skills in the workplace via the SETAs.

The SETAs are responsible for disbursement of the training levies payable by all employers. These levies are collected by the South African Revenue Service (SARS) via the Department of Labour, which is the overseeing government body. These levies are disbursed through a management system driven by skills requirement assessment and monitoring.

The SETAs are responsible for ensuring that the skill requirements of the sector are identified and that the adequate and appropriate skills are readily available.

The main function of a SETA is to improve skills and bring skills to the employed, or those wishing to be employed in their sector. This is done by helping to implement the National Skills Development Strategy and ensuring that people acquire skills that employers and communities need. Training should be according to agreed standards, within the National Qualifications Framework.

Each separate economic sector has one SETA. There are 27 SETAs which cover all work sectors in South Africa, including government sectors.

The members of SETAs include trade unions, government and bargaining councils from appropriate industries.

Within its own sector, a SETA must develop and implement a skills development plan, be responsible for quality control and pay out development grants. A SETA must ensure that the skills requirements of the various sectors are identified and that adequate and appropriate skills are readily available.

They are required to ensure that training is of the appropriate quality, meets the agreed standards as laid out by the national framework and caters for the training needs of new entrants to the labour market as well as the currently employed workforce. SETAs are also responsible for learnership programmes and the implementation of strategic sector skills plans.

They have discretionary funds, drawn from their levy income that can be used for projects designed to assist in the achievement of sector priorities, including the design and implementation of learnerships.

The SETAs have developed 140 learnership programmes ranging from the basic entry level to post-professional levels. If employers agree to embark on learnership programmes, they will be able to access a cash grant from their

SETA as well as a tax incentive.

SETAs are eligible to provide additional stratetic grants to companies for developmental or special skills training, say, in the area of HIV/AIDS and adult basic education and training.

SETAs contribute to the improvement of sector skills by achieving and ensure that education

and training

• are provided subject to validation and quality assurance

• meet the agreed standards within a national framework

• provide new entrants to the labour market who are adequately trained

Sport and Recreation South Africa (SRSA) vision is to “create an active and winning nation”. Discuss the Elements of the Mission Statement of SRSA “to maximize access, development and excellence at all levels of participation in sport and recreation in order to improve social cohesion, nation building and the quality of life of all South Africans. (25 Marks)

Mission Statement of Sport and Recreation South Africa (SRSA)

…maximise access…

• Increase the number of participants in sport and recreation with the emphasis on disadvantaged and marginalised groups, including women, children, the youth, the elderly, persons with disabilities and people living in rural areas.

• Provide/facilitate appropriate resources to promote such levels of access and participation.

…development…

• early identification and nurturing of talent on the entire spectrum of participation from local to national level

• developing sport support personnel

• ensuring appropriate infrastructure and organisational structures to support development

• exploring and utilising development opportunities available in the local, continental and international arenas

…excellence…

• Increase the levels of support to South African athletes and sports teams with a view to improving their success rate in high profile events and, in so doing, contributing to nation building and the marketing of our country globally.

…at all levels of participation in sport and recreation…

• from grass-roots level to elite levels of participation

…improve social cohesion…

• Use sport and recreation as a medium to enhance social interaction, better understanding and cooperation between the different cultural groups of South Africa.

Sport and recreation also has the ability to contribute to social inclusion and to combat anti-social behaviour.

…nation building…

Use sport and recreation as a medium to contribute to national unity, fostering a South African identity and promoting a common sense of belonging. In cooperation with relevant sector departments, sport and recreation have the ability to assist in poverty eradication; youth developent; skills development; promoting sports tourism; intensifying the campaign against HIV/AIDS; intensifying the struggle against crime; and contributing to local and international peace and development initiatives.

…quality of life…

There is no doubt that mental and physical development through participation in sport and recreation improves the quality of life.

Participants generally have a higher life quality than nonparticipants.

…of all South Africans…

Although no one is excluded here, cognisance should be taken of the imbalances of the past and the greater needs of inclusion in historically disadvantaged groups and communities, particularly in rural areas.

Discuss the 6 Programmes of Sport and Recreation in South Africa (15 Marks)

SRSA has the following six programmes:

Programme 1

involves the administration of sport and recreation in South Africa.

Programme 2

is the Department’s Sport Support Services. The goal is to increase the number of participants by 12%. Federations require assistance to form new clubs, especially in the disadvantaged and rural communities. SRSA plans to increase the number of athletes in the high performance programme by 10% over the four-year period of the medium term (MTEF), and it wishes to see good corporate governance in the federations.

Programme 3

involves the Mass Participation Programme (MPP). The activities are funded mainly through conditional grants to the provinces. SRSA has a responsibility to see that funds are properly spent. The goal is to see participation increase by 20% and for more festivals to be held. Legacy considerations

should be supported. SRSA has defined 45mass mobilisation projects.

Programme 4

concerns international liaison and events. The Department wishes to increase the probability of success of South African teams and individuals in international competition. Ten bilateral exchanges were planned for the 2009/ 2010 FY. This would be a way to contribute to peace and social cohesion. It was hoped to increase the number of sports tourists visiting South Africa. Assistance would be provided for four national federations in terms of logistics and finance and four international events would be supported.

Programme 5

involves facilities coordination. SRSA will lobby for facilities and provide aid for 100 municipalities. Five mobile gymnasiums are to be provided.

Programme 6

relates to the 2010 World Cup. A major task was the completion of stadiums. SRSA would play a direct role in ensuring that building standards would be followed. Consultants would be appointed for this purpose. All the outstanding stadiums were to be completed by December 2009. SRSA coordinated the efforts of other departments, and linkages between departments would be maximised.

Notes on Art and Culture in South Africa under the below headings (15 Marks)

National Language Services

The objective of this programme was to develop and promote the official languages of South Africa and enhance the linguistic diversity of the country.

