Running head: MID-TERM EXAM
Running head: MID-TERM EXAM
Mid-term Exam
Sara Mills
George Mason University
EDSE 842
March 17, 2009
19/20
1. Describe the most appropriate uses of single subject research in special education. When is single subject research more appropriate than group-experimental research?
2 Single-subject research design is appropriate for use in special education under a number of conditions (Horner et al., 2005). First, single-subject research design is appropriate when the focus is on the individual. That is, in special education, low-incidence populations do not have enough subjects to conduct the statistical analysis required of an experimental design. Second, single-subject designs are appropriate for testing educational or behavioral interventions. Third, such designs allow testing of behavioral theory. Fourth, single-subject research designs can be used to study interventions in the context of typical education conditions. Fifth, single-subject research can be used to study both responders and non-responders. Finally, single-subject research provides a cost-effective way to test interventions that might be appropriate for large-scale studies.
Hughes, Ruhl, Schumaker and Deschler’s (2002) single-subject study of the effectiveness of an assignment completion strategy for high-school students with learning disabilities demonstrates these principles. First, the researchers were focused on providing an intervention for a specific set of high schoolers who had low rates of assignment completion. Second, the study focused on an academic intervention – an assignment completion strategy. Third, the researchers were interested in testing their theory that increased homework completion would improve students’ course grades. Fourth, the intervention was taught in the special education resource room and implemented in the general education classroom. Fifth, in the Hughes, et al. study, one student was unresponsive to the intervention, and the researchers tried to explain why the intervention was not effective for that student. Finally, the researchers were able to verify that the assignment completion strategy was effective before implementing the strategy with a larger number of students.
2. How is reliability established in single subject research?
1.5 Reliability in single-subject research is established by demonstrating experimental control. Horner et al. (2005) suggest that experimental control is demonstrated when a participant demonstrates the effects of the intervention at three different points in time, or across three different participants (p. 168). One way this can be accomplished is by introducing an intervention and then withdrawing it – known as a reversal design. For example an intervention could be designed to reduce tantruming in a young child. Using a reversal design, the researcher could show that the tantruming decreased during the intervention phase, but increased again after the intervention was removed. In this way, the researcher can show that the intervention was effective. Another way to demonstrate experimental control is by using a multiple baseline approach, where intervention start times are staggered across participants. A multiple baseline design is appropriate when behavioral trapping is an issue. For example, Hughes, Ruhl, Schumaker and Deshler (2002) used a multiple-baseline design because once students were taught the assignment completion strategy, the skill could not be taken away. Lastly, an alternating treatments design can be used, whereby different levels of the independent variable are provided across phases. Barbetta, Heward and Bradley (1993) provide an example of a single-subject, alternating treatments design. In this study, the researchers alternated the type of reinforcement that was given during site word instruction to students with mild intellectual disabilities.
I was looking for reliability of observation/scoring here (inter-rater)
3. Describe the problem of external validity and how this can be addressed in single subject research.
2 External validity refers to the degree to which the results of a study can be applied to other cases in the general population. This is a difficult case to make in single-subject research because of the limited number of participants included in a study. Horner et al. (2005) suggest several methods for improving a study’s external validity, including: (a) replicating the effects across participants, settings, conditions, or dependent measures both within and across studies, (b) providing operational descriptions of the participants, setting, and factors influencing participants’ behavior, and (c) reporting specific selection criteria (p. 171).
Harris and Graham’s work on self-regulated strategy development in writing is a good example of establishing external validity by replicating effects across participants, setting, conditions, or dependent measures. Harris, Graham, and their colleagues have replicated the effectiveness of SRSD across dozens of single-subject studies over 25 years. The studies include students from second grade (e.g., Lane et al., 2008) to those in post-secondary settings (Guzel-Ozmen, 2006). The strategy has been used with students with learning disabilities (Graham, 2006), students with emotional disabilities (e.g., Mason & Shriner, 2008), and even students with mild intellectual disabilities (Guzel-Ozmen). Furthermore, SRSD strategies for narrative writing and expository writing have been tested.
Research synthesis?
4. What problems are associated with visual inspection of data, and how can these problems be addressed in single subject research?
2 In single-subject research, data are plotted on graphs and visually inspected. Visual analysis involves looking at level, trend, and variability within and across phases (Horner et al., 2005). That is, when analyzing visual data, researchers must consider the stability of the baseline, within-phase variability, between-phase variability, data overlap, the number of data points within each phase, within-phase trend changes, and change across phases (Scruggs, Mastropieri & Regan, 2006). All of these analyses are subjective.
Difficulty in conducting visual analysis comes from deciding which criteria to use to determine if an effect is significant or not. For instance, how much variability is acceptable in a “stable” baseline? How big of a change does one need to see between baseline and intervention phases to determine that an intervention is effective? Additionally, as Scruggs, Mastropieri and Regan (2006) point out, studies suggest that inter-rater reliability for visual analysis is “discouragingly low” (p. 40).
