Ciccarelli and White PSYCHOLOGY, 2nd Edition, AP* Edition



Question 1

Mathilda has been struggling in her life in recent months as she tries to find a direction for her future. She is a first-year college student who has moved away from home for the first time in her life, and is struggling to make friends and fit in on her new college campus. Examine Mathilda’s situation using at least 4 of the following psychological orientations and give a brief description of how each approach would view and explain her situation.

• Psychoanalytic

• Behavioral

• Psychodynamic

• Cognitive

• Humanistic

• Sociocultural

• Biopsychological

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Psychoanalytic Theory

Mathilda is repressing threatening urges and desires about her college experience and these repressed urges are making her feel upset as they attempt to surface. She might also be experiencing negative effects of childhood traumas or experiences that have not yet been fully resolved.

Point 2: Behavioral Theory

Mathilda is being reinforced for her negative feelings and her difficulty making friends. Through reinforcement, these feelings and problems are made more likely to continue to happen. Perhaps she receives attention (response) from other students or from family members when she feels upset (stimulus), so she continues to feel upset to elicit that response.

Point 3: Psychodynamic Theory

Mathilda is struggling with her developing sense of self as she moves away from home and starts college. This struggle is resulting in difficulties with making friends and fitting in.

Point 4: Cognitive Theory

Mathilda is having negative thoughts about moving away from home, which are causing her to behave in ways that are making it difficult for her to fit in and make friends. For example, perhaps Mathilda has an irrational thought that she isn’t good enough to have friends, so she doesn’t go out or approach people who could become her friends.

Point 5: Humanistic Theory

Mathilda is experiencing some interruption of the free will that people are believed to possess, and this is leading to a blockage of her ultimate quest for self-actualization.

Point 6: Sociocultural Theory

Mathilda’s behavior is being influenced by social norms, fads, class differences and ethnic identity. Perhaps it is trendy or cool on her campus to feel depressed or have negative feelings. Or maybe her college campus has many students who go home on the weekend and don’t socialize, making it hard for Mathilda to meet people.

Point 7: Biopsychological Theory

Mathilda’s feelings are influenced by hormones, genetics and/or neurotransmitters, or perhaps pathology in specific parts of the brain.

Question 2

The science of psychology has several different methods by which questions are asked and the answers to those questions are pursued. Compare and contrast the following research approaches in psychology, making sure to highlight the advantages and limitations of each:

• Naturalistic observation

• Case Studies

• Surveys

• Experiments

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Naturalistic Observation

Advantages

1. provides realistic descriptions of behavior

2. allows observation of individuals in natural (and often more comfortable settings)

Limitations

1. observer effect may cause subjects to behave differently

2. observer bias when observer only sees actions that support their expectations

3. conditions in natural settings are always changing, and thus introduce more potential error into the research

Point 2: Case Studies

Advantages

1. provides rich detail

2. may be the only way to get particular kinds of information

3. may be the only useful approach to studying situations where there are very few examples of the research topic in question

Limitations

1. cannot apply the results to other similar people (lack of generalizability)

2. observer bias

Point 3: Surveys

Advantages

1. can get private information

2. can get lots of information about a large number of people

Limitations

1. have to sample carefully to ensure generalizability

2. participants might give inaccurate answers due to misremembering or courtesy bias

3. questions have to be careful that questions are worded and arranged to avoid biasing participants

4. social desirability effect – participants might give “popular” answers that are not honest responses to survey questions

Point 4: Experiments

Advantages

1. can provide evidence for causation or relationships between variables, rather than just a description

2. allows research to apply enhanced control over many of the research variables

Limitations

1. have to sample carefully to ensure generalizability

2. placebo effect can bias participants’ behavior

3. experimenter effect can cause the participant to change his response pattern

4. some research questions would be impossible or unethical to explore experimentally

Question 3

Marlon was in a very unfortunate automobile accident during which he sustained an injury to his head. Days later when his family was with him in the hospital room, they had a conference with his neurologist, who informed him that there was some brain injury. Pretend that you are the neurologist, and discussion what functional impairments might result from an injury to at least six of the following parts of the brain:

• Cerebellum

• Medulla

• Pons

• Hypothalamus

• Hippocampus

• Frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex

• Temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex

• Parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex

• Occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Cerebellum

This part of the brain maintains muscle coordination and balance. If a person had impairments to this part of the brain they might not be able to walk or stand up straight. They also may have difficulties with everyday activities such as walking, getting dressed because of lack of muscle coordination. With both balance being off and muscle coordination being impaired the person may have difficulties functioning in normal every day activities.

