Abstract: - Edinburgh Research Explorer



Mechanical and thermomechanical characterisation of vacuum-infused thermoplastic- and thermoset-based compositesWinifred Obande a, Dimitrios Mamalis a, Dipa Ray* a, Liu Yang b, and Conchúr M. ? Brádaigh aa School of Engineering, Institute for Materials and Processes, The University of Edinburgh, Sanderson Building, Robert Stevenson Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FB, Scotland, United Kingdom.b University of Strathclyde, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, 75 Montrose Street, Glasgow G1 1XJ, United KingdomCorresponding author. Email address: dipa.roy@ed.ac.ukAbstract: In this work, a comparative performance study was conducted on glass fibre-reinforced thermoplastic acrylic and thermosetting epoxy laminates produced by vacuum-assisted resin transfer moulding. Mechanical characterisation revealed that the acrylic-based composite had superior transverse tensile strength and mode-I fracture toughness to the epoxy composite, while longitudinal flexural properties and short beam shear strength were found to be comparable. Dissimilar damage evolution behaviour was observed in both materials during tensile testing. The thermomechanical behaviour of the materials has been assessed as a function of temperature. Finally, fractographic investigations of shear and mode-I fracture behaviour revealed distinct fracture mechanisms that complement the findings from mechanical and thermomechanical analyses. Keywords: Thermoplastic polymer; Vacuum infusion; In-situ polymerisation; Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs); Mechanical properties; Thermomechanical propertiesIntroductionFibre-reinforced polymer composites (FRPs) are particularly attractive for their exceptional specific strength and stiffness properties; and are known to be highly durable. Thus, they are ideal candidate materials across many sectors, particularly for weight-critical applications. They typically comprise fibrous reinforcement encapsulated within a polymer matrix, which may be thermosetting (TS) or thermoplastic (TP). TS polymers form dense three-dimensional, crosslinked networks upon polymerisation and are not thermo-softening materials; as a result, they cannot be reshaped, joined and readily recycled like their TP counterparts. Consequently, from an ecological viewpoint, TP matrices are more desirable for FRP applications; however, high melt-viscosity has been a major limitation to their cross-sectoral adoption. They typically require high-cost processing techniques where elevated temperatures and pressures are used to realise infiltration viscosities and optimal consolidation. TS matrices possess inherently low viscosities, making them ideal for low-cost processing. In recent years, light-weighting has been identified by several sectors as an effective strategy towards meeting the strict global government targets on addressing current environmental challenges ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00288.x","ISBN":"1530-9290","ISSN":"10881980","abstract":"The life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction benefits of vehicle lightweighting (LW) were evaluated in a companion article. This article provides an economic assessment of vehicle LW with aluminum and high-strength steel. Relevant cost information taken from the literature is synthesized, compiled, and formed into estimates of GHG reduction costs through LW. GHG emissions associated with vehicle LW scenarios between 6% and 23% are analyzed alongside vehicle life cycle costs to achieve these LW levels. We use this information to estimate the cost to remove GHG emissions per metric ton by LW, and we further calculate the difference between added manufacturing cost and fuel cost savings from LW. The results show greater GHG savings derived from greater LW and added manufacturing costs as expected. The associated production costs are, however, disproportionately higher than the fuel cost savings associated with higher LW options. A sensitivity analysis of different vehicle classes confirms that vehicle LW is more cost-effective for larger vehicles. Also, the cost of GHG emissions reductions through lightweighting is compared with alternative GHG emissions reduction technologies for passenger vehicles, such as diesel, hybrid, and plug-in hybrid electric powertrains. The results find intensive LW to be a competitive and complementary approach relative to the technological alternatives within the automotive industry but more costly than GHG mitigation strategies available to other industries.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kim","given":"Hyung Ju","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Keoleian","given":"Gregory A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Skerlos","given":"Steven J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Industrial Ecology","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"page":"64-80","title":"Economic assessment of greenhouse gas emissions reduction by vehicle lightweighting using aluminum and high-strength steel","type":"article-journal","volume":"15"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1065/lca2006.07.258","abstract":"On a global level, however, road vehicles and especially passenger cars could make the highest contribution to reduce energy consumption by light-weighting. This is due to the high share of these vehicles on the global energy consumption (because of the huge number of these vehicles) and also a considerable potential to realise a further weight reduction. Conclusion and Perspectives. Light-weighting is one way of reducing transport energy consumption in the use phase. The differences in use phase energy savings for a 100 kg weight reduction between the vehicle groups are considerable and allow for the identification of priorities for future light-weighting efforts. The contribution to a reduction of the global transport energy consumption, in turn, depends on the further potential for a weight reduction and on the number of vehicles which can be weight reduced. The OECD market of private passenger cars and trucks, for instance, offers a good perspective due to a high contribution to the global transport energy consumption, a considerable potential for weight reduction and a high turnover rate of the vehicle fleet. The benefits will be realised after a substantial replacement of the existing fleet with new, weight-reduced vehicles. Abstract Background, Goal and Scope. The transport sector contributes significantly to the global energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Among other measures, also light-weighting of vehicles is discussed as a way to reduce the energy consumption and, thus, also CO 2 emissions of transport. Currently, most Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs) use rough estimates on potential energy savings by light-weighting, which are not comparable due to different scopes and methodologies. This paper therefore presents a set of scientific data for use phase energy savings for different vehicle types for a harmonised and, thus, comparable weight reduction of 100 kg. Road and rail vehicles, ships and aircrafts are covered in this paper. Besides an analysis on a per vehicle basis, the potential contribution of light-weighting to a reduction of the global transport energy consumption is also estimated. All analysed energy savings are independent of the technical realisation of the weight reduction (e.g. new materials or improved design or logistics). The data can therefore be used in LCAs of different lightweight -ing technologies.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Helms","given":"Hinrich","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lambrecht","given":"Udo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]},"page":"58-64","title":"The potential contribution of light-weighting to reduce transport energy consumption","type":"article-journal","volume":"12"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[1,2]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[1,2]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[1,2]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[1,2]. In the context of minimising ecological impact, TP resins possess a unique combination of characteristics that make them ideal candidate matrices for FRPs. Furthermore, TP resins have a well-documented superiority in toughness – a property that controls numerous matrix and laminate properties ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.matdes.2015.07.001","ISBN":"0264-1275","ISSN":"18734197","abstract":"Infusion processing methods have become a popular manufacturing alternative to the autoclave procedure to meet the increased demand for high-performance composites with shorter production times and lower cost. These processes are primarily limited to low viscosity, thermosetting matrices that are inherently brittle, and hence are susceptible to impact damage. It has been shown that introducing a thermoplastic modifier to create a \"three-phase composite\" can improve the ability of the laminate to resist damage formation and growth, and enhance a damaged laminate's structural performance. A comprehensive review is presented herein of the state-of-the-art on the incorporation of a thermoplastic phase into a fibre-reinforced thermosetting composite laminate to improve its damage resistance and tolerance properties when subjected to a low-energy impact. Several material properties govern the response of a laminate to an impact event, and for this reason, a discussion on the impact damage process and post-impact performance is also presented. Techniques from two main areas of toughening are considered - namely, bulk resin modification and interlaminar toughening. The improvements in laminate performance brought about by the thermoplastic additive are discussed, and each technique is assessed based on its suitability for inclusion in infusion manufacturing processes.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nash","given":"N. H.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Young","given":"T. M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"McGrail","given":"P. T.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Stanley","given":"W. F.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials and Design","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"page":"582-597","title":"Inclusion of a thermoplastic phase to improve impact and post-impact performances of carbon fibre reinforced thermosetting composites - A review","type":"article-journal","volume":"85"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"abstract":"An experimental study has been conducted to assess temperature effects on mode-I and mode-II interlaminar fracture toughness of carbon fibre/polyetherimide (CF/PEI) and glass fi-bre/polyetherimide (GF/PEI) thermoplastic composites. Mode-I double cantilever beam (DCB) and mode-II end notched flexure (ENF) tests were carried out in a temperature range from 25 to 130 ? C. For both composite systems, the initiation toughness, G IC, ini and G IIC, ini , of mode-I and mode-II interlaminar fracture decreased with an increase in temperature, while the propagation toughness, G IC, prop and G IIC, prop , displayed a reverse trend. Three main mechanisms were identified to contribute to the interlaminar fracture toughness, namely matrix deformation, fibre/matrix interfacial failure and fibre bridging during the delamination process. At delamination initiation, the weakened fibre/matrix interface at elevated temperatures plays an overriding role with the delamination growth initiating at the fibre/matrix interface, rather than from a blunt crack tip introduced by the insert film, leading to low values of G IC, ini and G IIC, ini. On the other hand, during delamination propagation, enhanced matrix deformation at elevated temperatures and fibre bridging promoted by weakened fibre/matrix interface result in greater G IC, prop values. Meanwhile enhanced matrix toughness and ductility at elevated temperatures also increase the stability of mode-II crack growth.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kim","given":"Ki-Young","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ye","given":"Lin","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Phoa","given":"Kim-Meng","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Applied Composite Materials","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]},"page":"173-190","title":"Interlaminar fracture toughness of CF/PEI and GF/PEI composites at elevated temperatures","type":"article-journal","volume":"11"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[3,4]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[3,4]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[3,4]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[3,4]. As such, the development of lower cost alternatives for TP-FRP fabrication has been the subject of extensive research. Previous research has focussed on infusion and in-situ polymerisation of engineering polymers such as polyamide-12 (PA-12 using the laurolactam monomer system) ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"abstract":"A new RTM-type process has been developed to process complex geometry components utilising a thermoplastic matrix. The matrix is an anionically polymerised liquid PA-12 (APLC-12) system which may be injected into a fibre preform, with polymerisation occurring in-situ. The initially low melt viscosity can be utilised to good effect for the impregnation of all types of composite fabrics, yielding fibre volume fractions as high as 60%. Large, complex-shaped components can be manufactured using low injection pressures. A melt processing system was established and a test mould was constructed. Different geometries were used to investigate the processing characteristics and residual stress build-up effects of the unreinforced PA-12, composite plates and composite sandwiches. An industrial-scale dosing/mixing unit was also designed and developed, and used to produce carbon-fibre/PA-12 laminates for measurement of mechanical properties. Mechanical properties were tested and the results obtained were found to be comparable to those obtained from commingled carbon-fibre/PA-12 laminates.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"? Máirtín","given":"P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"McDonnell","given":"P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Connor","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Eder","given":"R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"? Brádaigh","given":"C. M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composites: Part A","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]},"page":"915-923","title":"Process investigation of a liquid PA-12/carbon fibre moulding system","type":"article-journal","volume":"32"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[5]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[5]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[5]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[5], polyamide-6 (PA-6 using the caprolactam system ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/positesa.2008.03.018","abstract":"In order to manufacture thicker, larger and more integrated thermoplastic composite parts than currently can be achieved by melt processing, a vacuum infusion process is currently being developed at the Delft University of Technology using a reactive thermoplastic polymer called anionic polyamide-6 (APA-6). In previous studies it was demonstrated that the anionic polyamide-6 (APA-6) resin that is used has excellent mechanical properties. The present study assesses infused thermoplastic composites and focuses on fiber-matrix interactions. Part I of this study focuses on the thermal effects, causes for deactivation of the initiator and the restriction caused by the low in-plane permeability of the fiber textiles on various transport phenomena. It will be shown that addition of pre-heated fibers not only shortens the infusion window , but also influences the matrix properties by reducing the exothermic heat production. In addition, the low in-plane permeability of the fiber textiles influences the infusion time and causes the entrapment of voids. Finally, reactions between the matrix and the fiber surface can lead to deactivation of the initi-ator and bond formation with the activator. Interfacial bonding, however, is discussed in more detail in Part II of this study, whereas the effect of adding a nucleating agent is discussed in Part III.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rijswijk","given":"K","non-dropping-particle":"Van","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Teuwen","given":"J J E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bersee","given":"H E N","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Beukers","given":"A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]},"page":"1-10","title":"Textile fiber-reinforced anionic polyamide-6 composites. Part I: The vacuum infusion process","type":"article-journal","volume":"40"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/pscitech.2008.03.021","abstract":"Liquid molding of thermoplastics has been limited by high resin viscosity, high temperature processing requirements, and a short processing window [Sibal PW, Camargo RE, Macosko CW. Designing nylon 6 polymerization for RIM. In: Proceedings of the second international conference on reactive processing of polymers, Pittsburgh, PA; 1982, p. 97-125.]. The processing parameters for vacuum assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) developed by the authors and previously reported [Pillay S, Vaidya UK, Janow-ski GM. Liquid molding of carbon fabric-reinforced nylon matrix composite laminates. J Thermoplast Compos Mater 2005;18:509-27] have been adapted to process carbon/nylon 6 composite panels. The present work addresses the effects of moisture and ultraviolet (UV) exposure on the static and dynamic mechanical properties of carbon fabric reinforced, thermoplastic polyamide 6 matrix panels processed using VARTM. The Bao and Yee dual diffusivity model [Bao LR, Yee AF. Moisture diffusion and hygrother-mal aging in bismaleimide matrix carbon fiber composites: Part II-Woven and hybrid composites. Com-pos Sci Technol 2002;62:2111-9] was applied to evaluate the moisture uptake for the C/PA6, fully immersed in distilled water at 100 °C. SEM results show that moisture exposure result in surface micro-cracks compromise of the fiber-matrix interface. The flexural strength is lowered by 45%, after exposure to moisture at 100 °C. UV exposure up to 600 h causes yellowing of the samples and an increase in crystallinity from 40% to 44%.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pillay","given":"Selvum","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vaidya","given":"Uday K","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Janowski","given":"Gregg M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composites Science and Technology","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"page":"839-846","title":"Effects of moisture and UV exposure on liquid molded carbon fabric reinforced nylon 6 composite laminates","type":"article-journal","volume":"69"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[6,7]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[6,7]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[6,7]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[6,7]) and polybutylene terephthalate (PBT using cyclic oligomer precursors, known as CBT) ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Coll","given":"S. M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Murtagh","given":"A. M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"? Brádaigh","given":"C. M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Proceedings of the SAMPE Europe 25th International Jubilee Conference","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]},"publisher-place":"Paris","title":"Resin film infusion of cyclic pBT composites: a fundamental study","type":"paper-conference"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Parton","given":"Hilde","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Verpoest","given":"Ignaas","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Polymer Composites","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]},"page":"60-65","title":"In situ polymerization of thermoplastic composites based on cyclic oligomers","type":"article-journal","volume":"26"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1177/0892705717697774","abstract":"Continuous glass fiber (GF)-reinforced polymerized cyclic butylene terephthalate (pCBT) composites were prepared via vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding using butyltin tris(2-ethylhexanoate) as the catalyst. The relationship between melt viscosity and polymerization time was examined in the ring-opening polymerization of CBT resin. The effects of polymerization conditions such as catalyst content and polymerization temperature on viscosity average molar mass (M v), crystallization, mechanical properties , and microstructure of GF/pCBT composites were also investigated in detail. It is found that both high molecular weight and high degree of crystallinity of resin matrix can lead to high mechanical properties of composites. The composites prepared with 0.5% catalyst at 190 C show the best mechanical properties with tensile strength of 549 MPa, flexural strength of 585.2 MPa, and interlaminar shear strength of 47.1 MPa. The scanning electron microscopy analysis also demonstrates that good interfacial adhesion exists between fiber and resin, which agrees very well with experimental results.