One method for addressing the concerns associated with visual analysis of single-subject data is to perform statistical tests to determine whether or not the change from baseline to treatment is significant. One statistical test that can be appropriately used is a randomization test (Scruggs et al., 2006). Randomization tests determine the probability that the effect observed between baseline and treatment conditions could have occurred simply by chance.
5. Discuss issues in the uses of statistical tests on single-subject data, including randomization tests.
1.5 The use of statistical tests to analyze single-subject data is controversial. Traditionally, single-subject research has been valued as having high social validity because it addresses individual student needs, and data is are analyzed with the individual characteristics of the participant in mind. Statistical analysis is seen as taking away from the individualized nature of the single-subject research design. Furthermore, statistical analysis of single-subject data, including randomization tests, requires the violation of several principles of single-subject design. For example, in single-subject research, baseline performance must stabilize before the intervention is provided. When using randomization tests, intervention start dates are randomly assigned, regardless of student baseline performance. Additionally, when using randomization tests, the study design cannot be adjusted. This ability to adapt to participant needs is a positive feature of the single-subject design. For example, in the Hine and Wolery (2006) study, the materials used for one participant changed because the original materials were not producing the desired effect. Such changes to design would not be allowed when using statistics to analyze the results. Finally, when attempting to publish single-subject studies, reviewers who are experts in single-subject research might not accept studies that violate these traditional principles of single-subject design.
ANOVA? ARIMA?
6. List research questions appropriate to single subject research in special education, and justify why they would be particularly relevant to single subject research.
2
• What is the effect of self-monitoring on the on-task behavior of students with ADHD in the general education classroom?
o This research question would be well-suited to a single-subject research design because it focuses a causal relationship. In this case, the effect that self-monitoring has on on-task behavior.
• What is the effect of whole-word versus phonetic error correction on the sight-word recognition of students with moderate intellectual disabilities?
o This research question would be well-suited to a single-subject research design because it focuses on the manipulation of the intervention. In this instance, it compares providing corrective feedback using a whole-word correction procedure and providing corrective feedback using phonetic prompting.
• What is the effect of self-regulated strategy development for writing, with and without the use of word-prediction software, on the quality of persuasive essays of elementary-age students with learning disabilities?
o This research question would be well-suited to a single-subject research design because it looks at the effects of two treatments – SRSD writing instruction and word-prediction software – on one dependent measure, essay quality.
7. Describe the most appropriate uses of qualitative research in special education. When is qualitative research more appropriate than group-experimental or single subject research?
2 As described by Brantlinger et al. (2005), qualitative research is used to develop descriptive or procedural knowledge, answering questions about what is happening, or why or how it is happening (p. 196). Qualitative research can explore attitudes and beliefs, and describe individuals with disabilities and their lives. In special education, qualitative research may be used to describe what is happening in the classroom, or to explain student or teacher attitudes. For example, Seo et al. (2008) used observations to learn how beginning teachers facilitated student engagement. In a different example, qualitative research methods may be used to describe the characteristics and experiences of individuals with severe disabilities. In one study, Kliewer and Biklen (2001) conducted interviews and synthesized information from other sources to describe the literate lives of individuals with severe intellectual disabilities.
8. Describe reversal (ABAB) and multiple baseline designs; and reasons for selecting each design when planning single subject research.
2 ABAB single-subject research designs involve measuring the target behavior during the baseline phase, applying the intervention and measuring target behavior, then removing the intervention (i.e., returning to baseline), and, finally, reapplying the intervention. In the ABAB design, experimental control is achieved by demonstrating the change in a student’s behavior from baseline to intervention, from intervention to baseline, and from baseline to intervention again. For example, a study may look at the effectiveness of using a picture schedule to help a student with Autism transition from activity to activity in a timely manner. With an ABAB design, the researcher could show how the time required for the student to transition from activity to activity decreased from baseline to intervention, how it increased when moving back into the baseline phase, and decreased once more when the treatment was reapplied. This single subject design is ideal when the treatment is one that can be reversed.
Multiple baseline or multiple probe designs, on the other hand, involve beginning the treatment phase at different times for different subjects once baseline has been established. For instance, one subject may begin the treatment phase after three baseline measures, the second participant may begin treatment after six baseline measures, and the third participant may begin treatment after nine baseline measures. In this way, the researcher demonstrates that students’ behavior did not improve until the treatment was provided. Multiple baseline designs are often used when teaching academic skills, such as a homework completion strategy (Hughes et al., 2002) or writing (Mason & Shriner, 2008). A multiple baseline or multiple probe design should be used when behavioral trapping is an issue (i.e., you cannot unteach a skill that was taught during the intervention phase to return to baseline conditions), or when it would be unethical to deny treatment to a child (e.g., a behavioral intervention to stop self-injurious behavior).
9. Describe the problem of external validity and how this can be addressed in qualitative research.
2 By nature, qualitative research is ideographic, concerned with describing a particular individual (or group of individuals) or a particular setting. Generally speaking, qualitative researchers are not primarily concerned with external validity or generalization. Because the story a qualitative research study tells is specific to the individuals or settings that are the focus of the research, it is not possible to say that the findings of a particular qualitative study are applicable to other individuals or settings.
