My Personal Praxis Study Guide



CHAPTER ONE

Praxis II recognized the role of reflective practice in the development of excellent teachers. Reflective practice includes contact with colleagues, membership in professional associations, and review of professional literature as resources, as well as the ability to understand the current views, significant debates, and research about effective teaching practices.

Sample test question

Expert teachers can best be described as those teachers

a. whose training has surpassed the undergraduate level

b. who have taught for many years

c. who are born with the natural ability for teaching

d. who possess elaborate systems of knowledge for understanding problems in teaching

Stop for a moment and consider why d is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER TWO

Praxis II devotes much of its attention to an assessment of your knowledge of human development and its relationship to learning. Your understanding of theories of cognitive development and language development will help you design and implement instructional strategies that are appropriate for the developmental levels of your students and will aid you in understanding and interpreting the problems that they might have with learning activities.

Key Concepts to Know:

Piagetian and Vygotskian theories of development:

1. Basic assumptions of each

2. How students build their unique knowledge bases

3. How they acquire skills

4. Important terms and concepts related to each

5. Key steps, mechanisms, or milestones related to each theory

6. Limitations of each theory

Language:

1. Basic assumptions of major theories

2. Major accomplishments of language development of school age children

3. Relationship between language and literacy

4. Basic steps teachers can take to enhance literacy among students

Sample test questions

Teachers can help students develop their capacities for formal thinking by

a. using direct instruction to provide them with as much factual information as possible

b. putting students in situations that challenge their thinking and reveal their shortcomings

c. teaching them the rules for abstract reasoning and problem solving

d. encouraging them to attend to their physical environment

e.

Stop for a moment and consider why b is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

Which of the following is consistent with Piaget’s notions of constructing knowledge?

a. active experience should include mental manipulation of ideas

b. students must be given a chance to actively experience the world

c. students need to interact with teachers and peers to test their thinking, be challenged, and receive feedback.

d. All of the above.

Stop for a moment and consider why d is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER THREE

Chapter 3 reflects many of the professional standards created by the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC). These standards form the basis of the Praxis II and state-created teacher licensure exams. The Praxis II will require you to be knowledgeable about the personal, emotional, social, moral, and physical development of students.

Key Concepts to Know:

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development

Paiget’s and Kohlberg’s perspectives on moral development

Gilligan’s theory of caring

Design or choose strategies that:

• Support optimal social and emotional development of students

• Help students cope with major life transitions and challenges to safety, physical, and mental health

• Help students build a sense of self-concept and self-esteem

Sample test questions

A kindergarten student plays hide and seek by “hiding” behind a student desk. Although her face is covered, the rest of her body is not. This choice of hiding spot demonstrates the child’s thinking is:

a. adaptive

b. within the zone of proximal development

c. egocentric

d. scaffolding

e. gifted

Stop for a moment and consider why c is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

The elementary/middle school child’s struggle according to Erikson is to:

a. Establish an identity regarding beliefs, abilities, drives, and future goals.

b. Develop a sense of industry through performance of academic tasks.

c. Develop a sense of trust for the adults who provide care for his well-being.

d. Develop strong commitment to life choices after free consideration of alternatives.

e. Accept parental life choices without consideration of options.

Stop for a moment and consider why b is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER FOUR

Praxis II, like classroom teaching, will require you to make instructional decisions based on your knowledge of intelligence, academic ability, grouping practices, learning disabilities, giftedness, creativity, physical disabilities and state and federal legislation.

Key Concepts to Know:

Explain the effects of legislation on public education:

• American with Disabilities Act

• Individuals with Disabilities Act

• Section 504

• Individualized Education Plans (IEP)

Inclusion, mainstreaming and least restrictive environment

Understand views of intelligence and describe its measurement:

• Types of intelligence tests and their uses

• Multiple intelligences

• Interpreting intelligence scores

• Modifications to testing

Accommodate the needs of students with exceptionalities:

• Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder

• Visual, speech, and physical difficulties

• Learning disabilities

• Mental retardation

Sample test questions

Highly related to standardized IQ scores are measures of

a. creativity

b. scholastic achievement

c. reflective/impulsive tempo

d. midlife adjustment disorders

Stop for a moment and consider why b is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

Preschool children who spend more time in pretend play

a. have higher IQ scores

b. possess greater self-control

c. are more creative

d. engage in a higher frequency of disruptive classroom behaviors

Stop for a moment and consider why c is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER FIVE

In Praxis II you will be presented with scenarios and questions that will test your knowledge of the increasingly complex learning communities that teachers and students inhabit. You will be challenged to implement strategies and practices that foster learning for each of the varied students who are in that community with you.