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Yan","given":"Chun","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Liu","given":"Ling","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zhu","given":"Yingdan","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Xu","given":"Haibing","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Liu","given":"Dong","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials","id":"ITEM-3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"181-201","title":"Properties of polymerized cyclic butylene terephthalate and its composites via ring-opening polymerization","type":"article-journal","volume":"31"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[8–10]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[8–10]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[8–10]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[8–10]. In each of these cases, however, elevated mould temperatures are required in order to polymerise the matrix system after infusion into the fibre bed. Temperatures above 150℃ in the case of the PA-6 and PA-12 systems, and as high as 180℃ for the CBT are required. This can add significant expense in terms of high temperature mould tooling, especially for large structures such as wind turbine blades ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"abstract":"This paper describes the development of electrically-heated ceramic composite tooling, aimed primarily at the manufacture of large composites structures, for aerospace or for wind energy. The tooling is designed to operate at temperatures up to 300°C, but has the potential to be used at temperatures up to 500°C and above. The ceramic material is an aluminosilicate material, reinforced by continuous fibres and thermoplastic polymer, and laid up with embedded electrical heaters. The ceramic and reinforcing layers are laid up by hand at room temperature, on a standard pattern and cured initially to 60°C, followed by a free-standing post-cure, in stages to approximately 400°C. Special-purpose gel-coats and surface sealing layers are employed to ensure a smooth, vacuum-tight surface. The tooling is lightweight, strong and durable, and has a low coefficient of thermal expansion. Electrical heating power per square metre of tool surface is typically between 5.0 and 15.0 KW/sq.m. Examples are given of the use of the tooling to manufacture 12.6 metre long glass-fibre/epoxy and glass-fibre/PBT wind turbine blades (250KW machine). Aerospace carbon-fibre epoxy prepregs are also processed on the tooling successfully. In all cases, the materials need to be processed between 180°C and slightly above 200°C. The integrally-heated ceramic composite tooling provides a more cost-effective tooling system for processing thermoplastic or thermoset composites at these temperatures than standard metal tooling.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"? Brádaigh","given":"Conchúr M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Doyle","given":"Adrian","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Doyle","given":"Derrick","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Feerick","given":"PJ","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"SAMPE Journal","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"page":"6-14","title":"Electrically-heated ceramic composite tooling for out-of-autoclave manufacturing of large composite structures","type":"article-journal","volume":"47"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"abstract":"A method of making a mould for moulding polymeric composites comprises embedding at least one layer 30 of a fibre reinforced polymer and a plurality of heating elements 24 within a spreadable ceramic material 28. The curing temperature of the ceramic material is less than the melting point of the polymer. The ceramic material is cured at a temperature less than the melting point of the polymer to yield a solid ceramic body, and the ceramic body is then heated at a temperature above the melting point of the polymer so that the latter is fused with the fibres to strengthen the mould. The mould is suitable for use for the manufacture of polymeric composites. A process for moulding polymeric composites using the mould is also described.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Doyle","given":"Adrian","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Feerick","given":"Patrick","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mallon","given":"Patrick","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"? Brádaigh","given":"Conchur","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Doyle","given":"Derrick","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]},"number":"European Patent EP 2344312B1","publisher":"European Patent","title":"A heated mould for moulding polymeric composites, a method for making such mould and its use","type":"patent"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"URL":"","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019","1","1"]]},"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gardiner","given":"Ginger","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]},"title":"Thermoplastic Wind Blades: To be or not?","type":"webpage"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[11–13]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[11–13]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[11–13]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[11–13].A notable advancement in this area has been the recent development of novel reactive TP resins such as Arkema’s acrylic-based Elium?. These resins are low-viscosity liquids (100-200 mPa.s) at room temperature and are suited to processing by liquid composite moulding techniques using room-temperature tooling, which were once exclusively used for TS-FRP production. This technology has already been demonstrated through the production of a 9 m long glass-fibre reinforced prototype wind turbine blade using resin infusion ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Murray","given":"Robynne E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Snowberg","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Berry","given":"Derek","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Beach","given":"Ryan","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rooney","given":"Sam","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Swan","given":"Dana","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"American Society for Composites 32nd Technical Conference","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"publisher-place":"West Lafayette, Indiana","title":"Manufacturing a 9-meter thermoplastic composite wind turbine blade","type":"paper-conference"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[14]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[14]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[14]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[14]. Furthermore, the recyclability and thermoformability of these materials have also been demonstrated ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.286","ISSN":"09596526","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cousins","given":"Dylan S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Suzuki","given":"Yasuhito","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Murray","given":"Robynne E.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Samaniuk","given":"Joseph R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Stebner","given":"Aaron P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Cleaner Production","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"1252-1263","title":"Recycling glass fiber thermoplastic composites from wind turbine blades","type":"article-journal","volume":"209"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[15]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[15]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[15]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[15]. The properties of this infusible acrylic and its composites have been studied by many authors. These works have effectively established the knowledge base on the material’s mechanical characteristics, with extensive efforts in characterising tensile, compressive, shear, impact, and fracture toughness ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.mtcomm.2018.07.003","ISSN":"23524928","abstract":"Despite the wide development of biocomposites, their compressive behaviour is still not well understood. In this paper, the longitudinal compressive and tensile behaviour of unidirectional natural fibres is studied through a parametric analysis taking into account the nature of the fibre (flax or jute), the matrix (thermoplastic and thermoset: PP, PP/MAPP, PA11, epoxy or acrylic), the fibre volume fraction and the fibre/matrix bond strength. In parallel with this approach, the quasi-static tensile behaviour is also investigated to allow comparisons. At low strains, the compressive and tensile moduli are closely similar. On the other hand, the compressive strength is systematically lower than the tensile strength whatever the fibre and matrix used. With a PP matrix, use of a coupling agent (MA) to improve the Interfacial Shear Strength (IFSS) leads to an increase of strength, which highlights the importance of this parameter. The compressive strength increases with the fibre volume fraction, but the maximum value remains lower than 140 MPa. Back calculation allows us to estimate the compressive strength of the flax fibres as 240 MPa, which appears as a current limit for the dimensioning of biocomposite structures.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Baley","given":"Christophe","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lan","given":"Marine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bourmaud","given":"Alain","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duigou","given":"Antoine","non-dropping-particle":"Le","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials Today Communications","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"November 2017","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"300-306","publisher":"Elsevier","title":"Compressive and tensile behaviour of unidirectional composites reinforced by natural fibres: Influence of fibres (flax and jute), matrix and fibre volume fraction","type":"article-journal","volume":"16"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"abstract":"Carbon reinforced composites are nowadays employed in several high performance applications. The crucial step for a high quality product is the manufacturing process. Voids, moisture and defects must be avoided, otherwise mechanical properties of the part can decrease drastically. The aim of this work is to evaluate the influence of processing parameters on compressive, interlaminar and impact-after-impact strength in different materials. The first one is a unidirectional (UD) carbon fibers -epoxy resin laminate made by prepreg lay-up followed by in- or out-of-autoclave (OoA) treatment. The second one is a carbon fiber fabric with both ELIUM RT-150 acrylic and Araldite LY 1564 epoxy matrix produced by resin transfer moulding (RTM) varying injection and post-pressure. A preliminary analysis was made before testing: for both materials fiber volume fraction has been calculated with ignition loss method, while only for carbon fiber fabric ultrasound C-scans (US) have been performed. UD carbon fibers-ep oxy laminates does not show differences among autoclave and OoA treatments, while frequency of debulking improves only compressive properties, leaving almost unchanged interlaminar and impact-after-impact properties. US show high level of porosity and delamination for carbon fiber fabric with ELIUM RT-150 plates, highlighting difficulties in RTM process. The presence of defects influences interlaminar shear strength, which result for acrylic plates from 12% to 28% lower than the epoxy one, without influence of RTM injection pressure nor of RTM post-pressure. Impact-after-impact properties result not to be affected by different resins nor by production parameters.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aronica","given":"Andrea","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fossati","given":"Davide","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"publisher":"Politecnico di Milano [Master's Thesis]","title":"Effects of resin and processing on mechanical properties of carbon fibre composites","type":"thesis"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s10443-018-9713-1","ISSN":"15734897","abstract":"The recent introduction of liquid acrylic thermoplastic matrix resins which can impregnate fibre reinforcements using traditional infusion moulding offers significant potential for future composite structures in marine applications, such as marine energy devices. However , to date very few results are available to evaluate the long term durability of these composites in a marine environment. This paper describes results from a series of cyclic loading tests on glass and carbon fibre reinforced acrylic composites under both tension and four point flexural loading. Tests were performed before and after aging in natural seawater. The results were compared to results for a glass/epoxy used today in marine structures, and show a lower loss of both static and cyclic properties for glass/acrylic composites after seawater saturation. A carbon fibre reinforced acrylic composite was also tested. This showed excellent properties in tension, but poor out-of-plane properties due to manufacturing defects.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Davies","given":"Peter","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Arhant","given":"Mael","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Applied Composite Materials","id":"ITEM-3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"1-12","title":"Fatigue behaviour of acrylic matrix composites: influence of seawater","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-4","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1177/0731684416645203","ISBN":"0731-6844","ISSN":"15307964","abstract":"This paper aims at comparing the mechanical behaviour of different composite materials constituted of twill flax and glass fabrics-reinforced liquid thermoplastic and thermoset resins. The main objective is to study the possibility of thermoplastic to replace thermoset matrix, and flax fibre to replace glass fibre. For this purpose, the studied composites were fabricated using the vacuum infusion technique. Next, they were subjected to several monotonic and load-unload tensile tests in order to determine their mechanical properties and their evolution with damage. Two elastic damage and elastic-plastic damage models were also considered to predict their behaviour. The obtained results show that the used thermoplastic resin could constitute an interesting alternative to the thermoset resin for the vacuum infusion process. Furthermore, the flax fibre composites, in particular those based on the thermoplastic resin, present specific tensile moduli close to those of glass composites.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chilali","given":"Abderrazak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zouari","given":"Wajdi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Assarar","given":"Mustapha","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kebir","given":"Hocine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ayad","given":"Rezak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites","id":"ITEM-4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"1217-1232","title":"Analysis of the mechanical behaviour of flax and glass fabrics-reinforced thermoplastic and thermoset resins","type":"article-journal","volume":"35"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-5","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3390/ma10030293","ISSN":"19961944","PMID":"28772654","abstract":"? 2017 by the authors. For mass production of structural composites, use of different textile patterns, custom preforming, room temperature cure high performance polymers and simplistic manufacturing approaches are desired. Woven fabrics are widely used for infusion processes owing to their high permeability but their localised mechanical performance is affected due to inherent associated crimps. The current investigation deals with manufacturing low-weight textile carbon non-crimp fabrics (NCFs) composites with a room temperature cure epoxy and a novel liquid Methyl methacrylate (MMA) thermoplastic matrix, Elium?. Vacuum assisted resin infusion (VARI) process is chosen as a cost effective manufacturing technique. Process parameters optimisation is required for thin NCFs due to intrinsic resistance it offers to the polymer flow. Cycles of repetitive manufacturing studies were carried out to optimise the NCF-thermoset (TS) and NCF with novel reactive thermoplastic (TP) resin. It was noticed that the controlled and optimised usage of flow mesh, vacuum level and flow speed during the resin infusion plays a significant part in deciding the final quality of the fabricated composites. The material selections, the challenges met during the manufacturing and the methods to overcome these are deliberated in this paper. An optimal three stage vacuum technique developed to manufacture the TP and TS composites with high fibre volume and lower void content is established and presented.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bhudolia","given":"Somen K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Perrotey","given":"Pavel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joshi","given":"Sunil C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials","id":"ITEM-5","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"title":"Optimizing polymer infusion process for thin ply textile composites with novel matrix system","type":"article-journal","volume":"10"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-6","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/pstruct.2016.10.127","ISSN":"02638223","abstract":"A laminate composite based on the new Elium? acrylic matrix and glass fibres has been prepared by an infusion process at ambient temperature in order to replace thermoset-based laminate composites with an equivalent recyclable thermoplastic based composites. In order to enhance the impact resistance of the composite, the acrylic resin has been toughened by adding different amounts of acrylic tri-block copolymers (Nanostrength?). The composite plates were subjected to low velocity impact tests, performed at different impact energies and temperatures. Tomographic observations have been performed on impacted samples, in order to show the effect of all-acrylic block copolymers concentrations, temperatures and incident energy on the damage extension in the composites. The impact resistance was measured in terms of load peak, absorbed energy, penetration threshold and damage extension. The low velocity impact results indicate that the addition of Nanostrength leads to an improved impact resistance, especially at high impact energy levels. When the test temperature decreases both unfilled laminates and those filled with Nanostrength exhibit a large impact resistance characterised by the return of impactor for all the impact energies. Tomographic observations reveal that the damage area increased with the increase of both impact energy and temperature.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Boumbimba","given":"Matadi R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Coulibaly","given":"M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Khabouchi","given":"A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kinvi-Dossou","given":"G.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bonfoh","given":"N.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gerard","given":"P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composite Structures","id":"ITEM-6","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"939-951","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd","title":"Glass fibres reinforced acrylic thermoplastic resin-based tri-block copolymers composites: Low velocity impact response at various temperatures","type":"article-journal","volume":"160"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-7","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/pstruct.2018.07.066","ISSN":"02638223","abstract":"Experimental investigations were carried out to determine the low-velocity impact behaviour of carbon fibre composites with novel liquid Methylmethacrylate (MMA) thermoplastic matrix, Elium?. The load, deflection and the energy attributes under impact are studied in detail and the baseline comparison is carried with the carbon fibre composites with epoxy matrix. The quasi-isotropic non-crimp carbon fabric (NCCF) laminates were impacted at 25 J, 42 J and 52 J impact energies and the material response of both the composite configurations were studied. The composite laminates have shown less catastrophic damage at a high energy level (52 J) and around 10% higher peak load was observed. Structural integrity as measured from the load-deflection curve demonstrated up to 53% increase for Thin NCCF Elium composite compared to their counterpart composites with epoxy matrix. Significant energy absorption (56%) before the onset of major failure mostly through elastic-plastic deformations was observed for thin NCCF Elium? composite. Impact results at different energies showed the strain sensitivity of Elium? microstructure with the improved performance with increasing impact energy. From the detailed fracture and damage analysis of the impacted samples, the failure mechanisms were deduced for the novel Thin NCCF Elium? and epoxy composites.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bhudolia","given":"Somen K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joshi","given":"Sunil C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composite Structures","id":"ITEM-7","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"696-708","publisher":"Elsevier","title":"Low-velocity impact response of carbon fibre composites with novel liquid methylmethacrylate thermoplastic matrix","type":"article-journal","volume":"203"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-8","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/pstruct.2019.02.090","ISSN":"02638223","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kinvi-Dossou","given":"G.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Matadi Boumbimba","given":"R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bonfoh","given":"N.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Garzon-Hernandez","given":"S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Garcia-Gonzalez","given":"D.