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Modern History – Russia and the Soviet Union 1917-1941Timeline:1917 – Bolsheviks seize power1918 – Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ends war with Germany costing Russian territory. Civil war begins between Bolsheviks (reds) and anti-Bolsheviks (whites). Tsar and family murdered1920 – civil war ends in Bolshevik victory1921 – Sailors from the Kronstadt naval base rebel against Bolshevik government. ‘New Economic Policy’ introduces a degree of private enterprise after the state control of ‘war communism’1924 – Lenin dies1928 – first ‘Five Year plan’ modernises Soviet industry and agriculture1929 – Trotsky expelled from Soviet Union1932-33 – famine in Ukraine caused by Stalin’s collectivisation policies against the kulaks1934 – Soviet Union enters the League of Nations, concerned by the rise of Nazi Germany. Kirov, the Leningrad party boss who Stalin regarded as a rival is murdered1936-38 – three major show trials occur1939 – Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact allows Hitler to invade Poland without Soviet reaction and Poland is divided1941 – operation Barbarossa, the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union occursOverview of Bolshevik ideology“From each according to his ability, to each according to his need” – Karl MarxIdeas of Karl Max and Friedrich Engels:Karl Marx – born into a Christianised German-Jewish family in Trier 1818. 1848 revolutionary activity, Marx and family fled. London newspaper correspondent. Volume 1 of Das Kapital published 1867. Died 1883.Friedrich Engels born Germany 1820, son of textile manufacturer. 1840s ran father’s textile business feeling issues of England’s new working class. Close friend of Karl Marx and assisted him financially and in the literary field. Died 1895, Engels completed Marx’s Das Kapital.“The Communist Manifesto” 1848 – solely Marx’s work Marx argued that each stage of society will conflict between an ‘oppressed class’ and an ‘oppressor class’ – oppressed resent power and wealth of oppressors eventually rising up. This creates a new stage of society and the process is repeated. Eventually the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ stage (socialism) would be reached were workers controlled the state and non-socialist attitudes rooted outMarxist thinkers are ‘determinists’ – course of history determined by overriding forces. For Marx that is economics that drives history. Bolsheviks in 1917March 1917 revolution led to provisional government under Prince Lvov then Alexander Kerensky (July) – Petrograd Soviet council of workers rivalled the bourgeois provisional governmentLenin’s return in April – end Russian involvement in war, no cooperation with gov, and recognition the March revolution represented transition towards revolution, not revolution itself – not many liked this – Bolsheviks major policies that provided support: only party to consistently oppose war and argued for seizure of land estates immediately not later redistribution like the provisional government wanted.Kornilov revolt – Bolshevik’s had a large fortune, country was in chaos, and there were demands for restoration for a firm rule. Newspapers wanted Bolsheviks hanged ad Soviet closed down. Kornilov the army commander-in-chief ordered troops to march on the capital – not sure whether to protect Provisional government or threaten military coup. Troops near Petrograd dispersed and no fighting took place to defeat Kornilov. Soldiers believed officers supported it resulting in decline of army discipline. Kornilov affair – August 1917 – provisional government under threat from army – people don’t actualy know why he revolted - General Lavr Kornilov (officer loyal to tsarism) attempted to gather both troops and financial support so he could occupy Petrograd and restore order. After Kornilov’s failure - September 1917, Kerensky and ministers consolidate their position by declaring Russia to be a republic and appointing a five-man ‘directory’ to run the country - public commitment to the war, triggered a general strike on Russia’s railways which paralysed the country for three days.?Bolsheviks renewed their anti-war propaganda - beginning of 1917 the Bolsheviks had 24,000 card-carrying members; by the end of September this had blown out to more than 250,000 members. Original prestige of Kerensky and provisional government left without supporters due to Kornilov affairRising fortune of Bolsheviks due to the fact that they were the only major party standing uncompromisingly for Soviet power – not mass support the brought powerSeizure of power – everyone cursed Bolsheviks but didn’t want to defend Provisional government or monarchists – preferred Bolsheviks to seize power assuming wouldn’t last long. The threat to transfer Petrograd Garrison to the front – garrison switched allegiance – therefore Provisional gov lost army control leading to an armed uprising. Provisional government defenceless – Bolsheviks seize powerNovember Revolution Lenin urged a coup from Finland, but ignored2nd all Russian Congress of Soviets was due to meet in Petrograd in November – move against Kerensky coincided – Bolsheviks to claim power but problem with Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries (SRs) – Trotsky as head of Petrograd soviet organised to pack soviet with Bolsheviks23 October Lenin returns to Petrograd in disguise 6 November evening Bolshevik Red Guard groups aided by sailors from Baltic fleet took over cities key buildings – government left in hands of 2000 inexperienced cadet and women soldiers – little fighting and causalities were mostly accidents from random crossfire 7 November – Kerensky borrowed car and left the city to find loyal soldiers – Bolsheviks controlled city except Winter Palace where remaining Provisional Government took refuge – quick takeover beginning with a blank shell from river Neva boat ‘Aurora’ – Soviet in session Mensheviks and SRs walked out leaving room of BolsheviksLenin came out of hiding to address new Bolshevik governmentPower wasn’t really seized, more so ‘picked up’ as there was a lack of resistanceInitial social and political reformBolsheviks needed to establish legitimacy to non-Russians and bordering regionsEarly decrees:8 Nov – land belonging to church, tsar, and nobles handed to peasants, and peace with Germany12 Nov – working day limited to 8 hours14 Nov – workers insured against illness or accident1 Dec – non-Bolshevik newspapers banned11 Dec – opposition Cadet party banned20 Dec – Cheka (secret police) established27 Dec – factories under worker committee control, banks under Bolshevik government control31 Dec – marriage without priest and easier divorceComposition of government debated – some believe it should be a mix due to mistrust of Bolsheviks – Lenin and Trotsky against – Zinoviev and Kamenev pro (leading Bolsheviks) – Lenin didn’t allow Mensheviks due to cooperation with provisional government, but allowed left Social Revolutionaries as they represented peasants (Dec 1917 SRs joined Sovnarkom with portfolios of agriculture and justice)Community support for Bolsheviks not unanimous – arrests and newspaper closure to stifle criticism – state workers strike and refuse to workElections previously set up by provisional government goes ahead – take place Dec – all men and women above 20 can voteVotes: 40% SRs, 24% Bolsheviks. 