Point 2: Medulla

The medulla is the part of the brain responsible for breathing, swallowing, and other life sustaining functions. If a person has had major impairment to this area of the brain they may need to be placed on machines to help them breathe and be placed on a feeding tube to ensure adequate nutrition. Severe damage to the medulla is often a life-ending injury.

Point 3: Pons

The pons plays a different role in the brain. The pons help influences a person’s sleep cycle, their dreams, and arousal level. If a person had impairment in this area of the brain their sleep cycle may be off and they may have erratic dreams. They may also have difficulty adjusting their sleep/wake phases to any sort of normal pattern that would allow for productive work and/or school functioning.

Point 4: Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus regulates the amount of fear, thirst, sexual drive, and aggression we feel. If there is damage to hypothalamus a person may have altered emotions that change drastically. The person may experience an increased or decreased sexual drive and they may lash out at others and become very aggressive. If a patient shows mood altering symptoms there may be a problem with this part of the brain.

Point 5: Hippocampus

The hippocampus allows people to learn things and have certain forms of memory. It also gives the ability to compare sensory information. Someone experiencing memory loss or problems and the inability to learn new things or understand may have trouble with their hippocampus.

Point 6: Frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex

The frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex deals with higher mental processes and decision making. It also helps in the production of speech. If the patient has impairments in the frontal lobe they may have difficulties making decisions and thinking clearly. They also may struggle with responding to people and making clear word production. It may be very difficult for the person to speak in a correct manner too.

Point 7: Temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex

The temporal lobe deals with hearing as well as meaningful speech reception. If a person has damage to the temporal lobe they may experience pain in their ears or even have difficulty hearing. Damage to this area may also compromise an individual’s ability to understand words/sentences that are being directed to them.

Point 8: Parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex

The parietal lobe is responsible for somatosensory reception, including senses such as taste, touch and temperature sensations. If there is problems with the lobe things may taste very different to people that may normally taste fine to them. Things may also feel different if they touch a particular fabric or object. Also their temperature sensations may be off.

Point 9: Occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex

This area of the brain helps the functioning of vision. The ability to interpret incoming visual sensation may be compromised based on the level of damage that occurs. Blurred vision or complete loss of eyesight may occur if there are problems in the occipital lobe. We also recognize and make associations between what we see and what is stored in memory.

Question 4

Neural communication is often described as “an electrochemical process.” Discuss why this is an appropriate label, making sure to include a description of the function of the major parts of a neuron, and the basic characteristics of neural activity. Would it be possible for this communication process to be effective with only chemical or electrical components? Support your answer.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: The parts of the neuron

Neural communication is described as an electrochemical process because through different specialized cells messages are sent electrically within a single neuron. In order for these messages to be sent to a different neuron (interneural communication) a chemical system is required.

The neural communication is dependent on the various parts of the neuron.

1. Dendrites - the dendrite is a branch-like structure that receives messages from other neurons.

2. Soma - this is the cell body that helps maintains life for the cell and allows the process to occur.

3. Axon - the axon carries the neural message toward other neurons by conducting an action potential (electrical impulse) to the very end of a neuron.

4. Glial cells - these cells provide support for the neurons to grow.

5. Myelin - this is a fatty substance surrounding the axons to insulate, protect, and increase speed in the neural process of sending messages.

6. Synaptic vesicles – these are tiny sacs that are found in the branches at the end of a neuron’s axon, and they store chemicals called neurotransmitters.

7. Neurotransmitters – these are chemical transmitters substances that take a message from one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) and communicate that message to another neuron (the postsynaptic neuron). Neurotransmitters can either stimulate a neuron’s firing (excitatory neurotransmission) or inhibit a neuron’s firing (inhibitor neurotransmission).

Point 2: The electrochemical nature of neural communication

The electrical impulses, or action potential, that begins at a soma and travels to the end of an axon stimulates the release of chemicals that send messages to another neuron. For this reason, the process alternates between an electrical and chemical mechanism. Both processes are required for neural transmission to work effectively, and this is the reason why neural communication is described as an electrochemical process.

