Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
|Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) |-the thing that the organism naturally, reflexively responds to
|-ex: meat powder for a dog | |
| |Unconditioned |-natural, unlearned, largely reflexive response to the UCS |-ex: excitement or anticipation at the presentation of meat powder |
| |Response(UCR) | |(dogs salivate) |
| |Conditioned Stimulus (CS) |-“what is the learner now responding to that he did not previously respond to in |-ex: dog learned to respond to sound of bell |
| | |this way?” | |
| | |-initially meaningful stimuli | |
| |Conditioned Response (CR) |-new, learned response to the CS |-ex: dog drooling at sound of bell |
| |Delayed Conditioning |-sub-division of forward conditioning (CS is presented b4 the US) | |
| |Arrangements |-the CS is present until the US begins | |
| |Trace Conditioning |-CS is removed some time before the US is presented | |
| |Arrangements | | |
| |Simultaneous Conditioning |-CS and US are presented at the same time | |
| |Arrangements | | |
| |Backward Conditioning |US is presented before the CS | |
| |Arrangements |-typically ineffective | |
| |Stimulus Generalization |-when the subject cannot distinguish among similar but distinct stimuli |-ex: Albert was afraid of all other fluffy white objects (similar to|
| | | |rat) |
| |Stimulus Discrimination |-when the subject can distinguish among similar but distinct stimuli |-ex: if the dog salivates only at the bell |
| |Higher Order Conditioning |-a previous CS is used as the US |-ex: dogs salivating at the sound of metronome, pair that sound with|
| | |-in theory can go up to any order as new CSs are linked to old ones |a red night and get conditioning to it, red light would not be |
| | |-rarely effective beyond the second order |paired with the meat powder |
| |Extinction |-the elimination of the conditioned response |-ex: white rat without the loud noise |
| | |-achieved by presenting CS without the US repeatedly | |
| |Spontaneous Recovery |-the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction | |
| |Aversion therapy |-suppression of an undesirable responses by associating it with aversive | |
| | |(painful or uncomfortable) stimuli | |
| | |-learning involving an unpleasant or harmful stimulus or reinforcer | |
| |Systematic Desensitization|-a guided reduction in fear, anxiety, or aversion | |
| | |-treatment for phobias | |
| | |-trained to relax to increasingly fearful stimuli | |
| |+ and - reinforcement |+ encourages behavior, pleasurable consequence delivered upon completion of | |
| | |desirable action; increases likelihood that particular type of response will | |
| | |repeat | |
| | |– removal of aversive event, not same as punishment, increases probability that| |
| | |given type of response will be repeated; unpleasant condition is removed when a| |
| | |desired behavior is completed | |
| |+ and - punishment |-decreases behavior | |
| | |-positive punishment: discomfort follows response, ex: spanking | |
| | |-negative punishment: positive state removed after response, ex: grounded | |
| |Escape and Avoidance |-avoidance: behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus before it begins | |
| |Responses |-escape: behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus after it has already | |
| | |started | |
| |Shaping |-reinforcing a subject as it takes successive steps toward the goal behavior | |
| |Primary and Secondary |-primary –unlearned and are inherently reinforcing to most members of a species|- primary: food, water, love/attachment/sex |
| |Reinforcers |-secondary – learn to value these things |- secondary: money |
| |Successive Approximations |-a series of steps that change behavior to a desired response pattern | |
| |Skinner Box |-empty box except for a lever and hole to deliver food pellets | |
| | |-trained rats to press the lever in order to get food; used shaping: rat first | |
| | |receives a food reward for being near the lever, then for touching the lever, | |
| | |and finally for pressing the lever | |
| | |-in the end, only rewarded for pressing the lever, process known as: | |
| | |differential reinforcement of successive approximations | |
| |Continuous vs. Partial |-continuous – consequence is delivered after every instance of the goal | |
| |Reinforcement |behavior; produces rapid learning and rapid extinction | |
| | |-partial – intermittent, not all responses are reinforced; produces slow | |
| | |learning and slow extinction | |
| |Fixed Interval |-reinforcement is delivered based on a specified passage of time |-ex: paycheck every other Friday |
| |(Reinforcement) | | |
| |Variable Interval |-reinforcement is delivered after some established period of time but it |-ex: awaiting mail on Friday but the delivery time is different each |
| |(Reinforcement) |changes from one reinforcement to the next |week, you would check more often to see if it has arrived since you |
| | | |do not know exactly when it will get there |
| |Fixed Ratio |-reinforcement will be delivered after a specified number of desired responses |-ex: being paid by an employer for every 7 toys assembled |
| |(Reinforcement) | | |
| |Variable Ratio |-reinforcement will be delivered after some number of responses but the amount |-ex: playing the lottery |
| |(Reinforcement) |is not specified | |
| |Latent Learning |-Edward Tolman |-research with rats and maze completion tasks showed that rats who |
| | |-learning that is not demonstrated until the subject is reinforced for doing so|had been exposed to a maze several times were more likely to run it |
| | | |efficiently and with few errors if there was a reinforcement in the |
| | | |goal box |
| |Overjustification |-predicts that if you begin to reinforce a behavior that the individual is |-ex: reward for reading a certain number of books ( will stop once |
| |Effect |already disposed to perform it may actually discourage the subject from |the reward is discontinued |
| | |continuing to do it | |
| |Modeling |-much of what we learn comes from observation | |
| | |-if an adult is modeling a behavior a child is likely to imitate that model, | |
| | |especially if the adult’s behavior is reinforced in some way | |
| |Bandura’s Bobo Doll |-Albert Bandura |Studied the role of observational learning |