Key Concept to Know:

Recognize the influences that ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and community values may have on:

• Student-teacher relationships

• Parent-teacher relationships

• Academic achievement

• Attitudes, self-esteem, and expectations for success

• Opportunities for quality education experiences

Understand the influences that gender may have on:

• Teachers’ attention to students

• Differences in mental abilities

Devise strategies that:

• Eliminate exist teaching practices

• Promote positive school-home relationships

• Support English acquisition in non-English speaking students

• Reduce or eliminate racial and ethnic stereotypes and biases

• Create classroom environments that provide equal opportunities for all students

Sample test question

When socioeconomic status and educational achievement are examined in research studies, results indicate that lack of income

a. is the primary factor in determining lack of achievement

b. is not related to decreased academic achievement

c. is not as important for school achievement as family environment variables

d. is strongly correlated with lack of support for children’s learning

Stop for a moment and consider why c is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER SIX

Look for Praxis II to test your knowledge of behaviorism to foster appropriate classroom conduct and to establish effective routines and procedures and to address many common classroom situations.

Key Concepts to Know:

Understand the basic assumptions and contributions of these behaviorists:

• Pavlov

• Watson

• Thorndike

• Skinner

Determine appropriate behavioral techniques to:

• Establish efficient classroom routines and procedures

• Roster appropriate classroom conduct

• Help students monitor and regulate learning

Understand basic processes of operant conditioning and their roles in learning, including:

• Antecedents and consequences

• Types of reinforcement and reinforcement schedules

• Punishment

• Shaping

Sample test questions

Which of the following is NOT a strategy used to decrease behaviors?

a. satiation

b. positive practice

c. reprimands

d. response cost

Stop for a moment and consider why b is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

Mastery usually means a score of ________ on a test or other assignment.

a. 80 to 90%

b. 75%

c. 100%

d. none of the above

Stop for a moment and consider why a is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER SEVEN

Knowledge of human memory and learning developed research based on the cognitive perspective has influenced nearly every aspect of classroom practice from the design of curricula and test to the design of textbooks and instructional software. Praxis II will assess your knowledge of the contributions of the cognitive perspective.

Key Concepts to Know:

Understand how memory and recall are affected by:

• The limitations, capacities, and capabilities of the various structures of human memory

• The manner in which humans process information

• Prior knowledge of a topic

• Metacognitive/executive control processes

Explain how students and teachers can enhance learning through the use of:

• Elaboration and mnemonic devices

• Organized presentations

• Study tools that organize information (outlines, concept maps)

• Meaningful learning and instructional activities

Sample test questions:

Learning is the result of our attempts to make sense of the world and our existing knowledge influences how and what we learn. These assumptions are consistent with

a. cognitive views of learning

b. behaviorist approach

c. metacognitive skills

d. psychosocial theories

e. none of the above

Stop for a moment and consider why a is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

The single best method for helping students to learn is to

a. organize the material for them

b. make it meaningful

c. provide them with mnemonics

d. reinforce their learning with incentives and rewards

Stop for a moment and consider why b is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER EIGHT

As you become more knowledgeable about teaching through experience, study, and reflection, you can expect to develop a sophisticated set of instructional strategies that you can use to address a variety of instruction challenges. Praxis II will test your understanding of instructional and learning strategies.