Rather than use the term “validity,” qualitative researchers talk of “credibility” or “trustworthiness” (Bratlinger et al., 2005). As Bratlinger et al. point out, there are methods qualitative researchers can use to improve the credibility of their work. One such method is triangulation. Triangulation refers to the collection of multiple sources of data to ensure the accuracy of information. For example, Scruggs and Mastropieri (1995) used a variety of data sources, including student and teacher interviews, student products, observational field notes, and audio- and videotape records. Another strategy for improving credibility is prolonged engagement in the field. One study that used prolonged engagement in the field was conducted by Snell and Janney (2000), who observed in classrooms for 14 months. Buckley (2005) used member checks to confirm the accuracy of data collected. Other methods of establishing credibility include seeking out disconfirming evidence, disclosing researcher beliefs and assumptions, having external auditors review findings, and providing thick, detailed descriptions of data to support findings.
Research synthesis?
10. List research questions appropriate for qualitative research in special education, and justify why they would be particularly relevant to qualitative research.
2
• How do teachers of students with severe emotional and behavior disorders establish positive student-teacher relationships?
o This question is relevant to qualitative research because it explores how something is happening – in this case, how teachers develop positive student-teacher relationships with students with severe EBD. Quantitative research has documented that sudent-teacher relationships have an impact on student achievement, particularly for “at-risk” children. Qualitative research can provide information about how such relationships are developed.
• What beliefs and practices do parents, teachers, and students have regarding student-led IEP meetings at the high-school level?
o This question is relevant to qualitative research because it explores attitudes, opinions, and beliefs, as well as practice, of individuals with disabilities, their families, and those who work with them.
• What types of interactions and relationships do students who are deaf have with their hearing peers in inclusive settings?
o This question is relevant to qualitative research because it describes the experiences of individuals with disabilities. Those taking a critical focus could approach this question in a way that advocates for particular educational setting for students who are deaf.
References
Barbetta, P.M., Heward, W.L., & Bradley, D.M.C. (1993). Relative effects of whole-word and phonetic-prompt error correction on the acquisition and maintenance of sight words by students with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26 italic, 99-110.
Bratlinger, E., Jimenez, R., Klingner, J., Pugach, M., & Richardson, V. (2005). Qualitative studies in special education. Exceptional Children, 71, 195-207.
Buckley, C. Y. (2005). Establishing and maintaining collaborative relationships between regular and special education teachers in middle school social studies inclusive classrooms. In T.E. Scruggs & M.A. Mastropieri (Eds.), Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities: Vol. 18. Cognition and learning in diverse settings (pp. 161-208). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Graham, S. (2006). Strategy instruction and the teaching of writing: A meta-analysis. In C. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 187-207). New York: Guilford.
Guzel-Ozmen, R. (2006). The effectiveness of modified cognitive strategy instruction in writing with mildly mentally retarded Turkish students. Exceptional Children, 72, 281-297.
Hine, J. F. & Wolery, M. (2006). Using point-of-view video modeling to teach play to preschoolers with autism. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 26, 83-93.
Horner, R. H., Carr, E. g., Halle, J., McGee, G., Odom, S. & Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single-subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Exceptional Children, 71, 165-179.
Hughes, C. A., Ruhl, K. L., Schumaker, J. B. & Deshler, D. D. (2002). Effects of instruction in an assignment completion strategy on the homework performance of students with learning disabilteis sp in general education classes. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 17, 1-18.
Kliewer, C. & Biklen, D. (2001). “School’s not really a place for reading”: A research synthesis of the literate lives of students with severe disabilities. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 26(1) no issue #, 1-12.
Lane, K. L., Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Weisenbach, J. L., Brindle, M. & Morphy, P. (2008). The effects of self-regulated strategy development on the writing performance of second-grade students with behavioral and writing difficulties. The Journal of Special Education, 41, 234-253.
Mason, L. H. & Shriner, J. G. (2008). Self-regulated strategy development instruction for writing an opinion essay: Effects for six students with emotional/behavior disorders. Reading and Writing: An interdisciplinary journal, 21, 71-93.
Scruggs, T. E. & Mastropieri, M. A. (1995). Science and students with mental retardation: An analysis of curriculum features and learner characteristics. Science Education, 79, 251-171.
Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M .A. & Regan, K. (2006). Statistical analysis for single subject research design. In T.E. Scruggs & M.A. Mastropieri (Eds.), Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities: Vol. 19. Applications of research methodology (pp. 33-54). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Seo, S., Brownell, M. T., Bishop, A. G. & Dingle, M. (2008). An examination of beginning special education teachers’ classroom practices that engage elementary students with learning disabilities in reading instruction. Exceptional Children, 75, 97-122.
Snell, M. E. & Janney, R. E. (2000). Teachers’ problem-solving about children with moderate and severe disabilities in elementary classrooms. Exceptional Children, 66, 472-490.
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