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gerard","given":"P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Arias","given":"A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composite Structures","id":"ITEM-8","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019","2"]]},"page":"1-13","title":"Innovative acrylic thermoplastic composites versus conventional composites: improving the impact performances","type":"article-journal","volume":"217"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-9","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.matlet.2018.11.137","ISSN":"0167577X","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Obande","given":"Winifred","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ray","given":"Dipa","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"? Brádaigh","given":"Conchúr M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials Letters","id":"ITEM-9","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"38-41","publisher":"Elsevier B.V.","title":"Viscoelastic and drop-weight impact properties of an acrylic-matrix composite and a conventional thermoset composite – A comparative study","type":"article-journal","volume":"238"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-10","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/positesb.2017.09.057","ISSN":"13598368","abstract":"Laminated polymer composites are extensively used in various applications ranging from aerospace to automotive, building to marine and offshore, and much more. These composites possess higher mechanical properties in their in-plane directions, but lower interlaminar properties. Especially, low interlaminar fracture toughness (ILFT) makes them susceptible to delamination. In the current research, a novel thermoplastic-based thin-ply composite system is conceptualized and manufactured with an aim to improve the through-the-thickness properties and which can be a competitive solution to traditional epoxy-based composites as well as other class of thermoplastic composites. The detailed experimental investigation on determining the Mode I ILFT properties of these thin ply carbon fibre thermoplastic composites, along with thin ply thermoset composites for benchmarking, is carried out. Quasi-isotropic composite laminates were manufactured using a room temperature cure epoxy, and the novel reactive Methylmethacrylate (MMA) liquid thermoplastic resin. The thin ply/liquid MMA composites have shown 30% and 72% higher Mode I ILFT properties compared to the thick ply/liquid MMA and thin ply/Epoxy composites respectively. Surface morphological studies were conducted to understand and differentiate damage mechanisms in these composites. From the comprehended damage mechanisms, it was deduced that strong fibre-matrix interface, plastic deformation as well as features like ductile drawings in liquid MMA composites make them more resistant to crack propagation.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bhudolia","given":"Somen K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Perrotey","given":"Pavel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joshi","given":"Sunil C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composites Part B: Engineering","id":"ITEM-10","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"246-253","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd","title":"Mode I fracture toughness and fractographic investigation of carbon fibre composites with liquid methylmethacrylate thermoplastic matrix","type":"article-journal","volume":"134"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-11","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.engfracmech.2017.08.023","ISSN":"00137944","abstract":"The fracture behaviour of continuous unidirectional carbon fibre composite materials prepared adopting two, one plain and one rubber toughened, thermoplastic acrylic resins as matrices was investigated as a function of temperature and displacement rate. The contributions to fracture toughness of composites given by the matrix and the fibre related mechanisms was analysed by comparing results obtained at crack initiation and during crack propagation stages. It was verified that the transfer of matrix toughness into the composite is only partial when the matrix process zone size is comparable to the interlaminar matrix layer thickness. The effectiveness of fibre bridging mechanism was found to be related to the interfacial strength between the matrix and the fibre.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pini","given":"T.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Caimmi","given":"F.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Briatico-Vangosa","given":"F.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frassine","given":"R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rink","given":"M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Engineering Fracture Mechanics","id":"ITEM-11","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"51-58","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd","title":"Fracture initiation and propagation in unidirectional CF composites based on thermoplastic acrylic resins","type":"article-journal","volume":"184"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-12","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.engfracmech.2018.03.026","ISSN":"00137944","abstract":"The interlaminar fracture toughness, GIc, of unidirectional carbon fibre composite laminates produced by infusion moulding with two different thermoplastic acrylic matrices, one plain and one rubber toughened, was studied. For the composite with the plain matrix fracture was dominated by failure at the fibre-matrix interface. With the toughened matrix, fracture occurred within the matrix-rich layer, although the matrix toughness could not be fully exploited due to the interaction of the fibres with the development of the process zone. A fibre bridging model based on experimentally derived cohesive laws was developed and it confirmed that fracture occurs within the matrix.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pini","given":"T.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Briatico-Vangosa","given":"F.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frassine","given":"R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rink","given":"M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Engineering Fracture Mechanics","id":"ITEM-12","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"115-125","publisher":"Elsevier","title":"Matrix toughness transfer and fibre bridging laws in acrylic resin based CF composites","type":"article-journal","volume":"203"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-13","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.prostr.2016.06.033","ISSN":"24523216","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pini","given":"Tommaso","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Briatico-Vangosa","given":"Francesco","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frassine","given":"Roberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rink","given":"Marta","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Procedia Structural Integrity","id":"ITEM-13","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"253-260","title":"Time dependent fracture behaviour of a carbon fibre composite based on a (rubber toughened) acrylic polymer","type":"article-journal","volume":"2"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-14","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aronica","given":"Andrea","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fossati","given":"Davide","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-14","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"number-of-pages":"5900-5901","publisher":"Politecnico di Milano [Master's Thesis]","title":"Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fiber Composite Materials","type":"thesis"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-15","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/positesa.2016.07.002","ISSN":"1359835X","abstract":"This article presents the mechanical characterization of an eco composite consisting of a thermoplastic matrix reinforced by flax fibres. Different configurations of specimens were tested with uniaxial tensile loading and their mechanical behaviours were discussed. Moreover, the acoustic emission technique was used to detect the appearance of damage mechanisms and to follow their evolution. In addition, a list of these mechanisms was established by means of macroscopic and microscopic observations. The acoustic emission records were post processed by the k-means unsupervised pattern recognition algorithm. Depending on the specimen configuration, three or four classes of events were obtained. The acoustic characteristics of these classes were compared. Then, a correlation between these AE events classes and the damage mechanisms observed was proposed. Their effects on the mechanical behaviour of the material were investigated by means of a variable called the Sentry Function.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Monti","given":"Arthur","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mahi","given":"Abderrahim","non-dropping-particle":"El","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jendli","given":"Zouhaier","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Guillaumat","given":"Laurent","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing","id":"ITEM-15","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"100-110","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd","title":"Mechanical behaviour and damage mechanisms analysis of a flax-fibre reinforced composite by acoustic emission","type":"article-journal","volume":"90"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[16,17,26–30,18–25]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[16,17,26–30,18–25]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[16–30]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[16,17,26–30,18–25]. Much applied research has been conducted on understanding the material’s fatigue ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"ISBN":"978-3-319-66697-6","abstract":"Due to their eco-friendly, bio-degradability characteristics and good mechanical properties, natural fibre composite has become a good alternative in many composite applications such as automotive, aerospace and furniture construction. The present study deals with the mechanical properties of flax fibre reinforcement associated to Elium which is a thermoplastic resin. First, the composite prepared by liquid infusion was subjected to quasi-static tensile loading and cyclic tensile test to investigate macroscopic damage behaviour. Second, a three-point static and fatigue bending test were performed to failure. In case of fatigue test, the hysteresis loops was used as a measure for stiffness degradation, energy dissipation and loss factor. Many configuration of laminate were prepared for experimental work. The flax/Elium composite has shown a promising solution that could be integrated in many industrial applications thanks to its short time needed for manufacturing by infusion and its good mechanical characteristics.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Haggui","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mahi","given":"A","non-dropping-particle":"El","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jendli","given":"Z","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Akrout","given":"A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Haddar","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Design and Modeling of Mechanical Systems---III","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Haddar","given":"Mohamed","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chaari","given":"Fakher","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Benamara","given":"Abdelmajid","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chouchane","given":"Mnaouar","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Karra","given":"Chafik","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aifaoui","given":"Nizar","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"681-691","publisher":"Springer International Publishing","publisher-place":"Cham","title":"Damage analysis of flax fibre/elium composite under static and fatigue testing","type":"paper-conference"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s10443-018-9713-1","ISSN":"15734897","abstract":"The recent introduction of liquid acrylic thermoplastic matrix resins which can impregnate fibre reinforcements using traditional infusion moulding offers significant potential for future composite structures in marine applications, such as marine energy devices. However , to date very few results are available to evaluate the long term durability of these composites in a marine environment. This paper describes results from a series of cyclic loading tests on glass and carbon fibre reinforced acrylic composites under both tension and four point flexural loading. Tests were performed before and after aging in natural seawater. The results were compared to results for a glass/epoxy used today in marine structures, and show a lower loss of both static and cyclic properties for glass/acrylic composites after seawater saturation. A carbon fibre reinforced acrylic composite was also tested. This showed excellent properties in tension, but poor out-of-plane properties due to manufacturing defects.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Davies","given":"Peter","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Arhant","given":"Mael","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Applied Composite Materials","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"1-12","title":"Fatigue behaviour of acrylic matrix composites: influence of seawater","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.apacoust.2018.03.011","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Haggui","given":"Mondher","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mahi","given":"Abderrahim","non-dropping-particle":"El","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jendli","given":"Zouhaier","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Akrout","given":"Ali","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Haddar","given":"Mohamed","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Applied Acoustics","id":"ITEM-3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"100-110","title":"Static and fatigue characterization of flax fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites by acoustic emission","type":"article-journal","volume":"147"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[18,31,32]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[18,31,32]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[23,31,32]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[18,31,32]; moisture diffusivity and marine ageing ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"ARTN 20150272\\r10.1098/rsta.2015.0272","ISBN":"1364-503x","ISSN":"1364503X","PMID":"26438284","abstract":"This paper describes the influence of seawater ageing on composites used in a range of marine structures, from boats to tidal turbines. Accounting for environmental degradation is an essential element in the multi-scale modelling of composite materials but it requires reliable test data input. The traditional approach to account for ageing effects, based on testing samples after immersion for different periods, is evolving towards coupled studies involving strong interactions between water diffusion and mechanical loading. These can provide a more realistic estimation of long-term behaviour but still require some form of acceleration if useful data, for 20 year lifetimes or more, are to be obtained in a reasonable time. In order to validate extrapolations fromshort to long times, it is essential to understand the degradation mechanisms, so both physico-chemical and mechanical test data are required. Examples of results from some current studies on more environmentally friendly materials including bio-sourced composites will be described first. Then a case study for renewable marine energy applications will be discussed. In both cases, studies were performed first on coupons at the material level, then during structural testing and analysis of large components, in order to evaluate their long-term behaviour. This article is part of the themed issue ` Multiscale modelling of the structural integrity of composite materials'.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Davies","given":"P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"1-14","title":"Environmental degradation of composites for marine structures: new materials and new applications","type":"article-journal","volume":"374"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/978-3-319-65145-3_12","ISBN":"978-3-319-65145-3","abstract":"In recent years several new materials have been proposed for marine applications. These include liquid infusible acrylics, basalt fibre and plant fibre-reinforced composites, and thermoplastic polyamide composites. In order to assess the long-term durability of such materials accelerated tests are used but the validity of this approach, widely accepted for traditional marine composites, must be checked. This presentation will describe results from ageing tests on these four materials, specifically developed for particular applications: acrylic composites and basalt and flax fibre composites for surface structures, and carbon-reinforced polyamides for deep sea pressure vessels.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Davies","given":"Peter","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gac","given":"Pierre-Yves","non-dropping-particle":"Le","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gall","given":"Maelenn","non-dropping-particle":"Le","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Arhant","given":"Mael","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Durability of Composites in a Marine Environment 2","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Davies","given":"Peter","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rajapakse","given":"Yapa D S","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"225-237","publisher":"Springer International Publishing","publisher-place":"Cham","title":"Marine ageing behaviour of new environmentally friendly composites","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"ISBN":"9783000533877","abstract":"The economic environment leads the industry to devellop materials that are always more efficient. In this context, composite materials make their apparition. They offer high specific strength and stiffness that make them particularly adapted to aeronautical or automobile applications. Because of their low density and good mechanical properties, some natural fibers like flax, hemp or kenaf are suitable for polymer reinforcement, besides being ecofriendly. However, the hydrophilic behavior of natural fibers makes these composites highly sensitive to water aging. In this work, the diffusivity and the maximal moisture content of flax fibers and polymer matrix were determined from the absorption behavior measured on natural fibers composite using an inverse problem. This method produces value comparable to measurement made on pure material but it is sensible to composite quality, in particular its porosity fraction.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Freund","given":"L","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bouchart","given":"V","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Perrin","given":"H","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chevrier","given":"P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"ECCM17 - 17th European Conference on Composite Materials","id":"ITEM-3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"title":"Hydrothermal Aging of Natural Fibers Composite : Determination of Diffusivity Parameters","type":"paper-conference"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-4","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/pstruct.2017.03.077","ISBN":"0263-8223","ISSN":"02638223","abstract":"In the present work, twill flax fabrics-reinforced thermoplastic and thermosetting composites were subjected to water ageing in order to study its effect on their mechanical properties. Water ageing was conducted by immersing composite specimens into tap water at room temperature until saturation. To assess their mechanical behaviour, the aged composites were subjected to monotonic and load-unload tensile tests completed by Acoustic Emission (AE) recording. The AE records were analysed by the k-means unsupervised pattern recognition algorithm associated with the Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and the Silhouette index. In particular, the load-unload tensile tests highlighted a decrease of about 10% of the aged composites stiffness with respect to unaged ones at high loads. Besides, three classes of damage events were identified and assigned to the damage mechanisms. Finally, the mechanical behaviour of the aged composites is found to exhibit a significant Felicity effect synonymous of a substantial damage induced by water ageing.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chilali","given":"Abderrazak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zouari","given":"Wajdi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Assarar","given":"Mustapha","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kebir","given":"Hocine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ayad","given":"Rezak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composite Structures","id":"ITEM-4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"309-319","title":"Effect of water ageing on the load-unload cyclic behaviour of flax fibre-reinforced thermoplastic and thermosetting composites","type":"article-journal","volume":"183"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-5","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/positesa.2016.12.020","ISSN":"1359835X","abstract":"In this work, we investigate the diffusion behaviour of twill flax fabrics reinforced thermoplastic and thermosetting composites elaborated by the vacuum infusion technique. Water absorption tests were conducted by immersing composite specimens into tap and salt water at room temperature. In particular, the effects of aspect ratio, thickness and fibre orientation are considered. The principal three-dimensional (3D) diffusion parameters are identified by 3D Fick's and Langmuir's models using an optimization algorithm. It is found that the flax reinforced thermoplastic composite absorbs less water than the flax thermoset composite. In addition, the obtained absorption curves indicate that the equilibrium mass gain linearly increases with fibre orientation, decreases with thickness and strongly related to the diffusion rate. Furthermore, 3D water diffusion kinetics are shown to depend on the samples aspect ratio and governed by a privileged direction.