Key Concepts to Know:

Discovery learning and expository teaching:

• Basic assumptions

• Inductive reasoning/deductive reasoning

• Appropriate uses

• Principles of implementation

Problem solving:

• General problem-solving strategies

• The value of problem representation

• Heuristics and algorithms

• Factors that impede problem solving

Learning strategies:

• Basic principles of teaching these strategies

• Cognitive processes involved in various strategies

Transfer of learning:

• Types of transfer

• Steps that teachers can take to promote transfer

Sample test questions

A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem is called a(n)

a. analogy

b. heuristic

c. means-ends analysis

d. algorithm

Stop for a moment and consider why d is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

When teaching concepts to your students, the most effective sequence is

a. prototype, less obvious examples, nonexamples

b. nonexamples, less obvious examples, prototypes

c. less obvious examples, nonexamples, prototypes

d. less obvious examples, prototypes, nonexamples

Stop for a moment and consider why a is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER NINE

The Praxis II tests your knowledge of student-centered models of instruction and how you draw your students into active, meaningful learning. You will be asked to consider thoughtful learning activities about such topics as motivation, learning environments, evaluation, and instructional strategies.

Key Topics to Know

Explain the advantages and appropriate uses of major student-centered approaches to learning and instruction:

• Cooperative learning

• Inquiry method

• Problem-based learning

• Instructional conversations

• Cognitive apprenticeships

Understand important concepts related to student-centered models of instruction:

• Situated learning

• Critical thinking/Culture of thinking

• Complex learning environments

• Authentic tasks

• Multiple representations of content

Sample test question

Introduction of the fundamental structure of all subjects in the early years, revisiting them in more complex forms over time is called

a. reciprocal teaching

b. instructional conversations

c. authentic learning

d. situated learning

e. spiral curriculum

Stop for a moment and consider why e is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER TEN

Your level of self-determination, your expectations for success and support, and your goals are among the many factors that will influence your motivation to be a successful teacher. Now transfer these concepts about motivation to your students. The Praxis II will assess your understanding of the role of self-determination, positive expectations, and goal setting in the classroom.

Key Concepts to Know:

Describe the theoretical foundations of the major approaches to motivation.

Identify and define important terms related to motivation.

Use your knowledge of motivation to:

• Identify situations and conditions that can enhance or diminish student motivation to learn.

• Design strategies to support individual and group work in the classroom.

• Implement practices that help students become self-motivated.

Sample test questions

As a teacher, you give an assignment requiring students to go beyond the information given in the text by combining several ideas. You are asking students to use skills of:

a. memory

b. opinion

c. comprehension

d. authentic assessment

Stop for a moment and consider why c is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

When students are required to engage in activities that have some connection to real-life problems and situations that students will face outside of the classroom this is aptly named:

a. inert knowledge

b. problem based learning

c. routine procedure

d. authentic tasks

Stop for a moment and consider why d is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER ELEVEN

As a teacher, you are responsible for creating a classroom climate where all students can learn in an environment in which they feel safe, respected, and accepted. The Praxis II will test your knowledge of strategies and techniques used to create classroom climates that are conducive to learning and academic risk-taking.

Key Concepts to Know:

Understand principles of classroom management that promote positive relationships by:

• Establishing daily procedures and routines

• Responding effectively to minor student misbehavior

• Implementing reasonable rules, penalties, and rewards

• Keeping students actively engaged in purposeful learning

• Diagnose problems and prevent or reduce inappropriate behaviors by:

• Communicating with students and parents

• Addressing misbehaviors in the least intrusive way possible

• Confronting disruptive behaviors in an effective, efficient manner.

Sample test question:

An essential goal of classroom management is to expand the sheer number of minutes available for learning. This is called:

a. academic learning time

b. engaged time

c. time on task

d. seat to seat time

Stop for a moment and consider why c is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER TWELVE

Recent policy changes in many states as well as the federal Leave No Child Behind Act will probably have a strong influence on your new career as a teacher. The test scores of your students will receive increased scrutiny from administrators, boards of education, and state education departments. Many newer tests emphasize skills and knowledge that are learned most effectively through a variety of student-centered instructional strategies that you have encountered in you textbook. The Praxis II will evaluate your understanding of these important student-centered instructional strategies.