| |experiment |-adult models videotaped punching and kicking doll | |
| | |-children who watched the video were placed in same room as depicted in video | |
| | |imitated adult models, beating on Bobo | |
| | |-children in control group who did not view video played in same setting and | |
| | |did not behave in such ways | |
| |Sensory Memory |-allows us to take in the plethora of sensory inputs that are available at any | |
| | |moment | |
| | |-brief functioning | |
| | |-info is not encoded and is lost | |
| |Short-term Memory |-twenty seconds | |
| | |-can hold about 7 +/- 2 items | |
| | |-maintained there by rehearsal: maintenance – simple repetition | |
| | |Elaborative – organization and understanding of the info that has been encoded | |
| | |in order to transfer the information | |
| |Long-Term Memory |-lasting memories and knowledge | |
| | |-capable of permanent retention | |
| | |-semantically encoded | |
| | |-“do something” with incoming material through rehearsal, chunking, mnemonic | |
| | |elaboration, or a processing strategy | |
| |Flashbulb Memory |-very deep vivid memory in the form of a visual image associated with a | |
| | |particular emotionally arousing event | |
| |Chunking |-grouping items of information into units | |
| | |-used for phone numbers, social security numbers, bank cards | |
| | |-group digits into manageable segments | |
| |Mnemonic Devices |-rely on the ability to make mental images to remember | |
| | |-link part of it (image, way word sounds, etc.) to something already known | |
| | |-tie a set of images to a familiar place, mentally walk through familiar scene,| |
| | |retrieving images | |
| | |-create an image using “peg words” | |
| |Encoding |-shallow processing | |
| | |-simple rehearsal | |
| | |-attach meaning and place it in context | |
| | |- visually, acoustically (ex: rhyming), semantically (meaning) | |
| |Retroactive vs. Proactive |-retroactive interference: new memory interferes with old |ex: old address is blocked because new address interferes with |
| |Interference | |recall |
| | |-proactive interference: old memory interferes with new | |
| | | |ex: trying to remember a new phone number disrupted by the memory |
| | | |of an old phone number |
| |Iconic vs. Echoic Memory |-iconic: visual, lasts for a few tenths of a second | |
| | |-echoic: auditory, lasts for 3-4 seconds | |
| |Implicit vs. Explicit |-implicit memory: we remember something without knowing that we do; may need to | |
| |Memory |be primed or cued to recall it | |
| | |-explicit memory: consciously declare that we know | |
| |Long term Potentiation |-an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation and | |
| | |possibly in the neutral basis for learning and memory, involving an increase in | |
| | |the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapses within neural | |
| | |networks | |
| |State Dependent Memory |-theory that one is more likely to recall details of something if one is in a |study where you are planning on taking the exam!! |
| | |similar emotional and physical state as when one was exposed to the events one is| |
| | |trying to recall | |
| |Theories Of Forgetting |-Decay: fading/weakening of memories assumed to occur when memory traces become | |
| | |weak | |
| | |-Disuse: “Use it or lose it!”; theory that memory traces weaken when memories are| |
| | |not periodically used or retrieved | |
| |Encoding Failure |-failure to store sufficient memory to form a useful memory | |
| |Positive and Negative |-Positive transfer: mastery of one task aids learning in another |Ex: backing out a car and backing out a trailer |
| |Transfer |Ex: learning to ride a bike and learning to ride a motorcycle | |
| | |-Negative transfer: mastery of one task conflicts with learning another | |
| |Tip of the Tongue |-retrieval problem | |
| |Phenomena |-memory is “in there” but we just can’t seem to pull it out because we lack cues | |
| |Anterograde vs. Retrograde|-anterograde amnesia: memory loss for information since the accident | |
| |Amnesia |-retrograde amnesia: memory loss for information before the damage occurred | |
| |Eyewitness Testimony |-influenced by expectancy or set | |
| | |-might unknowingly apply gender, racial, or place schemas in trying to reconstruct the events they witnessed | |
| | |-framing of questions influences how events are recalled (Elizabeth Loftus) | |
| |Ivan Pavlov |-studied digestive system of dogs, noted dogs responded to previously neutral stimuli | |
| | |-presented meat powder which makes a dog salivate and previously neutral stimulus | |
| | |-used metronomes and other tones | |
| | |-present sound followed by meat powder led to salivation response in dogs | |
| | |-dog begins to salivate at sound of metronome | |
| |B.F. Skinner |-pioneered the study of operant conditioning | |
| | |-ran many operant-conditioning experiments | |
| | |-“Skinner Box” apparatus | |
| | |-behavior is a series of behavior-reward pairings and cognition is not as important to learning process (psychologists abandoned this view) | |
| |John Watson |-with Rosalie Rayner demonstrated classical conditioning with Little Albert | |
| | |-no fear of small animals but showed fear when steel bar banged w/ a hammer | |
| | |-presented child with a rat and banged the steel bar at the same time = child cried | |
| | |-Albert cried any time he was presented with the rat – even w/o the noise | |
| | |-became afraid of other fluffy white objects | |
| |Albert Bandura |-famous study in social or observational learning; Bobo doll studies | |
| | |-response-reward relationship not necessary for observational learning | |
| | |-for observational learning to occur: learner must pay attention to the behavior in question, retention of observed behavior (must be remembered),| |
| | |motivation for the learner to produce behavior, potential for reproduction must exist | |
| |Herman Ebbinghaus |-postulated in his “forgetting curve” that we have rapid decay of memory for nonsense syllables but that decay will flatten out at ~20-30% in long| |
| | |term retention (it doesn’t all fade) | |
| | |-info forgotten because of interference (proactive and retroactive) | |
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