Question 5

There are many different theories that explain how we perceive the world around us. Give a description of each of the following theories, making sure to include a discussion of relevant anatomical components of each theory:

• The trichromatic theory of color vision

• The opponent-process theory of color vision

• The place theory of pitch

• The frequency (frequency-volley) theory of pitch

• The gate-control theory of pain

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: The trichromatic theory of color vision

The theory suggests that the eye is made up of cones that are maximally receptive to light in the red, blue, and green ranges of the visible spectrum. This theory emphasizes the importance of the reflection of light which than determines the color seen. It is the combination of cones and the rate at which they fire that results in a color vision experience.

Point 2: The opponent-process theory of color vision

In this theory there are four primary colors - red, yellow, blue, and green. Each cone is paired with another color (i.e.: red and green, blue and yellow) When one cone of color is stimulated the other member of the pair cannot be working. For example, you cannot have reddish greens or bluish yellows. This theory is processed through the thalamus in the area of lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). Through the LGN it is sent to occipital lobe and the image is produced. This theory is effective at explaining the experience of protonopia (red/green or yellow/blue color blindness) and negative color afterimages.

Point 3: The place theory of pitch

The place theory of pitch says that the pitch a person hears is completely dependent on where the hair cells that are stimulated on the organ of Corti are located. For high pitch sounds the hair is stimulated near the oval window but for a low pitch sound the hair is stimulated farther away from the oval window.

Point 4: The frequency (frequency-volley) theory of pitch

The frequency theory states that pitch is related to the speed of the vibration of the entire basilar membrane. The faster the membrane vibrates the higher the pitch that someone will hear, while slower vibrations are associated with a lower pitch experience.

Point 5: The gate-control theory of pain

In the gate-control theory of pain, the pain passes through a “gate” located in the spinal cord. The activity of the gate can be closed by non-pain signals coming into the spinal cord from the body and by signals coming from the brain. The gate is a representation of balance in the neural activity of cells in spinal cord that receive information and send it to the brain. These “gates” can also be closed by chemicals that are internally (endorphins) or externally (analgesics) produced.

Question 6

You wake up in the morning after getting less-than-adequate sleep the night before, and come to the kitchen for a warm and refreshing cup of coffee. The coffee brews in several minutes, and as you wait you close your eyes and listen to the “drip drip drip” of brewing java. The scent of the liquid happiness fills your nostrils, and that first sip tastes like heaven. Discuss the path of at least two of the following sensory systems - including vision and either hearing, smell, or taste – as the sensory experience of the coffee makes it from the pot to your brain. Make sure to include the major parts of each system, and giving relevant information about how external stimuli are interpreted as psychological experiences.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Vision

Vision allows the image of coffee to be seen by focusing the image on the retina where it is received by the rods and cones. The rods and cones use light to focus the image and color and then of coffee goes through bipolar, ganglion, and amacrine cells to the optic nerve. The optic nerves from both the left and right eyes come together at the optic chiasm and optic tract where the image is sent via nerve signal to the occipital lobe of the brain for processing.

Point 2: Hearing

The process of hearing the coffee being made in the coffee maker would involve several parts of the ear. The pinnae would direct sound waves into the external ear canal and those sound waves would strike the tympanic membrane, or eardrum, causing it to vibrate. These vibrations would stimulate the three ossicles – the hammer, anvil, and stirrup – and eventually make their way to the basilar membrane in the cochlea. The vibrations would cause a wave-effect in the basilar membrane, eventually stimulating hair cells on the organ of corti. These hair cells generate a neural impulse that is sent, via the auditory nerve, to the brain for processing.

Point 3: Smell

When drinking and making coffee your nose plays a vital part in the process. The chemicals of scent go up into the high sinus cavity where they are received by the olfactory bulb. From there they are sent to the brain for processing the specific scent.

Point 4: Taste

Taste buds are important when it comes to identifying a particular part of the object. For coffee when a person takes that first sip, their taste buds begin to become aroused and send a signal from the tongue, via gustatory nerves, to the brain. There are five different tastes on your tongue, sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. Which part of the tongue is affected by the food/drink will also have a role in the particular taste overtones that you experience, and past experience with coffee may contribute to whether you perceive the taste as positive or negative.

