Counseling Resources



Why Racial/Cultural Identity Models?

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Some Thoughts on Racial/Cultural Identity

• Process of learning to value oneself in a world which devalues you

• Sometimes valuing comes naturally through support of a family and community in which one was raised

• More often, people are raised in an environment which devalues their minority characteristics

• R/CID Model draws together common themes in the process of overcoming internalized oppression.

• Development seen as an evolution in consciousness: growing awareness of oneself in relationship to others and society.

• Identity is not static. Model used to describe an individual at a given point in time; to describe/predict process of growth.

• We don’t all start out at the same level and move through stages in systematic way.

• Model helps understand client; aids in effective interventions and treatment planning

Black Racial Identity Development Model

Preencounter

The African American has absorbed many of the beliefs and values of the dominant White culture, including the notion that “White is right” and “Black is wrong.” Though the internalization of negative Black Stereotypes may be outside of his or her conscious awareness, the individual seeks to assimilate and be accepted by Whites, and actively or passively distances him/herself from other Blacks.

Encounter

This phase is typically precipitated by an event or series of events that forces the individual to acknowledge the impact of racism in one’s life. For example, instances of social rejection by White friends or colleagues (or reading new personally relevant information about racism) may lead the individual to the conclusion that many Whites will not view him or her as an equal. Faced with the reality that he or she cannot truly be White, the individual is forced to focus on his or her identity as a member of a group targeted by racism.

Immersion/Emersion

This stage is characterized by the simultaneous desire to surround oneself with visible symbols of one’s racial identity and an active avoidance of symbols of Whiteness. As Thomas Parham describes, “At this stage, everything of value in life must be Black or relevant to Blackness. This stage is also characterized by a tendency to denigrate white people, simultaneously glorifying Black people…” (1989, p. 190). As individuals enter the Immersion stage, they actively seek out opportunities to explore aspects of their own history and culture with the support of peers from their own racial background. Typically, White-focused anger dissipates during this phase because so much of the person’s energy is directed toward his or her own group and self exploration. The result of this exploration is an emerging security in a newly defined and affirmed sense of self.

Internalization

While still maintaining his or her connections with Black peers, the internalized individual is willing to establish meaningful relationships with Whites who acknowledge and are respectful of his or her self-definition. The individual is also ready to build coalitions with members of other oppressed groups.

Internalization-Commitment

Those at the fifth stage have found ways to translate their “personal sense of Blackness into a plan of action or a general sense of commitment” to the concerns of Blacks as a group, which is sustained over time (Cross, 1991, p. 220). Whether at the fourth of fifth stage, the process of Internalization allows the individual, anchored in a positive sense of racial identity, both to perceive and transcend race proactively.

Cross (1971, 1978, 1991) from Talking about Race, Learning about Racism: The Application of Racial Identity Development Theory in the Classroom by Beverly Daniel Tatum in Geismar, K. & Nicoleau, G. (1993), Teaching for Change. Harvard Educational Review. Cambridge, MA.

Asian American Identity Development Model

1. The Ethnic Awareness Stage begins around the ages of 3-4 when the child’s family members serve as the significant ethnic group model. Positive or neutral attitudes toward one’s own ethnic origin are formed depending on the amount of ethnic exposure conveyed by the caretakers.

2. The White Identification stage begins when children enter school where peers and the surroundings become powerful forces in conveying racial prejudice, which negatively impacts their self-esteem and identity. The realization of “differentness” from such interactions leads to self-blame and a desire to escape their own racial heritage by identifying with White society.

3. The Awakening to Social Political Consciousness stage means the adoption of a new perspective, often correlated with increased political awareness. Kim believes that the civil rights and women’s movements and other significant political events often precipitate this new awakening. The primary result is an abandoning of identification with White society and a consequent understanding of oppression and oppressed groups.

4. The Redirection stage means a reconnection or renewed connection with one’s Asian American heritage and culture. This is often followed by a realization of White oppression as the culprit for the negative experiences of youth. Anger against White racism may become a defining theme with concomitment increases of Asian American self and group pride.

5. The Incorporation stage represents the highest form of identity evolution. It encompasses the development of a positive and comfortable identity as Asian American and consequent respect for other racial/cultural heritages. Identification for or against White culture is no longer an important issue.

Kim J. (1981) The process of Asian American identity development from Sue, et al. (1998). Multicultural Counseling Competencies: Individual and Organizational Development. Sage Productions. Thousand Oaks, CA.