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chilali","given":"Abderrazak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Assarar","given":"Mustapha","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zouari","given":"Wajdi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kebir","given":"Hocine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ayad","given":"Rezak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing","id":"ITEM-5","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"75-86","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd","title":"Effect of geometric dimensions and fibre orientation on 3D moisture diffusion in flax fibre reinforced thermoplastic and thermosetting composites","type":"article-journal","volume":"95"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[33–37]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[33–37]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[33–37]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[33–37]; interfacial adhesion ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Beguinel","given":"Johanna","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gérard","given":"Jean-Fran?ois","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lortie","given":"Frédéric","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gérard","given":"Pierre","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Maupetit","given":"Jér?me","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"20th Internation Conference on Composite Materials","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"title":"New continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites : an analysis of interfacial adhesion from the micro scale to the macro scale","type":"paper-conference"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/positesa.2015.04.012","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Boufaida","given":"Z.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Farge","given":"L.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"André","given":"S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Meshaka","given":"Y.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"page":"28-38","title":"Influence of the fiber/matrix strength on the mechanical properties of a glass fiber/thermoplastic-matrix plain weave fabric composite","type":"article-journal","volume":"75"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[38,39]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[38,39]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[38,39]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[38,39]; damage evolution and fracture behaviour ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/pstruct.2017.03.077","ISBN":"0263-8223","ISSN":"02638223","abstract":"In the present work, twill flax fabrics-reinforced thermoplastic and thermosetting composites were subjected to water ageing in order to study its effect on their mechanical properties. Water ageing was conducted by immersing composite specimens into tap water at room temperature until saturation. To assess their mechanical behaviour, the aged composites were subjected to monotonic and load-unload tensile tests completed by Acoustic Emission (AE) recording. The AE records were analysed by the k-means unsupervised pattern recognition algorithm associated with the Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and the Silhouette index. In particular, the load-unload tensile tests highlighted a decrease of about 10% of the aged composites stiffness with respect to unaged ones at high loads. Besides, three classes of damage events were identified and assigned to the damage mechanisms. Finally, the mechanical behaviour of the aged composites is found to exhibit a significant Felicity effect synonymous of a substantial damage induced by water ageing.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chilali","given":"Abderrazak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zouari","given":"Wajdi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Assarar","given":"Mustapha","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kebir","given":"Hocine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ayad","given":"Rezak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composite Structures","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"309-319","title":"Effect of water ageing on the load-unload cyclic behaviour of flax fibre-reinforced thermoplastic and thermosetting composites","type":"article-journal","volume":"183"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1177/0731684416645203","ISBN":"0731-6844","ISSN":"15307964","abstract":"This paper aims at comparing the mechanical behaviour of different composite materials constituted of twill flax and glass fabrics-reinforced liquid thermoplastic and thermoset resins. The main objective is to study the possibility of thermoplastic to replace thermoset matrix, and flax fibre to replace glass fibre. For this purpose, the studied composites were fabricated using the vacuum infusion technique. Next, they were subjected to several monotonic and load-unload tensile tests in order to determine their mechanical properties and their evolution with damage. Two elastic damage and elastic-plastic damage models were also considered to predict their behaviour. The obtained results show that the used thermoplastic resin could constitute an interesting alternative to the thermoset resin for the vacuum infusion process. Furthermore, the flax fibre composites, in particular those based on the thermoplastic resin, present specific tensile moduli close to those of glass composites.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chilali","given":"Abderrazak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zouari","given":"Wajdi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Assarar","given":"Mustapha","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kebir","given":"Hocine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ayad","given":"Rezak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"1217-1232","title":"Analysis of the mechanical behaviour of flax and glass fabrics-reinforced thermoplastic and thermoset resins","type":"article-journal","volume":"35"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1002/pen.24583","ISSN":"00323888","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pini","given":"Tommaso","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Briatico-Vangosa","given":"Francesco","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frassine","given":"Roberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rink","given":"Marta","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Polymer Engineering & Science","id":"ITEM-3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"369-376","title":"Fracture toughness of acrylic resins: Viscoelastic effects and deformation mechanisms","type":"article-journal","volume":"58"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-4","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pini","given":"T","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"publisher":"Politecnico di Milano [Doctoral Thesis]","title":"Fracture behaviour of thermoplastic acrylic resins and their relevant unidirectional carbon fibre composites : rate and temperature effects","type":"thesis"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-5","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Haggui","given":"Mondher","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jendli","given":"Zouhaier","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Akrout","given":"Ali","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mahi","given":"Abderrahim","non-dropping-particle":"El","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"International Conference on Advance Materials, Mechanics and Manufacturing","id":"ITEM-5","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"1-4","title":"Damage identification in flax fibre composite with thermoplastic matrix under quasi-static loading","type":"paper-conference"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-6","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Haggui","given":"Mondher","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mahi","given":"Abderrahim","non-dropping-particle":"El","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jendli","given":"Zouhaier","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Akrout","given":"Ali","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"26th Annual International Conference on Composites/Nano Engineering","id":"ITEM-6","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"title":"Damage characterization of flax fibre composite using linear and nonlinear vibration resonant techniques","type":"paper-conference"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[19,36,40–43]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[19,36,40–43]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[24,36,40–43]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[19,36,40–43]; and even the effects of processing on properties ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3390/ma10030293","ISSN":"19961944","PMID":"28772654","abstract":"? 2017 by the authors. For mass production of structural composites, use of different textile patterns, custom preforming, room temperature cure high performance polymers and simplistic manufacturing approaches are desired. Woven fabrics are widely used for infusion processes owing to their high permeability but their localised mechanical performance is affected due to inherent associated crimps. The current investigation deals with manufacturing low-weight textile carbon non-crimp fabrics (NCFs) composites with a room temperature cure epoxy and a novel liquid Methyl methacrylate (MMA) thermoplastic matrix, Elium?. Vacuum assisted resin infusion (VARI) process is chosen as a cost effective manufacturing technique. Process parameters optimisation is required for thin NCFs due to intrinsic resistance it offers to the polymer flow. Cycles of repetitive manufacturing studies were carried out to optimise the NCF-thermoset (TS) and NCF with novel reactive thermoplastic (TP) resin. It was noticed that the controlled and optimised usage of flow mesh, vacuum level and flow speed during the resin infusion plays a significant part in deciding the final quality of the fabricated composites. The material selections, the challenges met during the manufacturing and the methods to overcome these are deliberated in this paper. An optimal three stage vacuum technique developed to manufacture the TP and TS composites with high fibre volume and lower void content is established and presented.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bhudolia","given":"Somen K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Perrotey","given":"Pavel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joshi","given":"Sunil C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"title":"Optimizing polymer infusion process for thin ply textile composites with novel matrix system","type":"article-journal","volume":"10"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1002/fam.2406","ISSN":"0308-0501","abstract":"Summary Fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composite materials can find numerous applications in the transportation sector and replace thermoset composites. However, they have to comply with strict standards, particularly with those concerning their fire behavior. In this frame, composites based on an acrylic resin Elium? (Arkema), a woven fiberglass, (taffetas tissue Chomarat G-Weave 600 P/A) and Exolit OP930 (Clariant) as fire retardant were prepared by using three processes. The thermal stability and fire behavior were studied by means of thermogravimetric analysis and cone calorimetry. The obtained results allowed to highlight the drawbacks of each processing method and to select the most appropriate. The improvement of the fire behavior by combining post-curing of the composites, addition of a cross-linking agent, and addition of aluminum trihydroxide was also investigated. Copyright ? 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lin","given":"Qing","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ferriol","given":"Michel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cochez","given":"Marianne","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vahabi","given":"Henri","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vagner","given":"Christelle","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Fire and Materials","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017","10","1"]]},"note":"doi: 10.1002/fam.2406","page":"646-653","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons, Ltd","title":"Continuous fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites: influence of processing on fire retardant properties","type":"article-journal","volume":"41"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[20,44]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[20,44]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[25,44]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[20,44]. Moreover, the thermomechanical properties of this acrylic family and their composites have also been studied by a number of researchers ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/pstruct.2017.07.093","ISSN":"02638223","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bhudolia","given":"Somen K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Perrotey","given":"Pavel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joshi","given":"Sunil C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composite Structures","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"502-513","title":"Enhanced vibration damping and dynamic mechanical characteristics of composites with novel pseudo-thermoset matrix system","type":"article-journal","volume":"179"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.matlet.2018.11.137","ISSN":"0167577X","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Obande","given":"Winifred","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ray","given":"Dipa","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"? Brádaigh","given":"Conchúr M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials Letters","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"38-41","publisher":"Elsevier B.V.","title":"Viscoelastic and drop-weight impact properties of an acrylic-matrix composite and a conventional thermoset composite – A comparative study","type":"article-journal","volume":"238"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1002/pen.24583","ISSN":"00323888","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pini","given":"Tommaso","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Briatico-Vangosa","given":"Francesco","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frassine","given":"Roberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rink","given":"Marta","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Polymer Engineering & Science","id":"ITEM-3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"369-376","title":"Fracture toughness of acrylic resins: Viscoelastic effects and deformation mechanisms","type":"article-journal","volume":"58"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-4","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1002/pc.25233","ISSN":"0272-8397","abstract":"This work aims at developing multifunctional thermoplastic laminates combining structural and heat storage/management functions. The laminates are constituted by paraffin microcapsules as phase change materials (PCM), continuous carbon fibers, and a novel thermoplastic liquid methyl methacrylate resin (Elium), processable as a thermoset. The characterization aims to study how the paraffin microcapsules influence the thermo-mechanical properties and thermal management performance of Elium and of the relative composite laminates. For the Elium/PCM systems, the phase change enthalpy increased with the experimental PCM concentration up to 101?J/g, but the mechanical properties decreased concurrently. The melting enthalpy of the laminates also increased with the microcapsule amount, up to 66.8 J/g, which indicates that the mild conditions applied in the processing of the liquid resin allow the integrity of the microcapsules to be preserved. This is also confirmed by the improved thermal management performance observed through thermal camera imaging measurements. Microscopy techniques showed that the PCM phase is preferentially distributed in the interlaminar region, which accounts for the observed decrease in the interlaminar strength and the flexural properties with an increase in the PCM content. These results show a potential for the future development of multifunctional thermoplastic composites with elevated thermal energy storage capabilities. POLYM. COMPOS., 2019. ? 2019 Society of Plastics Engineers","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fredi","given":"Giulia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dorigato","given":"Andrea","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pegoretti","given":"Alessandro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Polymer Composites","id":"ITEM-4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019","2","14"]]},"note":"doi: 10.1002/pc.25233","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons, Ltd","title":"Novel Reactive Thermoplastic Resin as a Matrix for Laminates Containing Phase Change Microcapsules","type":"article-journal"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[24,40,45,46]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[24,40,45,46]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[29,40,45,46]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[24,40,45,46]. Several authors have published works on the comparative performance of acrylic composites with respect to comparable thermoset composites. An overview of existing literature by characterisation and reinforcement type is presented in REF _Ref4059785 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Table 1. Table SEQ Table \* ARABIC 1. Summary of published literature on comparative performance of acrylic composites against comparable epoxy composites. CharacterisationTensileCompressiveFlexuralShearFracture toughnessImpactFatigueMoisture diffusivity & ageingDamage and fracture behaviourDamage & viscoelasticityF, GF, GF, GChilali et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1177/0731684416645203","ISBN":"0731-6844","ISSN":"15307964","abstract":"This paper aims at comparing the mechanical behaviour of different composite materials constituted of twill flax and glass fabrics-reinforced liquid thermoplastic and thermoset resins. The main objective is to study the possibility of thermoplastic to replace thermoset matrix, and flax fibre to replace glass fibre. For this purpose, the studied composites were fabricated using the vacuum infusion technique. Next, they were subjected to several monotonic and load-unload tensile tests in order to determine their mechanical properties and their evolution with damage. Two elastic damage and elastic-plastic damage models were also considered to predict their behaviour. The obtained results show that the used thermoplastic resin could constitute an interesting alternative to the thermoset resin for the vacuum infusion process. Furthermore, the flax fibre composites, in particular those based on the thermoplastic resin, present specific tensile moduli close to those of glass composites.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chilali","given":"Abderrazak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zouari","given":"Wajdi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Assarar","given":"Mustapha","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kebir","given":"Hocine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ayad","given":"Rezak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"1217-1232","title":"Analysis of the mechanical behaviour of flax and glass fabrics-reinforced thermoplastic and thermoset resins","type":"article-journal","volume":"35"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[19]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[19]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[24]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[19]GGObande et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.matlet.2018.11.137","ISSN":"0167577X","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Obande","given":"Winifred","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ray","given":"Dipa","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"? Brádaigh","given":"Conchúr M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials Letters","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"38-41","publisher":"Elsevier B.V.","title":"Viscoelastic and drop-weight impact properties of an acrylic-matrix composite and a conventional thermoset composite – A comparative study","type":"article-journal","volume":"238"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[24]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[24]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[29]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[24]G, CG, CG, CG, CDavies and Arhant ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s10443-018-9713-1","ISSN":"15734897","abstract":"The recent introduction of liquid acrylic thermoplastic matrix resins which can impregnate fibre reinforcements using traditional infusion moulding offers significant potential for future composite structures in marine applications, such as marine energy devices. However , to date very few results are available to evaluate the long term durability of these composites in a marine environment. This paper describes results from a series of cyclic loading tests on glass and carbon fibre reinforced acrylic composites under both tension and four point flexural loading. Tests were performed before and after aging in natural seawater. The results were compared to results for a glass/epoxy used today in marine structures, and show a lower loss of both static and cyclic properties for glass/acrylic composites after seawater saturation. A carbon fibre reinforced acrylic composite was also tested. This showed excellent properties in tension, but poor out-of-plane properties due to manufacturing defects.