Question 7

Choose 4 of the following sleep disorders and give a thorough review of (a) the symptoms associated with such illnesses, (b) (where appropriate) the stage of sleep where they occur and (c) the possible treatments/responses that may occur to help relieve these sleep difficulties:

• Insomnia

• Sleep Apnea

• Somnambulism

• Narcolepsy

• REM Behavior Disorder

• Night Terrors

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Insomnia

Insomnia is the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good quality of sleep. Some causes of insomnia are worrying, trying too hard to sleep, having anxiety, too much caffeine, indigestion, or aches and pain. There are several things a person can do to avoid insomnia; a person should only go to bed when they are sleepy, they shouldn’t do anything in bed but sleep, and don’t try too hard to get to sleep. Also by keeping a regular schedule, not taking sleeping pills, drinking alcohol, or doing drugs, insomnia can be reduced or completely avoided.

Point 2: Sleep Apnea

Sleep apnea is a disorder in which a person stops breathing for nearly a half a minute or more during sleep. When breathing stops, there will be a sudden silence, followed shortly by a gasping sound as the person struggles to get air into the lungs. Some symptoms of apnea include loud snoring and a lack of “quality” sleep. Many people do not wake up while this is happening, but they do not get a good, restful night’s sleep. Apnea is a serious disorder that causes other issues like heart problems. To treat apnea there are several options depending on the severity of it. Mild apnea can be treated usually with just a device worn on the nose to open the nostrils and help breathing. There are also nasal sprays or other devices that a person can use/sleep with to help prevent sleep apnea from occurring. A common cause of sleep apnea is obesity and it’s more common in men. Very young infants can also experience sleep apnea because of the immaturity in the brain stem. Severe sleep apnea is often treated with the use of a CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway Pressure) device.

Point 3: Somnambulism

Somnambulism is also known as sleepwalking. Somnambulism affects 20% of the population and is more common in childhood and for boys than girls. Sleepwalking can be something such as a person sitting up in bed during sleep, or may involve walking around the house, looking in the refrigerator or even eating, and getting into the car. Many people with this condition outgrow it by adolescence. Most people with this disorder do not remember the sleepwalking occurrence the next day.

Point 4: Narcolepsy

Narcolepsy is a kind of “sleep seizure” where the person may slip suddenly into REM sleep during the day (especially when the person experiences strong emotions). Another symptom is excessive daytime sleepiness that results in the person falling asleep throughout the day at inappropriate times and in inappropriate places. These sleep attacks may also come without warning to the person. Along with these sleep attacks cataplexy can occur, which creates a sudden and dangerous loss of muscle tone.

Point 5: REM Behavior Disorder

REM Behavior Disorder is a rare sleep disorder where the brain mechanisms that normally inhibit voluntary muscle movement fail. REM Behavior Disorder causes the person to thrash out in their sleep and can even cause them to act out nightmares. This disorder usually affects men over the age of 60.

Point 6: Night Terrors

Night terrors is a relatively rare disorder in which the person experiences extreme fear and screams or thrashes around during deep sleep without waking fully. Some symptoms of night terrors are that the person may sit up, scream, run around, or flail at someone. It also is not uncommon for a person to have difficulty breathing and be in extreme panic and fear. Night terrors occur during stage 4 of NREM sleep, and are most commonly seen during childhood.

Question 8

Drug use continues to be a serious problem in the United States. Give a definition of each of the following categories of medication, and list at least two examples of drugs that would fall under each category. Finally, distinguish between physical and psychological drug dependence.

• Stimulants

• Depressants

• Opioids

• Hallucinogens

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Stimulants

Stimulants are drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system. Some examples of stimulants are amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, and caffeine.

Point 2: Depressants

Depressants are drugs that slow the central nervous system. Some depressants are barbiturates or tranquilizers, benzodiazepines, and alcohol.

Point 3: Opioids

Opioids suppress the sensation of pain by binding to and stimulating the nervous systems natural receptor sites. Some examples of opioids are opium, morphine, and heroin.

Point 4: Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens are drugs that alter or distort perception of sensory input. Some examples of hallucinogens are LSD, PCP, Ecstasy, Mescaline, Psilocybin, and Marijuana.