14% nationalist, 5% cadetsBolsheviks postponed opening of assembly – protest movement by other parties – cadet party banned, Baltic fleet and Bolsheviks intimidate assemblyConstituent Assembly meets – 19 January assembly adjourned and when returning sailors blocked entrancesTreaty of Brest-Litovsk‘Decree of Peace’ – Bolsheviks offered immediate peace without annexations – negotiations began 22 Dec in Brest-litovsk – 3 Russian views:Lenin – peace at any price – time needed to consolidate gov as support of proletariat and peasants would soon be lostLeft communists – Nikolai Bukharin – favour revolutionary war with goal of world revolutionTrotsky – state of neither war or peace – end fighting and demobalise army but refuse to sign formal peace agreement that contained unacceptable territory demandsTrotsky’s chosen – 18 Feb Germans resumed fighting and takeover with little resistance from Russian army – Lenin threatened to resign if immediate acceptance or peace agreement didn’t occur – 3 March 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signedTreaty harsh – Russia lost Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Ukraine – Turkey took other land cutting Russia off from black sea. Russia pay war indemnity of 6,000,000,000 marks – Overall Russia lost 30% population, 32% agriculture, 85% sugar beet, 89% coal minesTreaty signed – ratification by congress 784 to 261 – Social Revolutionaries walked out leaving Bolsheviks to governLenin believe no sacrifice too great to ensure survival of revolutionary governmentCivil War 1918-1920Began early 1918 as many threatened governments existence by 1920 major counter-revolutionary groups were brought forward and defeatedTrotsky commanded Red Army March 1918 – recruited old imperial armyTrotsky firm and ruthless discipline upon red army – inspiration to fight due to revolutionary fervour and fear of execution – tasked with reconquering areas that had breakdowns of central authority‘Whites’ – liberals, monarchists, disgruntled socialists, ex-officers, foreign powers, 40 000 ex-prisoners of war, Russian citizens fighting against Bolsheviks (Partisisans/terrorists)South – anti-communists – led by General Denikin who supported constituent assembly, Siberia – Admiral Kolchak set up rival gov at Omsk and declared himself supreme ruler in Nov 1918, General Yudenich threatened PetrogradBritish and French support of whites – preservation of eastern front in war against Germany. Large quantities of war supplies provided (official reason given for British occupation of Murmansk, and French of Odessa) – Lenin repudiate all foreign debts and froze foreign assets (French had given extensive loans to tsar – and believed if gov restored payment back would occur) – also for imperialistic reasons – America wanted to be closer to Japan1919 – resources collected ‘everything for the front’ 1921 Soviet government reconquered most of the territories previously ownedLack of support of the masses – for people of small towns and villages there was little to choose between – brutality and terror on both sidesWhites failed – all they could offer is a return to the past – areas controlled – rights of landlord and church reinstated and benefits of agrarian reforms were denied for sovietsWhites – offensives weren’t coordinated due to differing objectives of leadersBolsheviks – held industrial heartland of nation between Moscow and Petrograd – major producers of war supplies, largest pool of potential conscripts, and major transport networksForeign intervention helped Bolshevik cause – Lenin appealed to nationalism of people by pointing out only Bolsheviks stood for the removal of foreign forces from RussiaWhites – lack of leaders with set goalsLong term consequences – economic issues, starvation threatWar Communism and the New economic PolicyEconomic recovery failed – 70% of Russia’s industrial capacity was geared to the war – change to peacetime production too difficult – large-scale factory closures and redundanciesWorkers leave cities to join Red Army or go back to villages – Petrograd lost 60% of workforce by April 1918 and the urban proletariat decreased from 3.6 million in January 1917 to 1.4 million 1919Basic economic problem remained – balance in trading goods of farmers sending excess food in return for manufactured goods ceased due to lack off excess food. Peasants deliberately withheld grain to drive up pricesMarch 1918 civil war – harsh economic measured imposed ‘war communism’ – aims: redistribute wealth, and help civil war by keeping towns and red army supplied with food and weaponsLarge factories taken over by government & production plannedStrict worker discipline & protestors shotPeasants hand over surplus food or shotFood rationedFree enterprise illegalWar communism – led to revolt – peasants slaughtered own cattle, and refused to sow land. Harvest of 1918 was tenth of 1916 – 344 peasant revolts 1919 – as civil war ended revolts intensified – Tambov region 20000person revoltFamine widespread 1921 – typhoid and cholera epidemicProletariat began to oppose Bolshevik powers – in 1918 Bolsheviks were defeated in some soviet elections – polls ruled invalid – Kronstadt sailors from Petrograd naval base mutinied supporting workers – put forward demands of new elections, freedom of speech, press, assembly for trade unions, political prisoners, fairer rationing, and freedom of landIn response – Lenin sent Trotsky and war general Tukhachevsky to supress revolt 28 Feb - 18 March – Red Army sent across Gulf of Finland to attack naval base – with Cheka units shooting those who showed reluctance to advanceDefenders of Kronstadt – 1500 died and 2500 captured – prisoners shot in small groups by ChekaCivil war and revolts caused Lenin to reverse War Communism to introduce New Economic Policy – key sections of economy state owned but small businesses may retain private profits and peasants could sell crop surplus, rain requisitioning replaced