Key Concepts to Know

Develop plans for instruction and consider:

• The role of objectives in instruction

• Writing behavioral cognitive objectives

• The use of educational taxonomies to design effective objectives and plans

• The role of independent practice (seatwork and homework)

Understand the basic principles of teacher-centered and student-centeeed forms of instruction, including:

• Appropriate uses and limitations

• The role of the teacher

• Effective questioning techniques

• Whole group discussions

• Recitation

• Cooperative learning

• Thematic/interdisciplinary instruction

Sample questions

The best way to evaluate a student’s performance in the psychomotor domain is to

a. grade on effort and perseverance since this domain addresses inherited abilities

b. observe and rate the student’s proficiency in producing a product or performing a skill

c. select a panel of unbiased judges as in professional competitions

d. allow the students to rate their own performances

Stop for a moment and consider why b is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

Which of the following is consistent with the constructivist approach

a. teachers and students together make decisions about content, activities, and approaches

b. teacher has overarching goals that guide planning

c. the focus is on students’ process of learning and thinking

d. all of the above

Stop for a moment and consider why d is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

The Praxis II will assess your understanding of the effects of students’ emotions, their interactions with you and each other, the ways in which educators manage classrooms and schools, and the values that teacher emphasize in their classrooms and curricula.

Key Concepts to Know:

Focus on these major topics:

• Strategies for building a community of learners

• Cooperative Learning Structures

• The role of the school in the community.

• Community environments and conditions that affect students’ lives and learning.

• Events outside the immediate school or community environment that may influence student behavior.

Sample test questions

Positive interdependence, needing each other for support, explanations and guidance, are characteristic of what form of learning?

a. cooperative learning

b. situated learning

c. inquiry learning authentic learning

d. group learning

Stop for a moment and consider why a is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

As a teacher, your goal is to encourage deeper learning about the material presented in the science chapter on the environment. Which of the following cooperative strategies would be the most effective in helping you achieve your goal?

a. reciprocal questioning where students learn to summarize the content of a passage, ask questions about central points, clarify material and predict what will come next.

b. cognitive apprenticeships where young people work with knowledgeable guides.

c. instructional conversations which are seen as an alternative to teacher dominated interactions.

d. scripted cooperation where students work in pairs to learn a topic.

e.

Stop for a moment and consider why a is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

The Praxis II will assess your knowledge about the various types of standardized tests, results of these instruments, purposes of specific tests and the strengths and limitations of those tests.

Key Concepts to Know:

Understand the major concepts related to measurement theory, including:

• Norming samples

• Percentile rank, grade-equivalent scores, stanine scores, T and z scores

• Standard deviation, mean, mode, median, standard error of measurement, and confidence intervals

• Reliability and validity

Describe the characteristics and purposes of the major types of tests:

• Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced tests

• Achievement, aptitude, diagnostic, and readiness tests

Explain the major issues related to concerns about standardized testing, including:

• High-stakes testing

• Bias in testing

• Test-taking programs

Sample test questions

When teachers attempt to address the relatedness between testing and teaching they are trying to ensure that their teacher-made tests have

a. content validity

b. criterion-related validity

c. external validity

d. extreme validity

Stop for a moment and consider why b is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

In which of the following scenarios would norm referenced tests be most useful?

a. to tell whether students are ready to move on to more advanced material

b. to measure affective and psychomotor domains

c. to foster cooperation and collaboration

d. to select the top candidates when limited numbers can be admitted to a program

Stop for a moment and consider why d is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

CHAPTER FIFTEEN

A useful grading system is fair, manageable, and supportive of learning. The Praxis II will evaluate your understanding of the complexities of classroom assessment.

Key Concepts to Know:

Understand major concepts related to classroom assessment and grading:

• Formative and summative assessment

• Reliability and validity

• Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced grading

Describe the characteristics, uses, and limitations of major assessment techniques, including:

• Multiple-choice items

• Essays

• Portfolios

• Exhibitions

Design a scoring rubric for an authentic learning task that possesses:

• Validity

• Reliability

• Generalizability

• Equity

Sample test questions

Which of the following is NOT an example of criterion-referenced grading?

a. portfolios

b. percentage grading

c. grading on the curve

d. exhibitions

Stop for a moment and consider why c is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

Sometimes, teachers form a general impression about a student and that impression may positively or negatively influence the teacher when assigning the student a grade. This effect is called

a. self-fulfilling prophecy

b. dual marking effect

c. halo effect

d. error of measurement

Stop for a moment and consider why c is the best response. Jot your thoughts here:

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