Point 5: Physical and psychological drug dependence

Physical dependence is when a person who uses drugs for some period of time, and the body becomes unable to function normally without the drug and the person is said to be addicted or dependent on the drug. Those with physical dependence often demonstrate tolerance (requiring more of the substance to achieve the same effect) or withdrawal (experiencing very painful or aversive symptoms in the absence of the substance). Psychological dependence is when a person believes that the drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being. The person believes and thinks that the drug is required for survival. Though it may not necessarily involve physical symptoms, psychological dependence can be enormously powerful and lead to inappropriate actions to obtain the substance of choice.

Question 9

James has a new pet kitten, who he has named Lucy. He wants to give Lucy a treat, and being a new cat-owner the only thing he can think of to give her is dish of tuna fish. He goes into the kitchen, opens a can of tuna with a can opener, and puts the treat on the floor for her to enjoy. Describe what might happen over the next few weeks if James continues to give Lucy tuna fish in this way, utilizing the principles of classical conditioning. Make sure the following concepts are included in your discussion:

• unconditioned and conditioned stimuli

• unconditioned and conditioned responses

• neutral stimulus

• stimulus discrimination and generalization

• extinction

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: The process of classical conditioning

If James keeps giving Lucy the tuna fish he will begin a process of classical conditioning where Lucy will learn from the tuna fish and eventually have an involuntary response after repeated weeks of receiving tuna fish as a treat. Classical conditioning trains the stimulus to produce things that the controller wants out of it. James will condition Lucy to produce a certain feeling or action every time she sees or sometimes even smells tuna fish.

Point 2: Unconditioned and conditioned stimuli

An unconditioned stimulus is a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to involuntary response. In James’s case, the UCS would be the tuna fish. A conditioned stimulus would be an event that acquires the ability to produce a learned response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus. In James’s case the can opener would be the CS.

Point 3: Unconditioned and conditioned responses

An unconditioned response would be the reflex that involuntarily occurs from the UCS. In James’s case, the UCR would be the cat’s wild and excited behavior when she smells/tastes the tuna fish. A conditioned response is a learned response to a conditioned stimulus. In James’s case, the CR would be the cat’s wild and excited behavior when she hears the sound of the can opener.

Point 4: Neutral stimulus

When no effect occurs in response to a stimulus that is a neutral stimulus. In James’s case, the can opener was a neutral stimulus before the cat learned that it indicated the coming of tuna fish.

Point 5: Stimulus discrimination and generalization

As weeks go on Lucy will still only have a response to the vibrating hum of James’s can opener, not every vibration (a cell phone vibrating, the air conditioner or furnace turning on, the hum of a clothes dryer) that she hears. The response to only the can opener occurs because of stimulus discrimination where no generalized response or tendency will occur because there was only exposure to one stimulus. However, the opposite of discrimination is stimulus generalization where Lucy may begin to respond the conditioned response to others similar to the conditioned stimulus. In this case, if there are vibrations that sound like the can opener – that are very similar to that original conditioned stimulus – they may in fact cause Lucy to demonstrate the conditioned response.

Point 6: Extinction

Extinction occurs when the unconditioned response gradually fades away over time as a result of presenting the CS without the UCS. In James’s case, if he goes into the kitchen each day and turns on the can opener but does not give Lucy any tuna fish, the can opener will gradually lose its ability to elicit the CR from Lucy. When the CR disappears, it is said to have been “extinguished.”

Question 10

E.L. Thorndike’s Law of Effect serves as the basis for the entire concept of operant conditioning. Describe this law, and then discuss the basics of operant conditioning using examples from your own life. Make sure that your answer integrates all of the following concepts: positive and negative reinforcement, punishment by application and removal, extinction, generalization, discrimination, continuous reinforcement, and the four schedules of partial reinforcement.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: The Law of effect and operant conditioning

The Law of Effect by E.L Thorndike states that if an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated. In operant conditioning a voluntary behavior occurs through the presence of pleasurable or aversive consequences, and as Thorndike predicted those outcomes that are pleasurable serve to strengthen the actions, while those that are aversive serve to weaken the actions.

Point 2: Positive and negative reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is the reinforcement of a response by the addition or presentation of pleasurable stimulus. Negative reinforcement is the reinforcement of a response by the subtraction or removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus.