Some of its service delivery achievements included awarding bursaries to students enrolled for language professions, the development of a web page to assist provinces in developing a provincial language policy and the setting up of a translation and editing section.

Cultural Development and International Cooperation

The objective of this programme was to improve economic and other development opportunities for South African arts and culture, nationally and globally, through mutually beneficial partnerships thereby ensuring the sustainability of the sector.

Service delivery achievements were the signing of cultural agreements with Jamaica, Qatar and Ghana.

Heritage Promotion

The objective of this programme was to develop and monitor the implementation policy, legislation and strategic direction for identifying, conserving and promoting cultural heritage.

Its service delivery achievements included the completion of the design of the Sarah Bartmann Centre of Remembrance.

National Archives, Records, Libraries and Heraldic Service

The objective of this programme was to guide, sustain and develop the archival and information resources of South Africa to empower citizens through full and open access to these resources. Service delivery achievements included the building of seven new community libraries;

Sports and Recreation South Africa’s (SRSA) 5 Objectives for period 2009 – 2013 (15Marks)

SRSA’s main objectives for the period 2009 to 2013 are as follows:

Objective 1

Involves the achievement of high-level goals. SRSA wishes to contribute to a healthy nation. This can be achieved by increasing the number of participants in sport. Talent has to be identified and developed. Basic facilities have to be provided for communities. Cohesion is needed. There are already some initiatives to use sport as a means of combating crime, such as the Sport for Peace Campaign. Academy systems need to be developed.

Objective 2

Is to promote the image of a winning nation both on and off the field. The success rate of teams and individuals at high-level competition has to be increased. One tool is the establishment of a scientific support structure in order to develop successful athletes. A code of ethics should be followed, and in this the efforts of SRSA are important.

Objective 3

Revolves around issues of national importance. These include the ongoing promotion of the case for sport initiative. The country has a role to play in continental and international programmes, especially in Africa. Certain events require support. Finally, sports tourism is becoming an increasingly key contributor to the country.

Objective 4

Involves the streamlined delivery of sport and the creation of efficient systems. A model of business excellence has to be followed. A legislative and regulatory framework should be developed.

Objective 5

Entails ensuring that the 2010 World Cup will be the best ever. Government signed 17 guarantees to FIFA. There were exciting developments. The base of football support needed to be developed. Human resources have to be developed and a number of volunteers trained. The World Cup was marketed as an African event and would leave a meaningful legacy.

GROUPING PUBLIC FUNCTIONS

Notes on the Public Service that the South African government has to provide to all citizens, namely 6 groups: (12 Marks)

1. Protection Services

In the protection services such as policing, disaster management, defence, prisons and justice, public officials protect the public against danger. They are therefore authorised to apply force against persons in certain circumstances. This, among other considerations, requires strict discipline.

2. Creation of Wealth

Departments that deal with the creation of wealth, for example, Trade and Industry, Agriculture, Forestry and others, would all have a strong component of economics in their daily work, and this influences their style of public service rendering.

3. Welfare and Social Services

Departments that deal with welfare and social services, such as Housing, Health and Welfare, often deal with those in need, implying a specific approach to the public and special skills characteristic of this field.

4. Culture and Education

Public education and culture services. If we break down this class into its elements, the following emerges: education, training (maybe), arts and culture (including heritage and language), science and technology, sport and perhaps information management.

5. Environmental Affairs

Environmental affairs are the most recent field in our classification to find its own identity. Officials working in environmental affairs must have the knack to cooperate with others in all spheres of government and the private sector because the environment pervades nearly all activities in society.

6. General Government Functions

General government functions are characterised by the fact that public officials working in this group often deal with and serve institutions that are also in the public sphere. This group could be described colloquially as the

back-room boys and girls of the state. Their biggest challenge is to maintain the service element in their work.

Notes on the Public Benefits of Science and Technology (15 Marks)

Externalities

The pursuit of science and the development of technologies have such marked positive externalities and public benefits that it makes economic sense for a government to subsidise these activities. Research seems to indicate that the state’s investment in this field should be substantial and that public money spent on science and technology is an excellent national investment.

Positive externalities exist when an economic agent’s actions involve benefits to the community for which that agent is not paid. We can say that such actions produce (sometimes inadvertently) public goods.

An example of a positive externality would be a farmer using his or her workforce to eradicate pest plants on the river bank which would make life easier for those downstream.

Negative externalities exist when an agent’s actions involve costs to the community for which he or she does not pay. Such actions produce public bads so to speak.

An example of a negative externality would be an industry dumping harmful effluent into a river causing costs for cleaning up downstream.

Some Research Results

In a submission (April 1994) to the Department of State Expenditure the former Department of National

Education (from whom the Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology took over the science planning function) made out a strong case for increased government spending on science and technology. In the submission, the following five results of applied Economics were cited to support increased spending in the field:

1. Technical change is the most important contributing factor in economic growth.

2. Innovative activity, as measured by research and development and by patenting, is closely associated with the level of output and income of countries.

3. Research and development are strongly associated with productivity growth in firms.

4. The fastest-growing industries in the world economy and the fastest growing categories of world trade are technology intensive.

Conclusion on spending public money on Science and Technology

From the above we can conclude that it is to the benefit of any society to invest in science and technology, innovation or, as it is sometimes called, research and development (R&D). This is especially true of a country like South Africa that would like to improve its international standing and competitiveness. It is often said that the 20th century has seen the third large socio-economic revolution in history. The information revolution when knowledge became the most important commodity: the icon for this is the personal computer. Countries and continents that do not have a strong knowledge base are at a disadvantage on the global playing fields–to use a metaphor from the world of sport. As far as our continent is concerned, much remains to be achieved in this field.

................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download