with taxHistorians debate significance of policy change – left view: war communism was temporary diversion from the mixed economy, thus pro market socialism of NEP was real face of Leninism as opposed to Stalinism – right view: true policy was war communism which was only abandoned by force.Figes (1996) – war communism policy couldn’t have been only temporary as it was kept for a year after the defeat of the WhitesFocus Study – Death of LeninImpact of Bolshevik consolidation of powerPolitical reform within the Party – purge of members from opposing political parties who were critical of leadership. Lenin enforced compliance in gov – Cheka unquestioned authority, 1922 ? of the party membership has been expelled – type of gov Lenin wanted when Mensheviks split: stern, disciplined, and devoted – new system of bureaucratic centralism developed – political shift allowed members like Stalin to become entrenchedForeign policy reforms – Tsarisms collapse – non-Russian regions showed signs of nationalism – Bolsheviks in power Lenin and Stalin guaranteed that ethnic nationalities would be given rights to self-determination – later formed Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 1922Early Economic reform – following threat of whites in civil war and suffering of famine – communist party decided to industrialise and modernise Soviet Union whilst allowing less opposition – workers did not collectively rule society – former workers within the party were promoted1924: Secret Police – Cheka abolished 1922 replaced by GPU (State Political Organisation) then replaced 1924 by OGPU (Unified State Political Organisation)Key Features of USSR:Constitution – outlined voting and basic freedoms, all adults vote, guaranteed freedom of religionParliament – all union congress met once a year, elected Central Executive Committee (smaller, met more regularly)Communist Party – top of structure was Politburo (smack group od senior communists)Death of Lenin:Gunshot wounds in 1918 after an assassination attempt + civil war pressures undermined health – 1922 onwards he suffered strokes which left him partially paralysed – died 21 Jan 1924 – body displayed in mausoleum in Moscow’s Red Square – Petrograd renamed Leningrad in his honourStalin and Trotsky – the struggle for power 1924-28No procedure to determine Lenin’s successor – some believed in collective leadership but others began manoeuvring their reputation to present as candidates Leon Trotsky – seemed most likely – charismatic, intelligent, and admired by Lenin and largely responsible for Red victory in Civil War. But disliked by many for his arroganceZinoviev – opposed Lenin’s call for seizure of power in 1917, not distinguished in Civil War – boss of Petrograd party with strong support baseKamenev – opposed Lenin’s call for seizure of power in 1917 – Moscow party support, Lenin’s deputyBukharin – younger party leaders, very popular amongst members, Lenin admired him as a Marxist theoristStalin – seemed least likely to assume leadership. Taciturn, and lacking charisma, not liked by Lenin, had built up a powerful power base in party bureaucracyTrotsky’s biggest rival was Stalin due to his appearance as a down to ear revolutionaryStalin under the radarBy Lenin’s death, Stalin accumulated enormous amount of power and influence within the party. By 1922 Stalin wasCommissar of NationalitiesCommissar of Workers’ and Peasants’ InspectorateMember of PolitburoPermanent liaison officer between Politburo and Orgbureau (organisation Bureau)General secretary of communist partyParty role of Stalin was key, many didn’t see him as threatTrotsky was admired but also envied, distrusted, and hated by many due to arrogance and contemptuous attitude to those whom he deemed to be his intellectual inferiorsStalin was underestimated by party colleagues, little held high opinions, and little feared himStruggle between Stalin and Trotsky 1920sLegacy of Lenin created party struggle between ‘party machine’ (Stalin) and ‘challengers’ (Trotsky and other opportunists) – Lenin originally valued Stalin’s practical nature, in 1922 Lenin commented that Stalin would not be able to manage power with ‘sufficient caution’, “Stalin is too rude, a fault…. Intolerable in the office of General Secretary”. Trotsky viewed more positive but still with some doubts. Lenin’s intent to present testimony in 1923 was stopped due to ill health – eventually came out a year later but officials decided to not release itZinoviev, Kamenev, and Stalin formed a Triumvirate/Troika (group of 3) united against Trotsky‘Scissor Crisis’ of 1923 caused by a fall in agricultural prices along with a rise in the prices of manufactured goods. Troika advocated for priority to recovery of peasant sector, financing the growth of industry from the growing prosperity of the peasants and from their increased purchasing of products – left opposition led by Trotsky argued priority for proletariatStruggle between Trotsky and Stalin addressed the direction for the party and the aftermath of the revolution – Trotsky and followers argued the party was becoming anti-democratic and survival of revolution depended on the so-called ‘permanent revolution’. Stalin rejected this and accused him of factionalism, which was specifically prohibited by LeninStalin also advocated ‘socialism in one country’ – strengthening communism within Soviet Union rather than applying Marxist idea of unity of workers around the world – 14th Party Congress of 1925 supported ‘socialism in one country’ and Trotsky was forced to resign as Commissar for WarOther issue – NEP & peasants – Zinoviev and Kamenev: NEP introduced as temporary measure and its continuation would lead to restoration of capitalism – proper socialist policy is to industrialise – Bukharin argued for long-term preservation of NEP and claimed that even Lenin realised it would take many years for the peasants to accept cooperative farming – Stalin sided with Bukharin1927 – the left (now an alliance between Zinoviev, Kamenev, and Trotsky) made protests about foreign policy – each side portray other as departing from Lenin’s policies - Part meeting Nov 1927 Stalin denounced them as anti-Leninist and accused them of factionalism – their expulsion from the party followed Trotsky refused to recant but others were allowed back in with an apologyJanuary 1928 Trotsky arrested and sent into exile to Alma-Ata in Soviet Central AsiaStalin Tackles right wing:With left-wing opponents removed, Stalin disagreed over agricultural policy with the right-wing faction – reversing previous stand, Stalin now advocated rapidly collectivising agriculture and developing heavy industry – expressed determination