Point 3: Punishment by application and removal

The punishment by application is when an unpleasant stimulus is added to the situation (e.g., spanking). The punishment by removal is when a pleasurable stimulus is removed after a behavior has occurred (e.g., taking away television privileges for a week).

Point 4: Extinction

In operant condition, extinction occurs when a particular behavior is not reinforced. While this may serve a similar outcome as the use of a punishment, this tact of failing to attend to or reinforce the action may be a more useful avenue depending on the objectionable behavior in question.

Point 5: Generalization

Generalization also occurs in operant conditioning, where the subject associates learned responses to similar stimuli as the one to which conditioning originally occurred.

Point 6: Discrimination

Discrimination is any stimulus, such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement. The use of a discriminative stimulus is effective for cuing one particular response in favor of another (e.g., red light cues the response of “stop,” while green light cues the response of “go”).

Point 7: Continuous reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement occurs in operant conditioning when the reinforcement occurs as a consequence of each and every correct response.

Point 8: Four schedules of partial reinforcement

a) fixed interval - This is the schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same.

b) fixed ratio - Fixed ratio is when the schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same.

c) variable interval - Variable interval is when interval of time after which the organism must respond in order to receive a reinforcer changes from one time to the next. Sometimes it takes longer or shorter for the operant outcome to be received.

d) variable ratio - Variable ratio is when the schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event.

Question 11

The Advanced Placement examination is, as you well know, very rigorous and not for the faint of heart. You’ve spent many months – even years – learning an enormous amount of information that is being tested during this examination. Discuss how that information is available to you now by following the information-processing model of memory. You should include thorough descriptions of:

• Encoding

• Storage

• Retrieval

• A discussion of the different types of memory storage

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Encoding

Encoding is the first stage of memory. This memory system gets sensory information (sight, sound, etc.) into a form that the brain can use. Encoding can be used differently in the different types of memory. It can involve rehearsing information or elaborating the meaning of information. For the advanced placement exam if a person continuously practices the information and hears about the different topics it can be encoded into a memory in the brain for retrieval at a later time.

Point 2: Storage

The next stage in memory is storage. Storage is holding on to the information in the brain for some period of time. In the storage stage, people can hold onto the information for different lengths of time. In the case of the AP exam students may store the information just long enough to remember this past year’s topics and learning to do well on the exam.

Point 3: Retrieval

Retrieval is the last stage and that is when a person gets the information that they encoded and stored out of the brain. Retrieval is the last process where a person actually goes into their brain to find the information that they are looking for.

Point 4: Models of memory storage

The information-processing model of memory focuses on the way we process information and handle it through 3 different stages of memory.This model assumes that how long a memory will be remembered depends on the stage of memory in which it was stored. The three types of memory associated with the information processing model are sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory. All information associated with the sensory memory is lost within seconds unless it is rapidly shuffled to short-term memory. Short term memory holds unrehearsed information for only 15-30 seconds. Long term memory can hold information indefinitely even though sometimes it may be hard to retrieve. The information that you have learned through the months and years of taking psychology, if properly rehearsed, can be held in your long term memory. By using encoding, storage and retrieval a person can improve their memory and recover it in their memory later on, like when it comes time for the advanced placement exam.

Question 12

One of the main difficulties with memory is how frequently information is (or at least feels) unavailable to us. Focus on the memory process of retrieval, and provide a thorough review of the process of forgetting (or what often feels like forgetting). You should include several different theories of why information is either temporarily or permanently unavailable from memory storage.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: General facts about forgetting

It has been theorized that the length of time a memory is stored depends on the depth at which information is processed, and there are different processing models that help determine this depth of processing. The likelihood of forgetting depends on a number of failures that occur in the memory processing; encoding failure, decay theory, and interference.

Point 2: Encoding failure

Encoding failure is when the person fails to process information into memory. With this idea, the person really isn’t forgetting but because of the lack of processing it is not stored in their memory. They may have a false sense of actually “knowing” material, so when they go to retrieve it there will be a sense of having forgotten it. This is not truly forgetting, however, because the memories were never adequately encoded (or stored) in the first place.