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Davies","given":"Peter","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Arhant","given":"Mael","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Applied Composite Materials","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"1-12","title":"Fatigue behaviour of acrylic matrix composites: influence of seawater","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[18]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[18]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[23]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[18]CBhudolia et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/positesb.2017.09.057","ISSN":"13598368","abstract":"Laminated polymer composites are extensively used in various applications ranging from aerospace to automotive, building to marine and offshore, and much more. These composites possess higher mechanical properties in their in-plane directions, but lower interlaminar properties. Especially, low interlaminar fracture toughness (ILFT) makes them susceptible to delamination. In the current research, a novel thermoplastic-based thin-ply composite system is conceptualized and manufactured with an aim to improve the through-the-thickness properties and which can be a competitive solution to traditional epoxy-based composites as well as other class of thermoplastic composites. The detailed experimental investigation on determining the Mode I ILFT properties of these thin ply carbon fibre thermoplastic composites, along with thin ply thermoset composites for benchmarking, is carried out. Quasi-isotropic composite laminates were manufactured using a room temperature cure epoxy, and the novel reactive Methylmethacrylate (MMA) liquid thermoplastic resin. The thin ply/liquid MMA composites have shown 30% and 72% higher Mode I ILFT properties compared to the thick ply/liquid MMA and thin ply/Epoxy composites respectively. Surface morphological studies were conducted to understand and differentiate damage mechanisms in these composites. From the comprehended damage mechanisms, it was deduced that strong fibre-matrix interface, plastic deformation as well as features like ductile drawings in liquid MMA composites make them more resistant to crack propagation.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bhudolia","given":"Somen K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Perrotey","given":"Pavel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joshi","given":"Sunil C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composites Part B: Engineering","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"246-253","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd","title":"Mode I fracture toughness and fractographic investigation of carbon fibre composites with liquid methylmethacrylate thermoplastic matrix","type":"article-journal","volume":"134"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[25]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[25]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[30]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[25]GKinvi-Dossou et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/pstruct.2019.02.090","ISSN":"02638223","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kinvi-Dossou","given":"G.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Matadi Boumbimba","given":"R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bonfoh","given":"N.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Garzon-Hernandez","given":"S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Garcia-Gonzalez","given":"D.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gerard","given":"P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Arias","given":"A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composite Structures","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019","2"]]},"page":"1-13","title":"Innovative acrylic thermoplastic composites versus conventional composites: improving the impact performances","type":"article-journal","volume":"217"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[23]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[23]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[28]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[23]CBhudolia and Joshi ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/pstruct.2018.07.066","ISSN":"02638223","abstract":"Experimental investigations were carried out to determine the low-velocity impact behaviour of carbon fibre composites with novel liquid Methylmethacrylate (MMA) thermoplastic matrix, Elium?. The load, deflection and the energy attributes under impact are studied in detail and the baseline comparison is carried with the carbon fibre composites with epoxy matrix. The quasi-isotropic non-crimp carbon fabric (NCCF) laminates were impacted at 25 J, 42 J and 52 J impact energies and the material response of both the composite configurations were studied. The composite laminates have shown less catastrophic damage at a high energy level (52 J) and around 10% higher peak load was observed. Structural integrity as measured from the load-deflection curve demonstrated up to 53% increase for Thin NCCF Elium composite compared to their counterpart composites with epoxy matrix. Significant energy absorption (56%) before the onset of major failure mostly through elastic-plastic deformations was observed for thin NCCF Elium? composite. Impact results at different energies showed the strain sensitivity of Elium? microstructure with the improved performance with increasing impact energy. From the detailed fracture and damage analysis of the impacted samples, the failure mechanisms were deduced for the novel Thin NCCF Elium? and epoxy composites.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bhudolia","given":"Somen K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joshi","given":"Sunil C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composite Structures","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"696-708","publisher":"Elsevier","title":"Low-velocity impact response of carbon fibre composites with novel liquid methylmethacrylate thermoplastic matrix","type":"article-journal","volume":"203"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[22]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[22]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[27]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[22]CBhudolia et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3390/ma10030293","ISSN":"19961944","PMID":"28772654","abstract":"? 2017 by the authors. For mass production of structural composites, use of different textile patterns, custom preforming, room temperature cure high performance polymers and simplistic manufacturing approaches are desired. Woven fabrics are widely used for infusion processes owing to their high permeability but their localised mechanical performance is affected due to inherent associated crimps. The current investigation deals with manufacturing low-weight textile carbon non-crimp fabrics (NCFs) composites with a room temperature cure epoxy and a novel liquid Methyl methacrylate (MMA) thermoplastic matrix, Elium?. Vacuum assisted resin infusion (VARI) process is chosen as a cost effective manufacturing technique. Process parameters optimisation is required for thin NCFs due to intrinsic resistance it offers to the polymer flow. Cycles of repetitive manufacturing studies were carried out to optimise the NCF-thermoset (TS) and NCF with novel reactive thermoplastic (TP) resin. It was noticed that the controlled and optimised usage of flow mesh, vacuum level and flow speed during the resin infusion plays a significant part in deciding the final quality of the fabricated composites. The material selections, the challenges met during the manufacturing and the methods to overcome these are deliberated in this paper. An optimal three stage vacuum technique developed to manufacture the TP and TS composites with high fibre volume and lower void content is established and presented.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bhudolia","given":"Somen K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Perrotey","given":"Pavel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joshi","given":"Sunil C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"title":"Optimizing polymer infusion process for thin ply textile composites with novel matrix system","type":"article-journal","volume":"10"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[20]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[20]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[25]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[20]CCAronica and Fossati ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"abstract":"Carbon reinforced composites are nowadays employed in several high performance applications. The crucial step for a high quality product is the manufacturing process. Voids, moisture and defects must be avoided, otherwise mechanical properties of the part can decrease drastically. The aim of this work is to evaluate the influence of processing parameters on compressive, interlaminar and impact-after-impact strength in different materials. The first one is a unidirectional (UD) carbon fibers -epoxy resin laminate made by prepreg lay-up followed by in- or out-of-autoclave (OoA) treatment. The second one is a carbon fiber fabric with both ELIUM RT-150 acrylic and Araldite LY 1564 epoxy matrix produced by resin transfer moulding (RTM) varying injection and post-pressure. A preliminary analysis was made before testing: for both materials fiber volume fraction has been calculated with ignition loss method, while only for carbon fiber fabric ultrasound C-scans (US) have been performed. UD carbon fibers-ep oxy laminates does not show differences among autoclave and OoA treatments, while frequency of debulking improves only compressive properties, leaving almost unchanged interlaminar and impact-after-impact properties. US show high level of porosity and delamination for carbon fiber fabric with ELIUM RT-150 plates, highlighting difficulties in RTM process. The presence of defects influences interlaminar shear strength, which result for acrylic plates from 12% to 28% lower than the epoxy one, without influence of RTM injection pressure nor of RTM post-pressure. Impact-after-impact properties result not to be affected by different resins nor by production parameters.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aronica","given":"Andrea","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fossati","given":"Davide","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"publisher":"Politecnico di Milano [Master's Thesis]","title":"Effects of resin and processing on mechanical properties of carbon fibre composites","type":"thesis"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[17]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[17]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[17]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[17]F, JF, JBaley et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.mtcomm.2018.07.003","ISSN":"23524928","abstract":"Despite the wide development of biocomposites, their compressive behaviour is still not well understood. In this paper, the longitudinal compressive and tensile behaviour of unidirectional natural fibres is studied through a parametric analysis taking into account the nature of the fibre (flax or jute), the matrix (thermoplastic and thermoset: PP, PP/MAPP, PA11, epoxy or acrylic), the fibre volume fraction and the fibre/matrix bond strength. In parallel with this approach, the quasi-static tensile behaviour is also investigated to allow comparisons. At low strains, the compressive and tensile moduli are closely similar. On the other hand, the compressive strength is systematically lower than the tensile strength whatever the fibre and matrix used. With a PP matrix, use of a coupling agent (MA) to improve the Interfacial Shear Strength (IFSS) leads to an increase of strength, which highlights the importance of this parameter. The compressive strength increases with the fibre volume fraction, but the maximum value remains lower than 140 MPa. Back calculation allows us to estimate the compressive strength of the flax fibres as 240 MPa, which appears as a current limit for the dimensioning of biocomposite structures.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Baley","given":"Christophe","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lan","given":"Marine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bourmaud","given":"Alain","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duigou","given":"Antoine","non-dropping-particle":"Le","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials Today Communications","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"November 2017","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"300-306","publisher":"Elsevier","title":"Compressive and tensile behaviour of unidirectional composites reinforced by natural fibres: Influence of fibres (flax and jute), matrix and fibre volume fraction","type":"article-journal","volume":"16"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[16]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[16]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[16]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[16]F, GFreund et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"ISBN":"9783000533877","abstract":"The economic environment leads the industry to devellop materials that are always more efficient. In this context, composite materials make their apparition. They offer high specific strength and stiffness that make them particularly adapted to aeronautical or automobile applications. Because of their low density and good mechanical properties, some natural fibers like flax, hemp or kenaf are suitable for polymer reinforcement, besides being ecofriendly. However, the hydrophilic behavior of natural fibers makes these composites highly sensitive to water aging. In this work, the diffusivity and the maximal moisture content of flax fibers and polymer matrix were determined from the absorption behavior measured on natural fibers composite using an inverse problem. This method produces value comparable to measurement made on pure material but it is sensible to composite quality, in particular its porosity fraction.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Freund","given":"L","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bouchart","given":"V","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Perrin","given":"H","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chevrier","given":"P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"ECCM17 - 17th European Conference on Composite Materials","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"title":"Hydrothermal Aging of Natural Fibers Composite : Determination of Diffusivity Parameters","type":"paper-conference"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[35]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[35]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[35]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[35]G, CDavies et al. 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This presentation will describe results from ageing tests on these four materials, specifically developed for particular applications: acrylic composites and basalt and flax fibre composites for surface structures, and carbon-reinforced polyamides for deep sea pressure vessels.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Davies","given":"Peter","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gac","given":"Pierre-Yves","non-dropping-particle":"Le","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gall","given":"Maelenn","non-dropping-particle":"Le","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Arhant","given":"Mael","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Durability of Composites in a Marine Environment 2","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Davies","given":"Peter","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rajapakse","given":"Yapa D S","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"225-237","publisher":"Springer International Publishing","publisher-place":"Cham","title":"Marine ageing behaviour of new environmentally friendly composites","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[34]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[34]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[34]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[34]CDavies ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"ARTN 20150272\\r10.1098/rsta.2015.0272","ISBN":"1364-503x","ISSN":"1364503X","PMID":"26438284","abstract":"This paper describes the influence of seawater ageing on composites used in a range of marine structures, from boats to tidal turbines. Accounting for environmental degradation is an essential element in the multi-scale modelling of composite materials but it requires reliable test data input. The traditional approach to account for ageing effects, based on testing samples after immersion for different periods, is evolving towards coupled studies involving strong interactions between water diffusion and mechanical loading. These can provide a more realistic estimation of long-term behaviour but still require some form of acceleration if useful data, for 20 year lifetimes or more, are to be obtained in a reasonable time. In order to validate extrapolations fromshort to long times, it is essential to understand the degradation mechanisms, so both physico-chemical and mechanical test data are required. Examples of results from some current studies on more environmentally friendly materials including bio-sourced composites will be described first. Then a case study for renewable marine energy applications will be discussed. In both cases, studies were performed first on coupons at the material level, then during structural testing and analysis of large components, in order to evaluate their long-term behaviour. This article is part of the themed issue ` Multiscale modelling of the structural integrity of composite materials'.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Davies","given":"P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"1-14","title":"Environmental degradation of composites for marine structures: new materials and new applications","type":"article-journal","volume":"374"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[33]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[33]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[33]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[33]FChilali et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/positesa.2016.12.020","ISSN":"1359835X","abstract":"In this work, we investigate the diffusion behaviour of twill flax fabrics reinforced thermoplastic and thermosetting composites elaborated by the vacuum infusion technique. Water absorption tests were conducted by immersing composite specimens into tap and salt water at room temperature. In particular, the effects of aspect ratio, thickness and fibre orientation are considered. The principal three-dimensional (3D) diffusion parameters are identified by 3D Fick's and Langmuir's models using an optimization algorithm. It is found that the flax reinforced thermoplastic composite absorbs less water than the flax thermoset composite. In addition, the obtained absorption curves indicate that the equilibrium mass gain linearly increases with fibre orientation, decreases with thickness and strongly related to the diffusion rate. Furthermore, 3D water diffusion kinetics are shown to depend on the samples aspect ratio and governed by a privileged direction.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chilali","given":"Abderrazak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Assarar","given":"Mustapha","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zouari","given":"Wajdi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kebir","given":"Hocine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ayad","given":"Rezak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"75-86","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd","title":"Effect of geometric dimensions and fibre orientation on 3D moisture diffusion in flax fibre reinforced thermoplastic and thermosetting composites","type":"article-journal","volume":"95"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[37]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[37]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[37]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[37]FFChilali et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/pstruct.2017.03.077","ISBN":"0263-8223","ISSN":"02638223","abstract":"In the present work, twill flax fabrics-reinforced thermoplastic and thermosetting composites were subjected to water ageing in order to study its effect on their mechanical properties. Water ageing was conducted by immersing composite specimens into tap water at room temperature until saturation. To assess their mechanical behaviour, the aged composites were subjected to monotonic and load-unload tensile tests completed by Acoustic Emission (AE) recording. The AE records were analysed by the k-means unsupervised pattern recognition algorithm associated with the Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and the Silhouette index. In particular, the load-unload tensile tests highlighted a decrease of about 10% of the aged composites stiffness with respect to unaged ones at high loads. Besides, three classes of damage events were identified and assigned to the damage mechanisms. Finally, the mechanical behaviour of the aged composites is found to exhibit a significant Felicity effect synonymous of a substantial damage induced by water ageing.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chilali","given":"Abderrazak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zouari","given":"Wajdi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Assarar","given":"Mustapha","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kebir","given":"Hocine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ayad","given":"Rezak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composite Structures","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"309-319","title":"Effect of water ageing on the load-unload cyclic behaviour of flax fibre-reinforced thermoplastic and thermosetting composites","type":"article-journal","volume":"183"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[36]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[36]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[36]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[36]CCBhudolia et al. 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ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s10443-016-9516-1","ISSN":"15734897","abstract":"? 