to eliminate the Kulaks. Bukharin stood by his earlier defence of NEPStalin had sufficient support by April 1929 and the right wing was defeatedTimeline1923 – Stalin purged Party membership of ‘lukewarm members’1924 – influx of new members through ‘Lenin Enrolment’, meaning Stalin-admitted members outnumbered old Bolsheviks, Troika formed, Trotsky’s mistakes (criticised cult of Lenin, criticised Stalin, and failed to attend Lenin’s funeral)1925 – Zinoviev and Kamenev sided with Trotsky regarding NEP, Stalin moved to support moderate Rightists, At Party Congress all left-wing motions were defeated, Zinoviev and Kamenev were removed from Moscow and Leningrad Soviets, Stalin increased size of Politburo, Stalin and Bukharin controlled Politburo after Zinoviev and Kamenev demise1927 – Zinoviev and Kamenev denounced as ‘traitors to the revolution’ and along with Trotsky, expelled from the party, Stalin abandoned Bukharin’s economic policy, arguing that industrialisation should take precedent over agriculture Kulaks – ‘capitalist’ class of peasant invented by the Bolsheviks‘Extraordinary Measures’ introduced to keep Kulaks in line – Article 107 of criminal code concealing grain a crime, all grain hoards liable to confiscation, soldiers sent into countryside to find grain, Stalin declares war on ‘internal enemies’ as a result of the sabotage at Shakty Mines, Bukharin denounced Stalin as a tyrantReasons for the emergence of Stalin as leader of the USSR by the late 1920sReasons for emergenceHe was a tireless worker and his early career was supported by LeninHis skills in politics and administration were highly relevant to the tasks of the 1920sHis economic and political pragmatism enabled him to outmanoeuvre first the Left and then the Right, while always staying with the majority of the PolitburoHe was ruthless in his treatment of his opponentsHis opponents played into his hands and underestimated the threat he posed until ut was too late to act effectively against himHe manipulated events to create a sense of crisis, so his opponents could be accused of being lukewarm about the revolutionary causeUntil Civil war a small central committee was led by Lenin with Trotsky, Bukharin, Stalin and 11 others as members – 1919 Lenin decided on the need for a greater apparatus to advance revolutionStalin chaired Organisation Bureau – Orgburo – recruited, appointments, assignments, purges, and assassinationsAlso commissar of Nationalities – powerful secretariat created to handle Politburo and Orgburo – 1921 Secretariat usurped most of the everyday work of Orgburo – Stalin viewed as good organisational man, wasn’t an intellectual so not placed in decision making position instead – Secretary of the Communist party and head of Secretariat in 1922Impact of Lenin’s deathDeath 1924 – state exploit Lenin Enrolment – half million workers brought into the Party between 1923 and 1925 – joined due to means of upward mobility – gave influence and opportunity for better jobs, result was vast reservoir of grateful and submissive workersLenin Enrolment undermined democracy in the party and weakened criticism and debate – Stalin used obedience – built networks of supporters, kept track of criticsCritical moment in Stalin emergence was the May 1924 reading of Lenin’s will and testament – Zinoviev, addressed Central Committee and spoke in defence of Stalin arguing Lenin’s fears were unfounded – agreed that will was not to be distributed – Zinoviev regarded Trotsky as threat to power Abuse of Cult of LeninStalin impressed by Vanguard party of professional revolutionaries – used to create heroic, divine status – Bolshevik reputation for toughness and militancy – self-confidence and powerStalin capitalised on death through being a pole bearer and having Lenin’s bod embalmed and placed in a Tomb in Red Square, MoscowUsed Lenin as means of criticising Trotsky – lack of heroism, optimism, and faith – claimed Trotsky’s idea of permanent revolution (permanent success of socialism in Russia) depending on world wide socialism, was a theory of permanent hopelessness and showed a lack of faith in the Russian peopleStalin convinced Trotsky to miss Lenin’s funeral – criticism of arrogance and lack of respect towards LeninManipulation and OpportunismSpoke to dissatisfactions of many Soviet Russians in 1920s – issues with NEP concerned young workers including inequality and rise of the rich in cities (NEO men/wealthy traders) or richer countryside peasants (Kulaks) Stalin developed the concept of ‘Socialism in One Country’ to develop patriotism within Russian Society developing industrial forceTimeline of power struggle1922 – Stalin appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party1923 – Stalin accumulated bureaucratic power in his hands1924 - 24 January – death of Lenin – Trotsky tricked into not attending, May – Stalin survives reading of Lenin’s will – triumvirate (Stalin, Kamenev and Zinoviev) defeat Trotsky at 13th Party Congress when Trotsky raised objections to the growing centralization and bureaucratization of the party. Trotsky isolated. 1925 – Trotsky loses position as Commissar of WarStalin forms alliance with “the right” including Bukharin, Rykov, and Tomsky – support continuation of NEP opposed idea of rapid industrialisation – Zinoviev and Kamenev try to relink with Trotsky but rejected – they lose every vote at 15th Party Congress1927 – Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky – accused of forming “united opposition” – crime is “factionalism” with punishment of expulsion1927-28 – major economic crisis – food shortages – NEP run out of steam1929 – Stalin turns on right allies – calls for massive, rapid industrialisation and hard line against peasants – 1929 Party Congress Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky – forced out of Politburo – Stalin becomes undisputed leader of Soviet Union, Trotsky expelled from country, Stalin pushes for industrialization and collectivisation in a series of 5 Year PlansSoviet State under Stalin5 year plans (collectivisation and the kulaks)1928 ‘procurement crisis’ triggered mass restructuring – USSR was 2 million tonnes short of the minimum amount of grain needed for feeding workers – rationing introduced, squads sent to countryside to seize grain being held by peasants to bump the price16th Communist Party conference in April 1929 Stalin announced long term solution to food supply – all farms collectivised – original plan called for 20% of sown area during first 5 Year Plans (Oct 1928) – January 1930 central committee decided that complete collectivisation of the major growing regions would be complete autumn 1930CollectivisationEnd of