Point 3: Decay theory

Decay theory is the loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which memory trace (physical change in the brain caused by memory formation). Without using the memory it will slowly fade from the brain and cause it to permanently be erased for future use. While this theory, which is also called the Disuse theory, is one that feels right and makes a lot of sense, it has not been overwhelmingly supported in research studies.

Point 4: Interference theory

Interference: Proactive interference is a memory retrieval problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of new information. Retroactive interference occurs when new information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of old information.

Question 13

Virtually everything we do in a given day is a form of problem-solving. Discuss at least three different heuristics that people use in an attempt to solve problems, and then compare them to the mechanical solution (trial-and-error). Finally, discuss several limitations/barriers to effective problem-solving and given an example of each of these barriers.

Scoring Guidelines

Problem solving involves different ways of behaving and thinking to reach a certain goal. There are many ways to solve problems.

Point 1: Trial and Error (mechanical solution)

This solution is when a person attempts one way to solve a problem and keeps trying different ways until one works. It often guarantees that a problem will be solved (assuming that the correct solution is part of the available solution set) but can be impractical when there is a large number of possible solutions available.

Point 2: Algorithms

An algorithm is a specific step by step procedure for solving certain types of problems. Unlike the mechanical solution of trial and error, there are specific procedures and ways that need to be solved in order to result in a correct solution. Algorithms are very systematic and can be easy to employ, particularly if a person is trying to solve the same problem repeatedly, but the disadvantage occurs if the steps are not followed in a precise sequence.

Point 3: Heuristics

Another problem solving method is the use of heuristics. Heuristics are rules of thumb that should be followed and can be applied to multiple situations. This is different from trial and error because it is not just a guessing method; there are specific rules that a person follows to best lead them to the correct answer. Heuristics are educated guesses to a solution that are formulated based on past experiences, and though they do increase the efficiency of problem-solving, they do not guarantee a correct answer.

There are also several barriers or limitations to effective problem-solving.

Point 4: Functional Fixedness

Functional fixedness is when a person only thinks of an object for its most typical or common use and does not think of creative, ‘outside of the box’ uses for said object. For example, when something is broken and you need a specific tool to fix it like a screwdriver, a person can use other things like kitchen knives, a key, or other similar shape items to help screw the item back in place.

Point 5: Confirmation Bias

Confirmation bias is when a person searches for evidence that fits their beliefs and logic while ignoring other ideas and evidence that disprove their beliefs. For example, when it comes to remembering specific things like studies involving memory, people who believe in things like ESP will only remember studies that specifically recall and support the idea that ESP exists versus other studies which have evidence saying the opposite.

Point 6: The Mental Set

The mental set refers to a habitual way of solving problems, wherein a past successful problem solving approach is errantly applied to a different present problem. While using past solutions as a guide for different problems may be effective, it is frequently the case that “slightly different problems require slightly different solutions.” Thus if an individual attempts to use the same solution to a different problem, (s)he may become stuck and unable to move forward.

Question 14

Intelligence is a concept that has eluded a solid definition over time; instead, different theorists have chosen to define intelligence differently. Compare and contrast three of the major theories of intelligence. Then discuss the different levels of mental retardation (developmental delay), including the relative IQ scores that are required for diagnosis of each level and the abilities and limitations that might be seen in individuals with each level of delay.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Spearman’s G-factor Theory of Intelligence

Charles Spearman’s G Factor theory of intelligence has both a g-factor and s-factor. The g-factor is the ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence, while the s- factor is the ability to excel in specific areas, or specific intelligence.

Point 2: Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence focuses on the belief that there are several kinds of intelligence and that different people can portray different kinds and aspects of each intelligence. The nine types of intelligence that Gardner believes a person can portray are verbal/linguistic, musical, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, movement, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and existentialist. Unlike the other theories which focus on intelligence being about reasoning, solving, and thinking, Gardner believes everyone can specialize in something that makes them intelligent. He also posited the idea that different people can have unique combinations of intellectually strength of weakness. Further, he did not agree with Spearman’s theory that there is one overarching concept of intelligence (G) that incorporated all of an individual’s cognitive skills.