2016 Springer Science+Business Media DordrechtA new matrix resin was recently introduced for composite materials, based on acrylic resin chemistry allowing standard room temperature infusion techniques to be used to produce recyclable thermoplastic composites. This is a significant advance, particularly for more environmentally-friendly production of large marine structures such as boats. However, for such applications it is essential to demonstrate that composites produced with these resins resist sea water exposure in service. This paper presents results from a wet aging study of unreinforced acrylic and glass and carbon fibre reinforced acrylic composites. It is shown that the acrylic matrix resin is very stable in seawater, showing lower property losses after seawater aging than those of a commonly-used epoxy matrix resin. Carbon fibre reinforced acrylic also shows good property retention after aging, while reductions in glass fibre reinforced composite strengths suggest that specific glass fibre sizing may be required for optimum durability.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Davies","given":"P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gac","given":"P. Y.","non-dropping-particle":"Le","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gall","given":"M.","non-dropping-particle":"Le","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Applied Composite Materials","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"97-111","publisher":"Applied Composite Materials","title":"Influence of sea water aging on the mechanical behaviour of acrylic matrix composites","type":"article-journal","volume":"24"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[49]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[49]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[49]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[49]GMurray et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s10443-019-9760-2","abstract":"Reactive thermoplastics are advantageous for wind turbine blades because they are recyclable at end of life, have reduced manufacturing costs, and enable thermal joining and shaping. However, there are challenges with manufacturing wind components from these new materials. This work outlines the development of manufacturing processes for a thick glass fiber-reinforced acrylic thermoplastic resin wind turbine blade spar cap, with consideration given to effects of the exothermic curing reaction on thick composite parts. Comparative elastic properties of these infusible thermoplastic materials with epoxy thermoset materials, as well as thermoplastic coupon components, are also included. Based on the results of this study it is concluded that the thermoplastic resin system is a viable candidate for the manufacturing of wind turbine blades using vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding. Significant gains in energy savings are realized avoiding heated molds, ability for recycling, and providing an opportunity for utilizing thermal welding.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Murray","given":"Robynne E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Penumadu","given":"Dayakar","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cousins","given":"Dylan","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Beach","given":"Ryan","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Snowberg","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Berry","given":"Derek","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Suzuki","given":"Yasuhito","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Stebner","given":"Aaron","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Applied Composite Material","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"1-17","title":"Manufacturing and Flexural Characterization of Infusion-Reacted Thermoplastic Wind Turbine Blade Subcomponents","type":"article-journal","volume":"27"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[50]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[50]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[50]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[50]F, G, C and J indicate the usage of flax, glass, carbon and jute reinforcements in the cited work(s).Chilali et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1177/0731684416645203","ISBN":"0731-6844","ISSN":"15307964","abstract":"This paper aims at comparing the mechanical behaviour of different composite materials constituted of twill flax and glass fabrics-reinforced liquid thermoplastic and thermoset resins. The main objective is to study the possibility of thermoplastic to replace thermoset matrix, and flax fibre to replace glass fibre. For this purpose, the studied composites were fabricated using the vacuum infusion technique. Next, they were subjected to several monotonic and load-unload tensile tests in order to determine their mechanical properties and their evolution with damage. Two elastic damage and elastic-plastic damage models were also considered to predict their behaviour. The obtained results show that the used thermoplastic resin could constitute an interesting alternative to the thermoset resin for the vacuum infusion process. Furthermore, the flax fibre composites, in particular those based on the thermoplastic resin, present specific tensile moduli close to those of glass composites.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chilali","given":"Abderrazak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zouari","given":"Wajdi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Assarar","given":"Mustapha","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kebir","given":"Hocine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ayad","given":"Rezak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"1217-1232","title":"Analysis of the mechanical behaviour of flax and glass fabrics-reinforced thermoplastic and thermoset resins","type":"article-journal","volume":"35"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[19]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[19]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[24]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[19] reported comparable tensile and shear performance in both acrylic-based and epoxy-based composites. They also observed superior damage resistance in flax-acrylic composites with respect to a comparable flax-epoxy material, no differences in extent of damage and residual performance were reported between their glass-reinforced counterparts. Their findings on the tensile performance of the glass-reinforced composites are in agreement with published work by Lorriot et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lorriot","given":"Thierry","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Yagoubi","given":"Jalal","non-dropping-particle":"El","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fourel","given":"Julie","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tison","given":"Franck","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"20th International Conference on Composite Materials","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"publisher-place":"Copenhagen","title":"Non-conventional glass fiber NCF composites with thermoset and thermoplastic matrices.","type":"paper-conference"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[47]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[47]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[47]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[47]; however, Baley et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.mtcomm.2018.07.003","ISSN":"23524928","abstract":"Despite the wide development of biocomposites, their compressive behaviour is still not well understood. In this paper, the longitudinal compressive and tensile behaviour of unidirectional natural fibres is studied through a parametric analysis taking into account the nature of the fibre (flax or jute), the matrix (thermoplastic and thermoset: PP, PP/MAPP, PA11, epoxy or acrylic), the fibre volume fraction and the fibre/matrix bond strength. In parallel with this approach, the quasi-static tensile behaviour is also investigated to allow comparisons. At low strains, the compressive and tensile moduli are closely similar. On the other hand, the compressive strength is systematically lower than the tensile strength whatever the fibre and matrix used. With a PP matrix, use of a coupling agent (MA) to improve the Interfacial Shear Strength (IFSS) leads to an increase of strength, which highlights the importance of this parameter. The compressive strength increases with the fibre volume fraction, but the maximum value remains lower than 140 MPa. Back calculation allows us to estimate the compressive strength of the flax fibres as 240 MPa, which appears as a current limit for the dimensioning of biocomposite structures.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Baley","given":"Christophe","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lan","given":"Marine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bourmaud","given":"Alain","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duigou","given":"Antoine","non-dropping-particle":"Le","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials Today Communications","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"November 2017","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"300-306","publisher":"Elsevier","title":"Compressive and tensile behaviour of unidirectional composites reinforced by natural fibres: Influence of fibres (flax and jute), matrix and fibre volume fraction","type":"article-journal","volume":"16"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[16]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[16]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[16]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[16] reported significantly lower (-40%) tensile strength in glass-reinforced acrylic than glass-reinforced epoxy. Kinvi-Dossou et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/pstruct.2019.02.090","ISSN":"02638223","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kinvi-Dossou","given":"G.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Matadi Boumbimba","given":"R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bonfoh","given":"N.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Garzon-Hernandez","given":"S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Garcia-Gonzalez","given":"D.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gerard","given":"P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Arias","given":"A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composite Structures","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019","2"]]},"page":"1-13","title":"Innovative acrylic thermoplastic composites versus conventional composites: improving the impact performances","type":"article-journal","volume":"217"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[23]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[23]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[28]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[23] reported superior impact performance in glass-acrylic composites than their thermoset counterparts; however, Obande et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.matlet.2018.11.137","ISSN":"0167577X","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Obande","given":"Winifred","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ray","given":"Dipa","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"? Brádaigh","given":"Conchúr M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials Letters","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"38-41","publisher":"Elsevier B.V.","title":"Viscoelastic and drop-weight impact properties of an acrylic-matrix composite and a conventional thermoset composite – A comparative study","type":"article-journal","volume":"238"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[24]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[24]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[29]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[24] found that despite exhibiting more energy dissipative behaviour, glass-acrylic composites were less impact damage resistant than their epoxy counterparts. With the exception of work published by Cousins ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cousins","given":"Dylan S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"publisher":"Colorado School of Mines [Doctoral Thesis]","title":"Advanced thermoplastic composites for wind turbine blade manufacturing","type":"thesis"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[48]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[48]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[48]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[48], the general mechanical properties (tensile, compressive, flexural and shear) of acrylic and comparable epoxy composites have not been evaluated comprehensively. As shown in REF _Ref4065100 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Table 1, no one study comparatively evaluates general mechanical properties, fracture toughness, damage behaviour and thermomechanical characteristics in a complementary fashion. This clearly highlights the need for rigorous benchmarking to develop the robustness of the material performance database on acrylic matrices in composites, which despite attracting considerable research interest is not as well understood as traditional matrix systems such as epoxies. Such benchmarking analyses will serve to improve the understanding of areas in which acrylic composites may be most effectively applied.In this present study, an acrylic-based glass fibre composite was benchmarked against a traditional thermosetting epoxy-based counterpart. Mechanical (tensile, flexural, short beam shear, mode-I fracture toughness) and thermomechanical characterisation techniques were used to evaluate both materials. Fractographic inspections were conducted, using scanning electron microscopy to assess shear crack modes and mode-I fracture surfaces. Materials and fabricationMaterialsThe materials under investigation in this study were glass fibre-reinforced acrylic (GF/acrylic) and epoxy (GF/epoxy) laminates, comprising eight plies of non-crimp E-glass fabric (TEST2594-125-50; Ahlstrom-Munksj?). Fibres in 0°- and 90°-directions and PES stitching account for 600, 36 and 10 g/m2, respectively of the total areal weight of 646 g/m2. For the GF/acrylic laminate, Elium? 188 O resin (Arkema) was used with BP-50-FT organic peroxide initiator (United Initiators). A two-part epoxy resin system SR 1710/SD 7820 (Sicomin Epoxy Systems), was used for the GF/epoxy laminate. The comparability of glass transition temperature (Tg) of unreinforced matrices was the main selection criterion for the reference epoxy system. It is worth noting that the mixed resin viscosities (as specified by the manufactures) were dissimilar for both resins. Elium? 188 O had a viscosity of 100 mPa.s at 25°C, whereas the value specified for the epoxy was 450 mPa.s at 30°C. REF _Ref4056299 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Table 2 shows properties of both resin systems. With the exception of Tg for Elium? 188 O, all values have been sourced from relevant datasheets. Reinforcement with multi-compatible sizing was sourced for this investigation due to the limited availability of specially sized fabrics for acrylics at the time. Table SEQ Table \* ARABIC 2. Summary mechanical and thermomechanical properties reported as specified in matrix technical datasheets.PropertyElium? 188 OSR 1710/SD 7820Tensile strength (MPa)6678Tensile modulus (GPa)3.22.8Elongation at break (%)2.86.2Flexural strength (MPa)111117Flexural modulus (GPa)2.92.8Glass transition temperature (°C)120?127?: value for Elium? 280 sourced from literature ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3390/ma10030293","ISSN":"19961944","PMID":"28772654","abstract":"? 2017 by the authors. For mass production of structural composites, use of different textile patterns, custom preforming, room temperature cure high performance polymers and simplistic manufacturing approaches are desired. Woven fabrics are widely used for infusion processes owing to their high permeability but their localised mechanical performance is affected due to inherent associated crimps. The current investigation deals with manufacturing low-weight textile carbon non-crimp fabrics (NCFs) composites with a room temperature cure epoxy and a novel liquid Methyl methacrylate (MMA) thermoplastic matrix, Elium?. Vacuum assisted resin infusion (VARI) process is chosen as a cost effective manufacturing technique. Process parameters optimisation is required for thin NCFs due to intrinsic resistance it offers to the polymer flow. Cycles of repetitive manufacturing studies were carried out to optimise the NCF-thermoset (TS) and NCF with novel reactive thermoplastic (TP) resin. It was noticed that the controlled and optimised usage of flow mesh, vacuum level and flow speed during the resin infusion plays a significant part in deciding the final quality of the fabricated composites. The material selections, the challenges met during the manufacturing and the methods to overcome these are deliberated in this paper. An optimal three stage vacuum technique developed to manufacture the TP and TS composites with high fibre volume and lower void content is established and presented.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bhudolia","given":"Somen K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Perrotey","given":"Pavel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joshi","given":"Sunil C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"title":"Optimizing polymer infusion process for thin ply textile composites with novel matrix system","type":"article-journal","volume":"10"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[20]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[20]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[25]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[20]Manufacturing methodLaminates were manufactured using an adjustable-cavity vacuum infusion mould supplied by Composite Integration. For each processing cycle, square fabric plies measuring 485 mm in length were cut and dried in a convection oven (60°C overnight). Eight unidirectional plies were carefully assembled into the cavity with a pre-set height of 4 mm; the entire mould surface had been pre-treated with Zyvax? Watershield, a chemical release agent. Following the vacuum-assisted clamping and evacuation of the mould cavity, a 2-minute leak test was performed for a target maximum leak rate of 5 mbar/min. All infusions were performed at room temperature, followed by 24 h at room temperature. The GF/epoxy laminate was subjected to a two-part, freestanding post-cure (8 h at 60°C and 4 h at 100°C). The GF/acrylic laminate did not require post-processing; however, the recommended time of 8 h was extended to 24 h to ensure full polymerisation. As can be seen in REF _Ref528167823 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 1, the use of the low-viscosity acrylic resin resulted in significantly shorter infusion times (up to five times shorter) than the use of its epoxy counterpart.Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 1. (a) Experimental set-up for the production of test laminates; (b) graphical representation of observed flow fronts for GF/acrylic and GF/epoxy.Preparation of test specimen A water-lubricated diamond-coated saw blade was used to cut specimens from the fabricated laminates in accordance with relevant test standards. Drying was performed in a convection oven at 50°C for 72 h to ensure samples were free of moisture from the cutting process prior to testing. With the exception of transverse tensile and flexural test specimens, longitudinal specimens were utilised for all other test methods. Fibre volume and void fractions were determined by the matrix burn-off technique (ASTM D3171) to assess the quality of the laminates produced. Fibre volume fractions were the same (49.5%) in both cases; however, the void contents were 0.4% and 1.3% in GF/acrylic and GF/epoxy, respectively. The lower void content in the case of GF/acrylic can be attributed to the low infusion viscosity of the acrylic resin and is in agreement with observations by Chilali et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1177/0731684416645203","ISBN":"0731-6844","ISSN":"15307964","abstract":"This paper aims at comparing the mechanical behaviour of different composite materials constituted of twill flax and glass fabrics-reinforced liquid thermoplastic and thermoset resins. The main objective is to study the possibility of thermoplastic to replace thermoset matrix, and flax fibre to replace glass fibre. For this purpose, the studied composites were fabricated using the vacuum infusion technique. Next, they were subjected to several monotonic and load-unload tensile tests in order to determine their mechanical properties and their evolution with damage. Two elastic damage and elastic-plastic damage models were also considered to predict their behaviour. The obtained results show that the used thermoplastic resin could constitute an interesting alternative to the thermoset resin for the vacuum infusion process. Furthermore, the flax fibre composites, in particular those based on the thermoplastic resin, present specific tensile moduli close to those of glass composites.