privately-owned farms – Kolkhoz introduced (collective farm) and Sovkhoz (state farm)Kolkhoz peasants pooled fields, livestock and tools, and shared labour and wages – 50-100 families, motor tractors set up in central pools for 40 neighbouring farms to use – larger farm units and access to machinery resulted in modernisation of Russian agricultureSovkhoz worked directly for the state with paid in wageLand enabled industrial investment and manpower – improved agriculture lead to surplus grain stocks that could be sold abroad to raise investment funds for industry. The rural disruption that collectivisation involved created a pool of surplus peasant labour to be recruited into the industrial labour forcePolitical motivation – Bolsheviks proletariat centred ideology – wary of the power of the peasants (80% of population) – Unrest among peasants had played important part in NEP in 1921, which lefts regarded as backwards step – Stalin waged war against peasants in name of revolutionChange and resistanceCollectivisation was to rapid – December 1929-March 1930 nearly 60% peasant farms were collectivised, result was chaos and mass resistancePeasants slaughtered own animals and burned homes in acts of defiance. 1928-1930 killed 25% of all cattle, 48% of pigs, 25% of sheep and goats1 August 1930 the March figure of 50% of households collectivised had fallen to 21% - government retreat temporary – after 1930 harvest the campaign to force the peasants into collectives began in earnest – Stalin believed the difficulties of collectivisation were caused by existence of an anti-revolutionary force (rich peasants/kulaks) and not the governments haste and brutalityThe KulaksRich peasants identified by Lenin as capitalist enemies of the revolution – 1918 article ‘Civil war in the villages’ he described kulaks as ‘rabid foes of the Soviet Government’ and urged ruthless war against themLand redistribution an effect of the revolution had ridded the traditional image of kulaks (rich peasant who was disliked as a capitalist or money lender) – kulaks possessed 25-40 sown acres, making up 3.9% of peasantry in 1927 compared to 15% 1917Stalin said new class of kulaks had arisen under NEP and were deliberately undermining the state by withholding large supplies of grain from the market, it was thus necessary to liquidate the kulaks as a classTreatment of kulak’s brutal – lost land and possessions, rounded up in thousands to Siberian labour camps, and many died – justification the kulaks were less than humanAs de-kulakisation occurred peasants lost support – communist party sent 25 000 urban members to countryside to run campaignKulak began to mean anyone in the countryside who opposed Stalin collectivisation plans – many ‘middle peasants’ that protested against their loss of land were labelled as kulaks and deportedPeasant opposed collectivisation resulting in complete collapse of agricultural sector and widespread famine 1932-33Famine in the UkraineCollectivisation lead to food shortages – Ukraine worst hit – failed to reach grain targets and government wanted to crush independent movementStalin introduced famine to the region by seizing peasants grain stocks – guards placed on fields to prevent starving mothers and children from searching for leftover grain – starvation and cannibalism increasedFamine height in March 1933 – corpses piled up on roadside and troops prevented peasants from leaving Ukraine7 million people died in the famine of 1932-33, 5 million in Ukraine Assessment of collectivisationComplete by 1036 – counter-revolutionary peasants could no longer threaten by withholding food supplies and extra labour was provided by peasants forced off land. 15 million evicted from place in societyEconomics – plan failed, countryside disrupted by state of virtual civil war, reduction in livestock, crop yields fell to the point that false figures were created by gov to cover up shortages1939 Soviet agricultural production barely reached level recorded in 1913Five Year Plans – industryEach plan worked as: GOSPLAN (State Planning Commission) set overall industry targets, each region told targets, region set targets for each mine/factory, manager for each mine/factory set targets for foreman, foreman sets targets for each shift and individual workersFirst five-year – 1 October 1928 – so effective that original targets could be reached in 4 years instead of 5 – protests of speed of industrialisation, Stalin said national security was at stake, claiming that due to Russia’s lack of industrialisation Western capitalist powers will see them as weak and invade GOSPLAN and 5 Year plansAmerican and German engineers/companies-built machinery/vehicles/power generation (1928-1936)Soviet managers reproduced technology – emphasised production line method and standardisation for efficiency – disassembled factories within reach of Germans and moved them more inland1928 Stalin launched industrialisation plan – State Planning Authority through Gosplan – state decided important industries and production targets – first 5 year plan had unrealistic goals (doubling industrial production, grain production increased to pay more imported technical machinery) – completed 1932Private trade made illegal in 1930 – to convince workers to embrace socialism incentives introduced – extra tax and punishment for private hoarding and revenue raising measures were designed to stifle (not kill off) moneyed classDiscipline and state control at industry level were not new in Stalin’s plans – built open programs in consolidation period – Vesenkha, Supreme Council of National economy had been established during civil war to coordinate economy – communists held advantage of having experience of using centralised planning to overcome crisisTo create Stalin’s “socialism within one country” Russia had to be industrialised – claims by Soviets of achievements during this period are believed to have been exaggeratedSecond Plan (1932-37) – consolidated gains of first by emphasising efficiency and technique while promoting rising living standards – heavy industry still preferred, high transport priority, 4500 bew enterprisesThird Plan (1938-43) – production would again double and production of consumer goods increase – difficulty achieving due to purges and WW2, labour shortages and fuel crisis prevented targets from being metUrbanisationDrawn to cities to escape collective farms, others moved in search of incentives offered by gov in return for efficiency and determinationCollectivisation pushed workers off land but they were an unskilled workforceIndustrialisation led to expansion and renewal of existing industrial centres and the creation of new ones (Magnitorsk)Human costChange from NEP mixed economy to command economy under GOSPLAN meant removal of human element from economic system. Industrial emphasis = lack of consumer goods – quality became a secondary concern under efficiency/goalsAlexei Stakhanov – role model of ‘super human’ miner workersExpansion occurred during Western recession = self-congratulatory militant enthusiasmAchievements cost millions of lives - insistence on disciplineIncentive schemes formed for workers – higher wages, social service benefits, fewer hours – when these failed force and coercion were usedLegislation passed to control every activity of urban workersGulag – forced labour camps used by Bolsheviks from earliest days – remove enemies of regime – objects of planned economy not agents of revolution, labour camps provided labour, resources – under control of OGPU (secret police), thus making political police responsible for infrastructure of the period of industrialisationLiving/working conditions appealing – price increases, overcrowding, lack of labour skills, bribery was common – those that tried to escape/speak out – Siberian gulags or death – strikes, food shortages, living standards were halved in real terms since 1928Soviets had industrialised by the beginning of WW2, changing its international position – 1941 it was second to US in economic performanceStalinism brought growth, but bullying, browbeating, and belligerence – no room for those not willing to conform or contributeSocial and cultural change under StalinStalin became supreme master of party by aligning himself with Lenin, at heart Lenin was a consummate political pragmatist – particular vision of revolution (increasingly paranoid) prepared to pursue that vision of vision ruthlessly – Kulak hatred won prestige Peasants failure of agriculture technique was seen as a major stumbling block for the party – Stalin’s labour against will for population benefit increased popularityDeviations from party line became a major crime, failure to work hard was seen as sabotageBelieved that all sections of society worked in harmony the country would advance - discipline and conformity was necessary – workers rewarded through decorations, housing, holidays, and wage increaseStakhanovisms = model workers who exceed quotas, women urged to have more children, free will and expression in the way of common goodProblems – lower party officials’ fault, Stalin blameless – tsarist technique blaming incompetent bureaucracy – party suffered widespread condemnation for rapid rush to industrialise – saboteurs and troksyites were to blame Party members accused of being soft and lacking commitment to the cause – lost their positions/privileges – mid-1930’s over half of Communist party members were new to their positionsChurches/religions were condemned – League of Militant Atheists established 1925, with a membership of 5 million in 1930s – no commitment to any other good. New class of slave labourer emerged1935 Educational Law – classrooms and curriculum more disciplined Social revolutionMid-1930s purges of officials opened opportunities for advancement for new Soviet elites – new governing elites called apparatchiksParty power demonstrated in 1930s with party position providing benefits in social hierarchy compared to ordinary citizens - widening gap in wages, housing, and job opportunitiesSocialist realismLate 1920s - early 1930s: emphasis on proletarian on shop floor and coal face, working-class values emphasisedLate 1930s – phase replaced by Socialist realism – all culture and entertainment had to be happy, productive, and utilitarian – all art was for the masses and involved iconography and had to be optimisticStalin and cult of personalityImage dominated – walls, buildings, homes, workplaces had images of Stalin – movement associated him with all positive aspects of life and lauded him as inspirationKindergarten trained to thank Stalin for happy childhoods, anyone speaking to Stalin on phone had to remain standing in respectProvided Stalin with climate in which he could produce ‘Short Course’ (1938), a book that rewrote the history of the communist party to show that Stalin had never been wrong and that he had played a central role in the events of 1917 – became bible for young party members – 42 million copies printed in 67 languagesCult of personality necessary at the at the time as Russians were used to following a figurehead (Tsar, Lenin, etc) that was living, not just political abstraction such as the communist party – the worship of Stalin fitted tradition (Laqueur, 1990, p.181)Cult useful for measuring loyalty – people could be denounced to secret police for ‘lack of enthusiasm’ Political transformation under StalinGrowth of the partyCoercive power of regime at the peripheries of society was marginal and loose, Stalin’s control at centre was absoluteFor Lenin notions of the party had never been important, he emphasised governing – Stalin took control and began to subsume bureaucratic structures, which maintained functioning nation – Lenin’s constitution (unlike Stalin’s) never mentioned the PartyBetween 1934-53 only 2 Party congresses were held demonstrating Stalin’s controlling influence1936 ConstitutionAim of revolution was to show victory of socialism – key features included:Power of central federal government was greatly expandedMoscow took control of administration of defence, foreign policy and budgetAll-Union of Congress of Soviets replaced as chief legislative body of Supreme Soviet, new body was 2 chamber assembly, made up of Soviet of the Union and Soviet of the NationalitiesDirect elections (secret ballots) of Soviets held every 4 years, those over 18 voteFormer class enemy’s (Tsarists, clergy, kulaks) granted full rights as long as they were executed in interest of working classUse of terror and show trialsTerror drive political transformations – elimination of resistanceSecret police although created by Lenin, expanded by Stalin – 1934 secret police named NKVD, estimated 20 million killed between 1929-53 Purges began with murder of Stalin’s potential rival Sergei Kirov in Dec 1934 – used as pretext to find those responsible for assassination – mass arrests of party officials, old Bolsheviks, and ordinary citizensMoscow show trials were a dramatic propaganda event – 3 successive public trials – 1963, 1937, 1938 – The Purge of the Party - prominent communists accused of plotting against Stalin – many gave improbable/forced confessions that were not possible of occurring – then convicted and executedThe Purge of the Army - Sept 1937 – 9 out of the 10 generals and hero of civil war General Trukhachevsky – left party ill prepared for WW2The