Latino/a American Identity Development Models

1. Casual: During this period messages, injunctions from the environment or significant others, or both either affirm, ignore, negate, or denigrate the ethnic heritage of the person. Affirmation of one’s ethnic identity is lacking and the person may experience traumatic or humiliating experiences related to ethnicity. There is a failure to identify with Latino culture.

2. Cognitive: As a result of negative/distorted messages, three erroneous belief systems about Chicano/Latino heritage becomes incorporated into mental sets: (a)association of ethnic group membership with poverty and prejudice, (b) assimilation to White society is the only means of escape, and (c) assimilation is the only possible road to success.

3. Consequence: Fragmentation of ethnic identity becomes very noticeable and evident. He person feels ashamed, embarrassed by ethnic markers such as name, accent, skin color, cultural customs, and so on. The unwanted self-image leads to estrangement, and rejection of Chicano/Latino heritage.

4. Working Through: Two major dynamics distinguish this stage. First, the person becomes increasingly unable to cope with the psychological distress of ethnic identity conflict. Second, the person can no longer be a “pretender” by identifying with an alien ethnic identity. The person is propelled to reclaim and reintegrate disowned ethnic identity fragments. Ethnic consciousness increases.

5. Successful Resolution: This last stage is exemplified by greater acceptance of his or her culture and ethnicity. There is an improvement in self-esteem and a sense that ethnic identity represents a positive and success-promoting resource.

Ruiz (1990) from Sue, et al. (1998). Multicultural Counseling Competencies: Individual and Organizational Development. Sage Productions. Thousand Oaks, CA.

Gay and Lesbian Identity Development Model

(Cass Identity Model)

Stage I: Identity Confusion

Having questions about whether one is gay

If same-sex attraction occurred, explaining it away

Internal conflict about whether one is gay

May have attitudes that being homosexual is incorrect and undesirable, correct but undesirable, or correct and acceptable

Stage II: Identity Comparison

Accepting possibility that one may be gay

Significant decrease in confusion

Initial commitment to gay or lesbian self-image

May experience isolation and alienation from others

Developing identity as a gay or lesbian person rather than straight

Awareness of loss of heterosexual privileges

May still choose to pass as straight

Stage III: Identity Tolerance

Accepting that one is probably gay or lesbian

Greater tolerance of being gay or lesbian

Partial relief because now can acknowledge their emotional and relational needs

Seeking out gay and lesbian community and role-models

Getting more support from others

Greater self-esteem

Stage IV: Identity Acceptance

Greater contacts with other gay and lesbian people

Having more “normalizing” experiences of homosexuality

Seeing gay community in opposition to straight

Choosing to pass or selectively disclose

Stage V: Identity Pride

Accepting and preferring being gay or lesbian

Greater immersion into gay and lesbian subculture

“Them versus us”

Anger and frustration with homophobic and heterosexist attitudes

Disclosures are more common

Stage VI: Identity Synthesis

Dichotomy of “them vs. us” is let go

Selective contact with allies and supportive heterosexuals

Synthesize public and private aspects of self

Peace with oneself – free to attend to all other aspects of life

Reference: Vivian Cass (1979, 1984, 1990). In Ritter and Terndrup (2002) Handbook of Affirmative Psychotherapy with Lesbians and Gay Men

Feminist Identity Model

Stage I, Passive Acceptance: Passive acceptance of traditional sex roles and discrimination; belief that traditional roles are advantageous; men are considered superior.

Stage II, Revelation: Catalyzed by a series of crises, resulting in open questioning of self and roles and feelings of anger and guilt; dualistic thinking; men are perceived as negative.

Stage III, Embeddedness-Emanation: Characterized by connectedness with other select women, affirmation and strengthening of new identity. Eventually more relativistic thinking and cautious interaction with men.

Stage IV, Synthesis: Development of an authentic and positive feminist identity; sex-role transcendence; “flexible truce” with the world; evaluate men on an individual basis.

Stage V, Active Commitment: Consolidation of feminist identity; commitment to meaningful action, to a nonsexist world. Actions are personalized and rational. Men are considered equal but not the same as women.

Downing, N.E. & Roush, K.L. (1985). From passive acceptance to active commitment: A model of feminist identity development for women. Counseling Psychologist, 13, 695-709.

The Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model (R/CID)

(Sue & Sue, 1999)

Conformity

Regard White culture as superior

Prefer dominant culture’s values over one’s own

Depreciating attitudes toward self, members of the same group, and other people of color

Low self-esteem (internalized racism)

Shame associated with physical characteristics, traditional modes of dress

Denial: “I’m not like them,” “I’m the exception.”

“Whites are more competent and capable than members of my own race”

* * * * *

Denial gradually breaks down (situations that contradict internalized beliefs)

Or traumatic event moves individual into 2nd stage

Dissonance

Conflict between self-depreciating and self-appreciating attitudes and beliefs

Much energy used to resolve conflicts toward self, same racial group, and dominant cultural group

“Why should I feel ashamed of who and what I am?”

Awareness that racism exists

Questioning of stereotypes associated with other people of color

Some suspicion, distrust of certain members of dominant group; of dominant cultural values

Resistance and Immersion

Completely endorses values of own group, rejects dominant values of society

Guilt and shame: “I sold out my own racial group”

Anger: “I was sold a bill of goods!” (miseducated over a long period of time)

Strong, outward expression of anger toward racism and oppression

Depreciating attitude toward dominant group

Affirming attitudes toward self and own group

“[T]he very aspects of oneself that have been denied and disparaged are brought to the forefront of awareness to be positively chosen and cherished” (Barrett, 1990)

Hunger to discover own history and culture

Some degree of separatism

* * * * *

Forces that move individual to 4th stage:

Intensity of feelings (anger toward White society) psychologically draining

Self-definition is reactive vs proactive

Little energy left to move toward understanding self or own group

May also experience discontent, discomfort

Individual autonomy and thought submerged to meet group expectations

Introspection

Focus on individual autonomy and expression

More critical of group ideology

Less energy invested in being angry with European Americans

Attempt to contact other groups of color; What are their personal and group experiences with oppression?

Proactive vs reactive

“An independent search for goals and direction beyond merely reacting to White racism” (Sue & Sue, 1990, p. 116).

Integrative Awareness

Inner sense of security, autonomy, and racial pride

Strong desire to eradicate oppression in any shape or form

Selective appreciation of dominant cultural values

Selective trust and liking for members of dominant group

Realization that each member of any group is an individual; that European Americans are also victims of racism

Sue & Sue’s R/CID Model to describe Women’s Identity Development

(Overcoming Internalized Sexism)

Conformity

Lacks awareness of sexism; systems upholding oppression of women

Denial (a survival and coping mechanism?)

Accepts gender inequity as normative, natural

Buys into the status quo

Dissonance

Becomes aware of women’s oppression through contact with multiple issues

Difficult to remain naïve, unaware or in denial

Questions gender role stereotypes, and internalized negative beliefs about women

Resistance and Immersion

Identifies problem as sexism

Frames individual problem as systemic (“personal is political”)

Angry with men; angry at oppressive system

Shame: “I bought into the gender stereotypes” “I devalued myself, other women”

Turns toward other women for support, sense of community

Embrace feminist ideology

Introspection

Less energy invested in being angry with men

“Maybe not all men are bad”

“Someday my son will become a man.

How will I help him grow up to be anti-sexist?”

Reevaluates feminist ideology, moves toward selective appreciation

Searches for goals, direction beyond reacting against sexism

Begins attending to other oppressed groups: What are their personal and group experiences with oppression?

Integrative Awareness

Views male-female relationships in cultural/historical perspective

Values aspects of maleness

Sees men selectively

Moves toward “womanist” perspective (Walker, 1983)

Develops understanding of multiple systems of oppression

Works toward a just society for women and men, and children

R/CID Model Applied to Lesbian Identity

(Barrett, 1990)

Conformity

A lesbian at this stage is often well-closeted

Believes choice of sexual partners has nothing to do with the rest of who she is

For example:

Lives in mainstream as though she is single

Leaves her partner on holidays to join her family of origin

Doesn’t deal with pain and anger about the need to keep her lesbianism a secret

Often believes something is wrong with her; wishes she could be heterosexual

Threatened by, often highly critical of “out” lesbians

Dissonance

She may reach out to other lesbians in a tentative manner.

Conflict manifests:

May want to read books about lesbianism from a feminist perspective, but has difficulty actually going to a bookstore and buying them.