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chilali","given":"Abderrazak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zouari","given":"Wajdi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Assarar","given":"Mustapha","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kebir","given":"Hocine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ayad","given":"Rezak","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"1217-1232","title":"Analysis of the mechanical behaviour of flax and glass fabrics-reinforced thermoplastic and thermoset resins","type":"article-journal","volume":"35"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[19]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[19]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[24]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[19].Experimental methodsTensile testingTransverse tensile testing was conducted in accordance with ASTM D3039. Six samples measuring 250 mm × 25 mm were loaded at 2 mm/min until failure on an MTS Criterion (Model 45) 300-kN capacity test frame. To prevent slippage between the grip face and specimen ends during testing, 240 grit emery cloths were used at sample ends; hydraulic gripping jaws were used (grip pressure: 60 bar). Using video extensometry (Imetrum UVX & Manta G-146B/G-146C), strains were computed from recorded real-time deformations; all samples were speckled with matt black paint prior to testing. Flexural testingThe longitudinal and transverse flexural properties (strengths and moduli) of GF/acrylic and GF/epoxy were determined by three-point loading in accordance with ASTM D7264 using a sample span-to-thickness ratio of 32:1, corresponding to sample lengths of 154 mm and crosshead speed of 1 mm/min. Loading nose and supports were hardened steel pins of 6 mm diameter. Six samples were tested for each material under transverse loading conditions, whereas five samples were loaded longitudinally from each laminate. Testing was performed on an Instron (3369) test frame fitted with a 10 kN load cell (Instron 2530-10 kN). Mid-span deflections were tracked and recorded by means of the video extensometer described in Section REF _Ref532258932 \w \h \* MERGEFORMAT 3.1. Sample edges were speckled with a fine-tip permanent marker to facilitate video extensometry. Short beam shear testingTo evaluate the short beam shear performance of GF/acrylic and GF/epoxy, six coupons measuring 8 mm × 24 mm were loaded to failure by short beam shear testing (in accordance with ASTM D2344). The test frame detailed in Section REF _Ref532392318 \w \h \* MERGEFORMAT 3.2 was used. Testing was performed at a crosshead speed of 1 mm/min. A span-to-thickness ratio of 4:1 was used to ensure samples were subjected to a shear stress state. Cylindrical loading nose and supports were used with diameters of 6 mm and 3 mm, respectively. Mode-I fracture toughness testing Double cantilever beam (DCB) testing was performed in accordance with ASTM D5528 for the determination of mode-I interlaminar fracture toughness. Testing was performed on the Instron test frame detailed in Section REF _Ref532392318 \w \h \* MERGEFORMAT 3.2. Self-releasing films (13-?m thick perfluoroalkoxy alkane) were implanted at the mid-plane of each laminate during fabrication to create a 63-mm long initiation site for delamination. Samples were carefully cut from the test laminate to maintain the length of the original initiation site and dimensions (175 mm × 25 mm). Steel loading blocks (25 mm × 25 mm × 16 mm) were bonded to the pre-cracked sample ends for load introduction and high-contrast speckles were applied as described in Section REF _Ref532392318 \w \h \* MERGEFORMAT 3.2 to sample edges to facilitate automatic tracking of delamination length using a video extensometer (refer to Section REF _Ref532258932 \w \h \* MERGEFORMAT 3.1 for specifications). For each test, loading was performed at a rate of 1 mm/min for a minimum delamination length of 50 mm. Load, opening (crosshead) displacement and delamination length were recorded. Dynamic mechanical analysesDynamical mechanical analysis (DMA) was performed in accordance with BS ISO 6721-11 to assess the thermomechanical properties of both materials. The test and specimen specifications are detailed in REF _Ref7438474 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Table 3. Storage and loss moduli, and tan delta were recorded as functions of temperature throughout testing.Table 3. Details of test parameters and specimen dimensions.AnalyserQ800-V21.1 TA instrumentsModeThree-point bending (longitudinal)Nominal specimen dimensions60 mm × 10 mm × 4 mm (50-mm span)Temperature profileAmbient – 180°C (3°C/min)Displacement amplitude50 ?mFrequency1 HzScanning electron microscopyScanning electron microscopy was used as a means of qualitatively assessing failure behaviour following short beam shear (SBS) and DCB testing. Samples were prepared with a 40-nm sputter coating of gold to enhance surface conductivity and imaged at 5 kV on a JEOL JSM series instrument. SBS sample edges were coated; whereas on DCB samples, coating was applied to exposed interlaminar fracture surfaces (created during testing). Results and discussion of manufactured laminatesResults of mechanical characterisationA summary of the tensile, flexural and short beam shear properties reported and discussed in Sections REF _Ref532254257 \w \h \* MERGEFORMAT 4.1.1 to REF _Ref532254261 \w \h \* MERGEFORMAT 4.1.4 is presented in REF _Ref3836744 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Table 4.Table SEQ Table \* ARABIC 4. Tensile, flexural and shear properties.GF/acrylicGF/epoxyTensile Properties (Transverse)Strength (MPa)73 ± 3.954 ± 4.1Modulus (GPa)13 ± 0.613 ± 0.5Failure Strain (%)1.2 ± 0.32.1 ± 0.2Flexural Properties (Longitudinal)Strength (MPa)879 ± 49869 ± 42Modulus (GPa)40 ± 1.738 ± 2.3Failure Strain (%)3.3 ± 0.43.4 ± 0.6Flexural Properties (Transverse)Strength (MPa)91 ± 5.494 ± 7.2Modulus (GPa)11 ± 0.212 ± 0.4Failure Strain (%)1.7 ± 0.32.0 ± 0.2Short Beam Shear PropertiesStrength (MPa)58 ± 1.757 ± 1.0Transverse tensile test resultsRepresentative stress-strain responses for GF/acrylic and GF/epoxy are presented in REF _Ref531979439 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 2 and are given in REF _Ref3836744 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Table 4. GF/acrylic exhibited significantly higher average transverse tensile strengths at 73 MPa, compared to 54 MPa for the GF/epoxy specimens. For both materials, strain is observed to increase linearly with increasing applied stress. GF/acrylic samples showed evidence of plastic deformation at strains in excess of 0.4 % and continue to yield gradually until the point of ultimate specimen fracture. In contrast, lower transverse tensile strengths were observed for the GF/epoxy samples, with higher strains observed at failure. GF/epoxy had higher failure strains (2.1 ± 0.2 %) than GF/acrylic (1.2 ± 0.3 %). Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 2. Transverse stress-strain behaviour of all GF/acrylic and GF/epoxy samples. Reinforcements are a non-crimp stitched unidirectional E-glass fabric with fibre volume fraction of 49.5% in each case.As shown in REF _Ref532244543 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 3, a series of horizontal cracks were observed in all GF/epoxy specimens. In the case of GF/acrylic, only a few cracks were seen to appear prior to the main failure event. Evidence of fibre-splitting along the loading direction, originating from the sparsely distributed 90°-fibres were only observed in GF/acrylic samples.Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 3. Representative failure modes in both materials following transverse tensile testing with loading direction schematically represented.Strain maps (obtained from video extensometer) have been presented in time-lapse sequences ( REF _Ref532241576 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 4) to highlight the difference in strain development (and thus, damage evolution) between both material systems. GF/acrylic strain maps are more uniform throughout the testing. The effects of accumulating transverse cracks in GF/epoxy, however, are highly evident; high-strain domains dominate the strain maps between 40 min and t*. The time stamp, t* represents the strain distribution at the time of ultimate failure in both materials.Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 4. Time-lapse compilation of representative strain maps obtained during transverse tensile loading of GF/acrylic and GF/epoxy samples.Longitudinal flexural test result REF _Ref532243250 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 5 shows representative stress-strain behaviour of the materials under investigation following longitudinal flexural loading to failure. As previously presented in REF _Ref3836744 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Table 4, GF/acrylic exhibited marginally higher strength (average of 880 MPa) and modulus (average of 40 GPa) compared to averages of 870 MPa and 38 GPa for GF/epoxy, respectively. In addition, up to failure, its stress-strain response was similar to that of GF/epoxy. A monotonic linear increase in stress exists in both materials up to the limit of proportionality; thereafter, evidence of plastic deformation is seen until the onset of severe compressive failure (Point 1). However, they exhibit dissimilar damage evolution beyond this point. In both materials, ultimate tensile fibre fracture (Point 2) is observed as a discrete and sudden loss in stiffness; however, in GF/acrylic samples, this was preceded by an extended period where marginal stress reductions were observed with increasing strain. This behaviour is thought to be indicative of progressive matrix cracking ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2015.06.034","abstract":"This paper presents an experimental investigation of the deformation responses and failure mechanisms of hybrid 3D textile composites (H3DTCs) subjected to quasi-static three-point bending. The term ''hybrid\" refers to different constituent fiber tows, including carbon, glass, and Kevlar that are integrally woven into a single preform. Three different hybrid architectures, manufactured by varying the percentages and lay-ups of the constituent fiber tows, were examined to understand the effect of hybridization on the resulting performance enhancement, including the bending modulus, flexural yield stress, and strain to failure. All the architectures show a ''plastic-like\" nonlinear flexural response, indicating considerable damage tolerance and durability for this class of materials. It has been found that increasing the thickness of the specimens can increase the strain to failure in flexure. For an asymmetric H3DTC, which refers to an architecture that has carbon plies on one side and glass plies on the other (through-the-thickness), an increased flexural yield stress can be achieved by placing the glass on the side that experiences compressive straining in flexure, whereas the failure strain is reduced by placing the carbon on the side which experiences tension. Distributed matrix cracking was observed in regions of predominant tension through a digital image correlation (DIC) technique. Although the experimental results show architecture-dependent responses, fiber tow kinking, which develops on the compressive side of the specimen is determined to be a strength limiting mechanism for this class of materials subjected to flex-ural loading. The experimental results are subsequently used as a basis for developing a mechanics based multiscale computational model for H3DTC deformation, damage and failure response in flexure. Details of the modeling strategy and the development of damage and failure constitutive models are presented in Part II of this two-part sequence (Zhang et al., 2015).","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zhang","given":"Dianyun","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Waas","given":"Anthony M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Yen","given":"Chian-Fong","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"International Journal of Solids and Structures","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"page":"309-320","title":"Progressive damage and failure response of hybrid 3D textile composites subjected to flexural loading, Part I: Experimental studies","type":"article-journal","volume":"75-79"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[51]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[51]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[51]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[51]. In the case of the GF/epoxy samples, more sudden load drops and stepped reduction in stress are observed until ultimate failure. The strain window between onset and ultimate failure events, i.e., between Points 1 and 2 was broader (~26%) in GF/acrylic samples. Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 5. Stress-strain curves of (a) GF/acrylic, (b) GF/epoxy and (c) representative curves showing characteristic behaviour of both materials in response to longitudinal flexural loading.Damage initiation in both materials occurred on the side in compression, with evidence of compressive fibre fractures being observed before tensile fibre fracture. In the case of GF/epoxy samples, tensile matrix failure events coincided with compressive fibre fracture. It is worth noting however, that as these observations were reliant on edge detection of failure, other undetected failure events may have occurred prior to those reported. Post-mortem inspections of ultimate compressive, tensile and through-thickness (edge) failure modes were conducted on all samples. Representative images obtained during these inspections are presented in REF _Ref532213689 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 6. Focusing on the damage on the compressive sides ( REF _Ref532213689 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 6a & REF _Ref532213689 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 6d) of test samples from both materials, distinct failure types are observed; GF/acrylic samples showed evidence of micro-buckling under the loading nose and severe delamination in tows on outer edges. On the other hand, matrix crushing was more prominent in GF/epoxy, without edge effect as observed with GF/acrylic. A lesser extent of surface buckling was evident. Distinct, ultimate tensile failure modes were also observed in both materials. While all samples showed characteristics of tow separation and delamination, GF/acrylic tows remained mostly intact ( REF _Ref532213689 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 6b), whereas GF/epoxy tows suffered more intra-tow matrix cracks and debonding, leading to a shinier appearance ( REF _Ref532213689 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 6e). Damage in GF/acrylic was spread over a longer length, while more localised damage occurred in GF/epoxy. Comparing the distribution of damage mechanisms through the thickness as shown in REF _Ref532213689 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 6c and REF _Ref532213689 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 6f, a similar extent of fibre-related damage processes (such as kinking and fracture) were observed in both materials. Although distinct regions of compressive and tensile failure were observed in all samples, GF/acrylic samples showed more hourglass-shaped distribution of these regions, with upper and lower regions joining. In contrast, GF/epoxy samples had two discrete upper and lower bounds in the distribution of failure.Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 6. Images showing representative modes of (a) compressive failure, (b) tensile failure, on upper and lower surfaces, respectively; and (c) regions of compressive and tensile failure on GF/acrylic sample edges of longitudinal flexure specimens. Note: (d), (e) and (f) are same features on GF/epoxy samples, respectively.Transverse flexural test resultsRepresentative stress-strain responses to transverse flexural loading are shown in REF _Ref528517235 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 7. and strengths and moduli were presented in REF _Ref3836744 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Table 4. Despite its superior transverse tensile performance, with strength of 91 MPa and modulus of 11 GPa, GF/acrylic had marginally lower transverse flexural properties than GF/epoxy, which had average strength of 94 MPa and modulus of 12 GPa. As seen in REF _Ref528517235 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 7, both materials exhibit a short linear elastic region, however, in the case of GF/acrylic; this region is followed by some nonlinearity until failure, indicating a higher degree of plastic deformation before failure. Conversely, GF/epoxy samples showed evidence of earlier onset of damage after the initial linear region. In all epoxy-based samples, this region was followed by oscillations in stress-strain response (indicating progressive accumulation of minor damage events) until the occurrence of ultimate failure. Unlike the longitudinal stress-strain responses where a broader region of linearity was observed (indicating fibre-dominated flexural behaviour), a high extent of non-linearity exists in the transverse stress-strain curves due to the matrix-dominated nature of failure. Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 7. Stress-strain curves of (a) GF/acrylic and (b) GF/epoxy and (c) representative curves showing characteristic behaviour of both materials in response to transverse flexural loading.As shown in REF _Ref532226312 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 8, multiple transverse cracks were observed on GF/Epoxy samples, explaining the oscillations observed in stress-strain behaviour ( REF _Ref528517235 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 7) leading to ultimate failure. In GF/acrylic, fewer cracks were evident; however, these were concentrated around the main site of matrix fracture. Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 8. Images of representative failures (tensile side) on three samples of (a) GF/acrylic and (b) GF/epoxy following transverse flexural testing.Short beam shear test resultsIn this section, the results of short beam shear testing for the determination of short shear strengths are presented in REF _Ref3836744 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Table 4 and discussed. GF/acrylic had marginally higher average shear strength (58 MPa) than GF/epoxy (57 MPa). REF _Ref528697545 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 9 shows all load-displacement curves for both materials.Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 9. Load-displacement curves obtained from short beam shear tests for all (a) GF/acrylic and (b) GF/epoxy samples and (c) a comparison of two representative curves from both materials. Load-displacement curves reveal similar pre-peak behaviour in both materials. A linear region is observed for all samples and is followed by some nonlinear deformation prior to peak load. Beyond this point, GF/acrylic samples did not exhibit abrupt load drops; their curves revealed evidence of severe inelastic deformation with localised stable crack propagation. In contrast, a more noticeable onset of failure is observed in GF/epoxy samples as load drops of about 20-30% from respective load peaks. Larger areas are bounded by the GF/acrylic curves than those observed under GF/epoxy curves, indicating higher energy absorption. It can thus be assumed that more fracture energy was available within GF/acrylic samples. Post-mortem SEM inspections on edges of failed specimens were conducted to substantiate observed load-displacement behaviour. As shown in REF _Ref532228612 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 10, evidence of interlaminar shear and plastic deformation are visible in GF/acrylic, with ductile fracture characteristics observed. The damage characteristics of GF/epoxy shown in REF _Ref532228614 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 11 are consistent with interlaminar shear failure; brittle shear cusps ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1179/146580199101540358","ISSN":"1743-2898","abstract":"A fractographic study of delamination failures in a range of carbon fibre and glass fibre reinforced plastics has been performed. Mode I (peel), mode II (shear), and mixed mode (I+II) interlaminar fracture surfaces, generated both statically and in fatigue, were examined. Intralaminar shear failures generated using a notched tension specimen were also studied. Fractographic features, including striations and matrix rollers, unique to fatigue failure, were identified on many of the mode II dominated specimens. As the mode I component of fracture was increased both the matrix rollers and striations were seen to diminish. While the features identified on the fatigue fracture surfaces enabled static fractures to be differentiated from fatigue failures, studies have shown that the use of these features for the determination of crack propagation directions and crack growth rates may be more limited. It appears that local variations in the stress state over the fracure surface tend to produce significant variations in their spacing and appearance. PRC/1581","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hiley","given":"M J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Plastics, Tubber and Composites","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1999"]]},"page":"210-227","title":"Fractographic study of static and fatigue failures in polymer composites Fractographic study of static and fatigue failures in polymer composites","type":"article-journal","volume":"28"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[52]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[52]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[52]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[52] were present, with no plasticity being observed. Both materials had multiple cracks uniformly dispersed throughout the thickness. Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 10. SEM micrographs showing representative GF/acrylic short beam shear failure modes at magnifications of 25× in (a), 50× in (b), and 200× in (c) and (d). All cracks observed in the GF/epoxy sample were near 90° fibres, which were dispersed throughout each ply. In contrast, cracks in GF/acrylic did not occur around these fibres. The observation of more delamination in GF/acrylic than GF/epoxy are in agreement with the assumptions made from the load-displacement curves in terms of fracture energy absorption.Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 11. SEM micrographs showing representative GF/epoxy short beam shear failure modes at magnifications of 25× in (a), 50× in (b), and 200× in (c) and (d).Interlaminar fracture toughness It has been shown in preceding sections that GF/acrylic significantly outperforms GF/epoxy in terms of transverse tensile strength, while exhibiting similar interlaminar short beam shear and flexural properties (in both longitudinal and transverse directions). This section discusses the observations from double cantilever beam fracture testing. The mode-I fracture toughness values reported here are average strain energies released during initiation (GIC-Init.) and propagation (GIC-Prop.), calculated using the modified beam theory method as per the test standard, with the onset of nonlinearity being used to evaluate the former. GF/acrylic exhibited superior mode-I fracture toughness, with a mean GIC-Prop. of 1814 J/m2 compared to the value of 1574 J/m2 for GF/epoxy, with 19% higher initiation fracture toughness than GF/epoxy. Representative load-displacement curves, R-curves and comparison of mean initiation and propagation toughness values are presented in REF _Ref532257172 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 12.Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 12. Representative (a) load-displacement curves and (b) resistance curves (R-curves) obtained from DCB testing of GF/acrylic and GF/epoxy; and (c) is a chart comparing their average GIC-Init. and GIC-Prop. values.All samples exhibited an initial non-linearity during the take-up portion of load introduction and simultaneous opening of the specimen prior to crack initiation. Following this, a monotonic increase in load was observed prior to delamination initiation. A minor pre-peak load-drop is evident in both materials. Upon initiation, the load-displacement curves of both materials showed minor oscillations and load-drops, which are consistent with stick-slip delamination behaviour (indicative of unstable propagation) ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/pstruct.2017.02.081","ISSN":"02638223","abstract":"In this study, the influence of water absorption on the Mode I interlaminar fracture toughness of flax and basalt fibre reinforced vinyl ester hybrid composites is presented. Three types of composite laminates namely, flax fibre reinforced vinyl ester (FVE), flax fibre hybridised basalt unstitched (FBVEu) and flax hybridised basalt stitched (FBVEs), fabricated by vacuum infusion technique are investigated. Double cantilever beam (DCB) tests were performed to evaluate the Mode I critical energy release rate (GIC) and the crack length (R-curve) by using three different data reduction methods. It was found from the experimental results that the Mode I fracture toughness initiation and propagation of water immersed FVE composites were decreased by an average of 27% and 10% respectively, compared to the dry specimens, whereas the fracture toughness propagation of water immersed FBVEu and FBVEs composites were improved by approximately 15% and 17% compared to dry specimens. The fractured surface and delamination of different composites were evaluated by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray computed micro-tomography (?CT). The results showed that basalt fibre hybridisation has positive effects on durability and the moisture resistance of natural fibre composites.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Almansour","given":"F. A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dhakal","given":"H. N.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zhang","given":"Z. Y.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Composite Structures","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"813-825","title":"Effect of water absorption on mode I interlaminar fracture toughness of flax/basalt reinforced vinyl ester hybrid composites","type":"article-journal","volume":"168"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1177/0731684416672925","abstract":"The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of fibre architectures on the interlaminar fracture toughness and tensile toughness of flax fibre epoxy composites. The fracture toughness was investigated for both Mode I (G IC) and Mode II (G IIC) for seven flax-epoxy architectures: one plain weave, two twill 2 ? 2 weaves, a quasi-unidirectional and a unidirectional architecture, the UD's being tested in both [0,90] and [90,0] composite lay-ups. The results of the Mode I and Mode II showed promising results of the flax-epoxy composite performance. The addition of flax fibre increases the G IC and G IIC of the composites over that of the unreinforced brittle polymer by at least two to three times. Further improvements are made with the use of woven textiles. The tensile toughness was found to be a good indicator of the capacity of a material to sustain perforation or non-perforation impact.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bensadoun","given":"F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Verpoest","given":"I","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vuure","given":"A W","non-dropping-particle":"Van","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"121-136","title":"Interlaminar fracture toughness of flax-epoxy composites","type":"article-journal","volume":"36"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[53,54]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[53,54]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[53,54]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[53,54]. From REF _Ref3839569 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 13, a higher extent of fibre bridging (at the crack tip) is observed in GF/acrylic than in GF/epoxy. Moreover, crack bridging occurred throughout testing due to the presence of 90° tows in the fabric used. This was evident in both materials and occurred throughout testing; as such, the load-displacement curves ( REF _Ref532257172 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 12a) and the R-curves ( REF _Ref532257172 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 12b) are not representative of purely unidirectional specimens. It is highly likely that some of the load drops and evolution of mode-I fracture resistance with increasing crack length correspond to secondary energy-dissipation processes such as tow rupture and/or debonding events ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1177/0731684416672925","abstract":"The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of fibre architectures on the interlaminar fracture toughness and tensile toughness of flax fibre epoxy composites. The fracture toughness was investigated for both Mode I (G IC) and Mode II (G IIC) for seven flax-epoxy architectures: one plain weave, two twill 2 ? 2 weaves, a quasi-unidirectional and a unidirectional architecture, the UD's being tested in both [0,90] and [90,0] composite lay-ups. The results of the Mode I and Mode II showed promising results of the flax-epoxy composite performance. The addition of flax fibre increases the G IC and G IIC of the composites over that of the unreinforced brittle polymer by at least two to three times. Further improvements are made with the use of woven textiles. The tensile toughness was found to be a good indicator of the capacity of a material to sustain perforation or non-perforation impact.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bensadoun","given":"F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Verpoest","given":"I","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vuure","given":"A W","non-dropping-particle":"Van","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"121-136","title":"Interlaminar fracture toughness of flax-epoxy composites","type":"article-journal","volume":"36"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[54]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[54]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[54]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[54]. However, as the same reinforcement was used in both materials, the associated effects on the comparability of these materials are considered negligible. As is evident in REF _Ref532257172 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 12b, the delamination resistance of GF/acrylic increases with increasing crack growth, whereas that of GF/epoxy remains relatively constant.Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 13. Images of representative delamination behaviour observed during DCB testing of (a) GF/acrylic and (b) GF/epoxy at equivalent test times. Focusing on electron micrographic inspections of fracture surfaces ( REF _Ref532256957 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 14) however, distinct failure modes are visible in both materials. The presence of ductile matrix deformation and risers on the GF/acrylic fracture surface indicated ductile matrix fracture, whereas the cusps, mirror zones and hackle zones observed in GF/epoxy are characteristics of brittle matrix fracture. In the context of ductile and brittle matrix fracture characteristics, these micrographic observations are consistent with those from short beam test specimens. Moreover, an exceptional level of fibre-matrix adhesion was observed in GF/acrylic compared with its epoxy counterpart. This explains the superiority in transverse tensile strength in the GF/acrylic material and confirms that the use of fabric with multi-compatible sizing resulted in a desirable strong interfacial adhesion. In addition to the presence of risers, matrix fractures observed in GF/acrylic were distinctly duller in appearance and seemed to have a rougher texture, further confirming microscopic ductile fracture. All epoxy matrix fractures had brittle characteristics (sheen and smoothness). Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 14. SEM micrographs of mode-I fracture surfaces of GF/acrylic (a-b) and GF/epoxy (c-d). Dynamic mechanical analysesThe viscoelastic response of both materials with temperature are shown in REF _Ref528700123 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Fig. 15. The section that follows discusses differences in tan delta and storage modulus for both materials in the context of damping behaviour associated with each matrix type. Fig. SEQ Fig. \* ARABIC 15. Thermomechanical results showing the effect of temperature on storage modulus and tan delta in DMA testing. Testing carried out in longitudinal direction.The thermomechanical properties of GF/acrylic and GF/epoxy obtained from the DMA experiments are presented in REF _Ref528700006 \h \* MERGEFORMAT Table 5. Table SEQ Table \* ARABIC 5. Summary of thermomechanical results.Tg, tan delta (°C)Height of tan delta peakStorage modulus at onset (GPa)GF/acrylic 1060.7640GF/epoxy 1190.4538GF/acrylic was found to exhibit superior damping behaviour, as evidenced by the higher tan delta peak and the larger area under this peak, compared to GF/epoxy. The term “damping” here is used to indicate the energy dissipative efficiency of the materials ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/B978-0-08-100383-1.00002-3","ISBN":"9780081003831","abstract":"Polymers are characterized by a mixture of the directional, localized covalent and ionic modes of interatomic bonding, in contrast to metals that have nondirectional and non-localized interatomic bonding. While strong primary bonding exists along the carbone carbon backbone of organic polymer chains, much weaker secondary bonding exists between adjacent non-crosslinked chains. Combining these modes of bonding with the myriad of different polymer structures, along with the absence of a long-range three-dimensional repeating pattern for the atomic/molecular arrangement, polymers are generally noncrystalline materials with much different mechanical properties from metals. (Special processing techniques can yield polymeric materials with substantial crystalline structures.) This chapter focuses on how the mechanical properties of polymers are related to the general aspects of their structure, without examining the individual monomeric structural units. The reader should review textbooks on polymeric materials and dental materials for details about these structures. Polymers can exhibit a wide range of mechanical behaviors, ranging from elastic-brittle at lower temperatures, to thixotropic (time-dependent shear thinning) at higher temperatures, and a viscous liquid state at high temperatures. While metals and ceramics can also exhibit a spectrum of mechanical behavior, because of their generally much higher melting temperatures, structure/property changes at ambient temperatures are generally negligible. In contrast, orthodontic polymers over a temperature range from ?20 to 200 C can exhibit a large variation in mechanical properties with the elastic modulus and strength sometimes varying by a factor of 1000 (10 3) or more, whereas orthodontic alloys and ceramics have stable mechanical behaviors at ambient temperatures. 2.1.2 General concepts for mechanical behavior of polymers The noncrystalline atomic/molecular arrangement of polymers precludes the disloca-tion mechanism for permanent deformation that is found for metals. The mechanical behavior of polymers depends on the structure of the individual chains (macromole-cules), their molecular weight, the degree of cross-linking between adjacent chains, and on whether the operating temperature approaches the glass transition temperature (T g), which can be defined as the temperature at which the secondary intermolecular Orthodontic Applications of Biomaterials. .","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Eliades","given":"T","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zinelis","given":"S","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kim","given":"D-g","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Brantley","given":"W","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"chapter-number":"2","container-title":"Orthodontic Applications of Biomaterials","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"39-59","title":"Structure/property relationships in orthodontic polymers","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.5923/c.jmea.201601.04","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sudheer","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Mechanical Engineerring and Automation","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"18-21","title":"Thermomechanical properties of epoxy /PTW composites","type":"article-journal","volume":"6"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[55,56]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[55,56]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[55,56]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[55,56]. The area bounded under the tan delta curve is proportional to the degree of molecular mobility, which in turn correlates to damping properties ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1088/1757-899X/330/1/012032","abstract":"The effect of chemical treatments on jute-polyester composites is studied in this paper. The jute fabrics are chemically treated with NaOH and benzoyl chloride and its tensile and visco-elastic properties are compared with untreated jute composite. The NaOH treated jute-polyester composite show superior tensile strength and modulus compared to other jute-polyester composites. The glass transition temperature obtained from DMA shift to higher temperature for composites in comparison to polyester resin, this is due to restriction of mobility in chains due to introduction of jute reinforcement. The DMA results also show favourable results towards NaOH treatment i.e. higher storage modulus and lower tan δ values relative to untreated jute-polyester composite. The benzoyl treated jute-polyester composite however do not show promising results which may be attributed to the fact that the adhesion properties associated with similar ester functional groups in the benzoyl treated jute fabric and polyester resin were not obtained.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chaudhari","given":"Vikas","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chandekar","given":"Harichandra","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Saboo","given":"Jayesh","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mascarenhas","given":"Adlete","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"1-9","publisher":"IOP Publishing","title":"Studies on thermo-mechanical properties of chemically treated jute-polyester composite","type":"article-journal","volume":"330"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"abstract":"The aim of this work is to explore the potential application of chemically modified olive husk residue (OHR) as naturally occurring fillers to reinforce (Nylon-12) thermoplastic to produce a cost-effective wood like material. The Nylon-12/OHR composite material was fabricated via melt mixing of the Nylon-12 followed by the addition of chemically treated OHR at 180 and 50 rev.min-1 using Brabender internal mixer. The composites were characterized with respect to their dynamic mechanical properties, namely storage and viscous moduli (E`, E``), and mechanical loss factors (tan δ) using dynamic mechanical analyzer (DMA). The thermal stability of the samples with and without chemically treated OHR were examined using thermo-gravimetric analyzer (TGA). The chemical resistance of the composites was evaluated by immersing the samples in acidic and basic media and by exposing the samples to thermo-oxidative ageing (TOA) at 80C for 72h. The influence of TOA and immersion medium on the percentage weight loss, impact strength and hardness of the composites were reported. The effect of TOA and the solvent attack on the microstructure of the fractured samples was viewed by scanning electron microscope (SEM).","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mousa","given":"Ahmad","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Heinrich","given":"Gert","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Wagenknecht","given":"Udo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Polymers from Renewable Resources","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"page":"25-42","title":"Wood-like material from thermoplastic polymer and landfill bio-materials: DMA, TGA and solvent resistance properties","type":"article-journal","volume":"6"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[57,58]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[57,58]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[57,58]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[57,58]. Thus, having higher peak intensity and larger area under its tan delta curve, GF/acrylic exhibits better damping behaviour. Being a thermoplastic amorphous polymer, i.e., possessing no crosslinks, the polymer chains in GF/acrylic can undergo instantaneous short-range deformation to dissipate the applied stresses. Conversely, the crosslinked 3D-network structure of the matrix in GF/epoxy inhibits deformations of the same magnitude as observed in GF/acrylic. The effects of crosslinks on the height of tan delta peaks have been previously studied by Bandzierz et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3390/MA9070607","ISSN":"19961944","PMID":"28773731","abstract":"It is generally believed that only intermolecular, elastically-effective crosslinks influence elastomer properties. The role of the intramolecular modifications of the polymer chains is marginalized. The aim of our study was the characterization of the structural parameters of cured elastomers, and determination of their influence on the behavior of the polymer network. For this purpose, styrene-butadiene rubbers (SBR), cured with various curatives, such as DCP, TMTD, TBzTD, Vulcuren?, DPG/S8, CBS/S8, MBTS/S8 and ZDT/S8, were investigated. In every series of samples a broad range of crosslink density was obtained, in addition to diverse crosslink structures, as determined by equilibrium swelling and thiol-amine analysis. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) were used to study the glass transition process, and positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) to investigate the size of the free volumes. For all samples, the values of the glass transition temperature (Tg) increased with a rise in crosslink density. At the same time, the free volume size proportionally decreased. The changes in Tg and free volume size show significant differences between the series crosslinked with various curatives. These variations are explained on the basis of the curatives’ structure effect. Furthermore, basic structure-property relationships are provided. They enable the prediction of the effect of curatives on the structural parameters of the network, and some of the resulting properties. It is proved that the applied techniques—DSC, DMA, and PALS—can serve to provide information about the modifications to the polymer chains. Moreover, on the basis of the obtained results and considering the diversified curatives available nowadays, the usability of “part per hundred rubber” (phr) unit is questioned.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bandzierz","given":"Katarzyna","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Reuvekamp","given":"Louis","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dryzek","given":"Jerzy","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dierkes","given":"Wilma","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Blume","given":"Anke","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bielinski","given":"Dariusz","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Materials","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"1-17","title":"Influence of network structure on glass transition temperature of elastomers","type":"article-journal","volume":"9"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"[59]","plainTextFormattedCitation":"[59]","previouslyFormattedCitation":"[59]"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}[59]. These results indicate that GF/acrylic would tend towards highly inelastic response, whereas elastic response dominates in GF/epoxy. Conclusions The present research comparatively assessed the mechanical and thermomechanical performance of a vacuum-infused thermoplastic acrylic composite against a traditional epoxy based system. The processing of the thermoplastic system was associated with shorter cycle times (due to low viscosity infiltration and no requirement for post-processing). Moreover, the use of multi-sized reinforcement fabric resulted in good interfacial adhesion in GF/acrylic. The following are the relevant findings and observations in relation to the benchmarking of GF/acrylic against GF/epoxy:GF/acrylic had 33 % higher transverse tensile strength and equivalent modulus.It had comparable longitudinal flexural strength (+1 %) and modulus (+5 %).Its short beam shear strength was comparable (+2 %).It had slightly lower transverse flexural strength (-3 %) and modulus (-8 %).It exhibited superior fracture toughness and delamination resistance with its GIC-Init. and GIC-Prop. being 19 % and 15 % higher, respectively. Micrographs revealed microstructural ductility in GF/acrylic and brittle fracture mechanisms in GF/epoxy.GF/acrylic had a higher tan delta peak (+69 %) than GF/epoxy. The findings and observations presented in this paper will serve to foster an understanding of acrylic matrices in continuous fibre-reinforced composite applications. Such knowledge is essential for highlighting applications where acrylic-based composite may most effectively be employed, and may provide guidance on necessary performance enhancing modifications. AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank Arkema GRL, France for providing material samples towards this research.Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot be shared at this time due to technical or time limitations.ReferencesADDIN Mendeley Bibliography CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY [1]H.J. Kim, G.A. Keoleian, S.J. Skerlos, Economic assessment of greenhouse gas emissions reduction by vehicle lightweighting using aluminum and high-strength steel, J. Ind. Ecol. 15 (2011) 64–80. doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00288.x.[2]H. Helms, U. 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