Purge of the People - Quotas set of identification and execution of enemies of people. Ordinary citizens denounce neighbours, children denounce parents – family members of accused were also labelled public enemiesParty structure transformed by 1939 Party Congress, most delegates who attended the congress 5 years earlier had been purged and replacedThe GulagInstitution encapsulates Stalin’s terror – extensive prison and labour camp systemGulag – acronym - Glavnoe Upravlenie ispravitel'no-trudovykh LAGerei (Main Administration of Corrective Labour Camps) – thousands of camps across country and on remote islands – notorious gulags: Magadan, Vorkuta, Norilsk, Kolyma, Chelyabinsk, Karaganda – importance of prison labour in planned economyEvidence suggest in 1930s there were 1.5 million prisoners in gulags, by late 1940s 2-2.5 million prisonersHistorians believe gulag’s forced labour accounted for 12-15% of entire 1930s economyPropaganda – camps intended o rehabilitate prisoners through ‘re-educational’ collective labour – mortality and mistreatment were endemic, significant numbers of inmates died yearlyPurge deaths – estimated 14 million deaths between 1936-39, 12 million of whom died in labour camps – of the 139 members of the central committee elected in 1934, 115 disappeared by 1939 (thought that 110 shot)Stalinism as TotalitarianismTotalitarianism is the belief that a government should have total power over its citizens – idea that humans need to be dehumanised to mount them into pieces of a giant machineAccording to Carl Friedrich in The Unique Character of Totalitarian Society to be totalitarianism a state must meet 6 criteria:Official ideology, consisting of an official body of doctrine covering all vital aspects of man’s existenceSingle mass party consisting of relatively small % of population passionately and unquestioningly dedicated to the ideologyTechnologically conditioned near-complete monopoly of control of all effective combatTechnologically conditioned near-complete monopoly of control of all effective communicationSystem of terroristic police control against enemies and arbitrarily selected population classesCentralised control of the economyMarxist Lenninsm ideology ‘socialism in one country’ – secured with USSR as powerbase for the international spread of communismKotkin, Stalin: Paradoxes of Power 1878-1928 – role of ideology was underestimated by historians and that desire to implement Marxist Leninism was pivotal in Stalin’s decision-making processSingle mass partyOne political party in the Soviet Union: the Communist Party. One party state enshrined in 1936 Constitution, were it was determined that having political parties would result in the return of that class systemFriedrich notes that the political party in charge of a totalitarian state should be a small proportion of the population – Communist Party under Stalin met this criterion in that out of total population of around 170 million in 1939, there were only 2 million party membersControl of all means of armed combatTo be classified as a totalitarian state a regime must have full control of all means if armed combat in order to defend against internal and external enemies.Stalin had strong control over red army and navy – Red Army was established through Sovnarkom decree in 1918 with aim to defend revolution in Russia and expand into Europe – during Civil war Trotsky controlled army, this then remained with the partyExtent of Stalin’s control is evident in 1937 military purges – Stalin used NKVD to concoct plot that generals with assistance of the German High command were conspiring against him – Hitler and Heinrich Himmler approved an operation to forge documents implicating Marshal Tukhachesvky to cripple leadership of the red army. 7 May 1937 President Benes of Czechoslovakia provided soviet ambassador with the fake documents incriminating Marshal, where Stalin then got the NKVD to interrogate, torture, and execute the alleged plottersPurge – execution of 8/9 Soviet admirals, 3/5 Marshals, 14/16 army commanders, 60/67 Corps Commanders, 136/199 Divisional Commanders, and all 11 Deputy Commissars for Defence – eliminated 36 761 army officers, over 3000 navy officers – not all executed 13 000 eventually returned to their military dutiesControl all means of mass communicationStalinist Russia possessed firm control of the media, education system, and cultural life of the USSR – facilitated cult of Stalin – opposition press banned by Lenin in 1917 Press Decree – more manipulative under Stalin than Lenin – distorted truth – reach widened under Stalin due to emphasis on broader literacy and educational standards1930s new schools open – literacy rate between 9-49 yr olds reach 94% in 1939 – school inculcating minds into Stalin’s version of Communist ideology Goskomizdat – responsible for censorship of all printed matterGosteleradio – dealt with TV and radioGoskino – films – values and massagesLiterature and arts controlled – Union of Soviet Writers – necessary to have a writing career1920s Socialist Realism emerged to promote proletariat and advance of USS – accessible propaganda System of Terroristic police controlTerror – pivotal in the functioning of SU under Stalin – Stalin’s orders carried out by NKVD Victims of totalitarian terror are ‘arbitrarily selected classes of the population’ (Friedrich) and ‘victims are innocent even from the POV of the persecutor’ (Arendt) – kulaks, military, and engineers were enemies of the state – ensured populations fearArbitrary selection of enemies – fearCentralised command economyState Planning Committee (Gosplan) created 5 year plans to determine goods that the regime would produce and the quantitiesCollectivisation brought the agricultural sector under gov control – 1937 93% of all peasant households in the SU had been collectivisedNature of the SU Foreign Policy: role of ideology under Lenin and StalinGuiding PrinciplesLenin wrote in Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism 1916 that wars were the result of the export of capital by industrialised nations - create disputes on a global scale – bureaucrats warned about western intentions Inter-war period: revolutions goal of survival – world revolution became goal of survival The Battle for Warsaw 1920Failure of six Red armies led by Mikhail Tukhachevsky to defeat Polish legionnaires in the battle for Warsaw during Russo-Polish war marked the end for the aim to spread revolutionWorld revolution replaced by world isolationRevolutionary pragmatismEnd of civil war – communists achieved breathing spaceRevolutionary pragmatism policy – SU declared that it stood for peaceful coexistence and economic cooperation