May want to attend lesbian events, but afraid of being rejected by others she perceives as strident in beliefs she is just coming to believe may be possible

Anxiety alternates with excitement

Dissonance may be a temporary stage or a constant theme in the life of a lesbian.

“Having the opportunity to pass as straight reinforces the conflict between hiding within the dominant culture and being known as a lesbian” (p. 44)

Resistance and Immersion

A lesbian identifies the positive aspects of loving women

Sees her lesbianism in more then sexual terms

Broadens her view of self, explores the valuable personal consequences of being a lesbian

Often immerses self in lesbian culture through reading, socializing, listening to music

Turns away from dominant (heterosexual) culture

Introspection

Not all aspects of self can be met by focusing on the minority group alone; personal autonomy becomes more important. For example:

A lesbian may choose to develop her professional life even though it is not related to her lesbianism.

She may expand contact with straight friends

She may be involved in activities that focus on her interests, needs, and desires that are not met within the lesbian community.

This may be an ongoing theme in her life

Integrative Awareness

She feels whole: Her preference for women is moved from foreground to part of the fabric of her life.

Friends and often family know she is a lesbian.

She surrounds herself with people who value her, yet maintains a clear awareness that the larger culture can still be dangerous.

She feels ties with members of other minority groups while being respectful of the differences between them

Racial/Cultural Identity Development

Sue & Sue (1999)

Vignette:

A 17-year old White high school student, Mary, comes to counseling for help in sorting out her thoughts and feelings concerning an interracial relationship with an African American student. Although she is proud of the relationship and feels that her liberal friends are accepting and envious, Mary’s parents are against it. Indeed, the parents have threatened to cut off financial support for her future college education unless she ends the relationship immediately.

During counseling, Mary tells of how she has rid herself of much bigotry and prejudice from the early training of her parents. She joined a circle of friends who were quite liberal in thought and behavior. She recalls how she was both shocked and attracted to her friends’ liberal political beliefs, philosophies, and sexual attitudes. When she first met John, a Black student, she was immediately attracted to his apparent confidence and outspokenness. It did not take her long to become sexually involved with him and to enter into an intense relationship. Mary became the talk of her former friends, but she did not seem to care. Indeed, she seemed to enjoy the attention and openly flaunted her relationship in everyone’s face.

Because Mary requested couple counseling, the counselor saw them together. John informs the counselor that he came solely to please Mary. He sees few problems in their relationship that cannot be easily resolved. John seems to feel that he has overcome many handicaps in his life and that this represents just another obstacle to be conquered. When asked about his use of the term “handicap,” he responds, “It’s not easy to be Black, you know. I’ve proven to my parents and friends in high school, and to myself, that I’m worth something. Let them disapprove – I’m going to make it into a good university.” Further probing revealed John’s resentment over his own parents’ disapproval of the relationship. While his relations with them had worsened to the point of near-physical assaults, John continued to bring Mary home. He seemed to take great pride in being seen with a “beautiful blond-haired, blue-eyed White girl.”

In the joint session, Mary’s desire to continue counseling and John’s apparent reluctance becomes obvious. Several times when John mentions the prospect of a “permanent relationship” and their attending the same university, Mary does not seem to respond positively. She does not seem to want to look too far into the future. Mary’s constant coolness to the idea, and the counselor’s attempt to focus on this reluctance, anger John greatly. He becomes antagonistic toward the counselor and puts pressure on Mary to terminate this useless talk “crap.” However, he continues to come for the weekly sessions. One day his anger boils over, and he accuses the counselor of being biased. Standing up and shouting, John demands to know how the counselor feels about interracial relationships.

Discussion Questions:

The stage of Sue and Sue’s R/CID model that best describes John at this point in his life is Conformity. What information about John’s attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors is congruent with someone in the Conformity stage?

Be sure to include each set of attitudes toward:

Self

Members of his own group

Members of different minority groups

Members of the dominant group

Imagine John as he moves through the stages of Sue and Sue’s model (Dissonance, Resistance and Immersion, Introspection, Integrative Awareness). For each stage:

1. Describe John at this stage. Be sure to include each set of attitudes toward:

Self

Members of his own group

Members of different minority groups

Members of the dominant group

2. What might be characteristic statements he would make at this stage?

3. Continuing the theme of an interracial relationship with Mary introduced in the vignette:

How would you characterize John’s attitudes about this at each level? Would he be in an interracial relationship or would this be something he rejects?

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