with capitalist powers, while secretly exploiting situations to gain whatever they couldStrict ideological considerations put aside as SU depended on west to rebuild economy – financial support by western powers, believed would bring their downfallGeorgy ChicherinFirst Soviet Commissar for Foreign Affairs – aristocrat from Tsars foreign office, and was a Menshevik – but skilled diplomat – bourgeois specialistBelieved major early threat was Great Britain – imperial power that promoted allied intervention – caused determination of Chicherin to form agreements and alliances wherever he couldTreaty of Rapallo 1922 and Treaty of Berlin 1926 – Germany and SU work together – economic cooperation, benevolent neutrality of invasion (material and moral assistance only)Pragmatism (ensuring survival over expansion) – US SU relationship in 1920s – economic relations established Communist International (Comintern)Organisation meant to be separate to SU but not the case – shift in focus from promoting communism to the survival of the SUBy linking Comintern to needs to Moscow rather than the needs of the working class – negated possibility of working together with all of the political left wing. Stalin warned western capitalist powers were waiting to invite SU – Stalin said 3 war scares occurred in the inter-war period based upon intelligence information Great Depression 1929Capitalist financial crisis at the time Stalin embarked on economic expansion – became a key trading partnerIncreased support for communism abroad – led western nations to abandon collective action through LoN and seek national security through rearmamentEmergence of Japan and Germany as potential threats to Soviet security caused a change in emphasis in Soviet foreign policy – socialism in one country maintained by SU giving support to West’s collective security and active LoN participationLitvinov – outgoing, pro-European, and popular with Western diplomats – Litvinov signed non-aggression pact with Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, and France – formal diplomatic relations with USA and secured 1934 membership of SU to LoNReaction from the westNot all western countries fell for the ruse – 1935 France signed a mutual assistance treaty with SU but never undertook any discussions in relation to military supportWhen Italy attacked Abyssinia in 1935 and Germany re-occupied Rhineland in 1936 – SU argued for collective action – France and Britain did nothing – same in outbreak of Spanish Civil War in 1936“failure of cooperation over Spain…Western statesmen were only half-hearted defenders of collective security, more hostile to communism than fascism… (Stalin) interpreted British inaction over Spain as a calculated attempt to drive the SU into a war with Germany” – R. Overy and A. Weatcroft, 19891937 Ezhovschina – purging of SU enemies – 90% of all generals, 80% of colonels – virtually entire Soviet General staff tried and executed as German spiesEffects of purgesFrance became reluctant to cooperate with SU – fear secrets would be passed to GermansElimination of military figures meant for British and French that the SU was no longer a viable counterweight to Japanese and German expansion – isolatedCzech Crisis 1938SU had assistance treaty with Czechoslovakia – SU action would only occur if France honoured its pactThroughout crisis SU would stand by commitment to Prague, but France had to convince Poland and Romania to permit SU troops to move across their territory – neither country allowedStalin was determined to utilise collective security when facing Germany – PM Chamberlain was unlikely to call on SU when it was speaking of moving against Poland and continuing to purge militaryPossibility of collective security failed – exclusion of SU and Munich negotiates reinforced Stalin’s view that the capitalist states were acting against SUNazi occupation of rest of Czechoslovakia in 1939 and Britain’s guarantee to support Poland – Moscow’s support being sought after in London, Paris, and by BerlinStalin felt his alliance with Britain and France due to their combined strength could take Germany – Soviets support in return of territorial integrity and promise of mutual assistance in the event of an attackVyacheslav MolotovProblem – by the time Chamberlain agreed to negotiations (May 1939) – situation changed, West delays re-enforced Stalin’s distrust – became more sympathetic to German demands1939 Litvinov was fired and replaced by Vyacheslav Molotov who favoured German foreign policy – publicly courted Britain and France, whilst undertaking secret negotiations with the GermansNazi-Soviet Pact, 1939Soviets invited Britain and France representatives to Moscow to begin military negotiations – officials possessed to authority to sign binding agreements – West didn’t trust MoscowNegotiation of a political and economic agreement with Germany was completed, and followed by the Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression pact of 24 August 1939 – return of Soviet neutrality, Germany would return of Polish lands lost in 1917Announcement of agreement met with dismay – Germans promised return of Poland – West expected SU to demand the one state Europe – added to the west’s suspicion of Soviet motivesGerman invasion of Poland3 September 1939 – Germany entered as Japan engaged SU in battle on the Manchurian borderGermans swept in quickly – fear that they would occupy, reach a truce with West, then leave Russia under threat – SU quickly reached truce with Japan and on 17 September entered Poland from the EastSU turned attention to armed forces development in preparation for war against capitalism – 1941 the SU army grew by 150% and air force larger than that of Germany, France, and Britain combined – 5 Year plans were successfulWinter WarOctober 1939 Finland refused to heed Soviet demand for a strip of territory to the north of LeningradWinter war resulted in Soviet victory in March 1940 – cost SU 200 000 men, 700 planes, 1600 tanks, whilst Finns lost 25 000 menSU expelled from LoN for actions, giving Hitler confidenceGerman invasion 1941Germany preoccupied with war with West – SU expanded territory to north Bukovina, Bessarabia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia in 1940Not in terms of Nazi-Soviet pact – July 1940 Hitler ordered German economy to build army resources more than all enemy armies combinedTripartite Pact signed between Germany, Italy, and Japan in September 1940 – plans for Operation BarbarossaApril 1941 Stalin secured Eastern boarder with signing Neutrality Pact with Japan22 June 1941 German forces invade SU ................
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