Point 3: Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence says there are three kinds of intelligence; creative, analytical, and practical. Analytical intelligence refers to ability to break down problems into components or parts or analysis for further solving. Creative intelligence is ability to deal with new and different concepts and come up with new ways of solving. Practical intelligence is like “street smarts” where a person has ability to use information to get along through life. Sternberg’s theory is different than other theories of intelligence because it focuses on types of intelligence and how people’s minds work. His theory focuses on different kinds of intelligence that help people solve problems differently.

Point 4: Mental Retardation

Mental retardation is defined in several ways and affects more than 3% of the population. There are different levels of mental retardation; mild, moderate, severe, or profound. Being developmentally delayed is when a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are their same chronological age. It is important for a student to remember that IQ score is only one piece of the puzzle when making an assessment of mental retardation. An individual’s adaptive skills must also be assessed before a diagnosis would be made.

Point 5: Levels of Mental Retardation

a) Mild: The IQ score for a person who is in the mild level of mental retardation falls between 55 and 70. They have some adaptive limitations such as only being able to reach a sixth grade level. They are, however, capable of living independently and being self-supportive if trained properly. 90% of those with developmental delay fall into the mild category.

b) Moderate: Being moderately mental retarded affects 6% of those who are developmentally delayed. A person at this level has an IQ scores between 40 and 55. People at this level can reach a 2nd grade level and can only work and live in sheltered environments with constant supervision.

c) Severe: Severe retardation affects about 3% of those with a developmental delay, and would be noted with an IQ score between 25 and 40. People at this level can do basic self-caring functions but needs supervision constantly.

d) Profound: Profound mental retardation refers to those with an IQ score of 25 or below. It affects approximately 1% of those who are developmentally delayed. People in this category have very limited ability to learn, and have poor language skills and limited self-care.

Question 15

Language is made up of many different smaller “units.” Provide a thorough definition of each of the following terms, and then discuss the results of attempts to teach animals how to use language:

• phonemes

• morphemes

• syntax

• pragmatics

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Overall definition of language

Language involves word order, meaning of words, the rules for forming words, the sounds that exist within languages, the rules for communicating with others, and the meaning of sentences and phrases. These rules are common amongst all languages around the world, though they may be applied differently from language to language.

Point 2: Phonemes

Phonemes are the basic units of sound in language, and different languages may involve different phonemic units or combinations. A common example is the “rr” sound that is common in Spanish, but may be difficult for English-speaking adults to replicate.

Point 3: Morphemes

Morphemes are the smallest unit of measurement with language, and tend to be common across different languages.

Point 4: Syntax

Syntax is the systems of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences. Different languages have different syntactic systems, and this is among the most difficult part of learning a foreign language. Remembering vocabulary is rote memorization, but applying that vocabulary to make syntactically correct sentences is the challenge.

Point 5: Pragmatics

Pragmatics refers to the aspects of language that involve the practical ways of communicating, or the social “niceties” of language.

Point 6: Animals and language

Animals can communicate and use language but it is not always the way we as humans think of language and communication. Animals use sounds and physical displays to get their message across. For example, an animal may growl if they are angry or aggressive, or they may do a physical display like the “dance” of honeybees that tells other bees where the source of pollen is located. Animals’ use of language is more instinctual. They use symbols and gestures but they are controlled by the animals’ genetic makeup.

There has also been an attempt to teach animals such as chimpanzees to use sign language. The bonobo chimpanzee, Kanzi, has been the most successful case of learning sign language. This chimpanzee was trained to touch abstract symbols on a keyboard. Kanzi was not the original subject, his mother was, but through observational learning he learned more effectively and was more successful in the training compared to his mother. At last report, Kanzi could understand 150 words in English through the use of physical cues or symbols. Kanzi has learned to reach up to a 2 ½ year old child’s level. There have also been studies with dolphins and parrots which also have proven to be successful in language and communication skills with animals. However, although these animals have achieved a 3 year old child’s level there is still a debate about whether the animal is learning language if they are not learning to use syntax too.

Because there is little evidence that animals can break free of rote imitation and create new semantics within their repertoire of linguistic tools (sign language, supplemental charts or pictures, etc.) most experts agree that they are not truly using human language in an advanced manner.

Question 16

There are several different theories of how the various components of emotions occur. Referring to those components as discussed in your textbook, differentiate between the theories of James and Lange, Cannon and Bard, and Schachter and Singer.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: The James-Lange theory of emotions

In this theory, a stimulus first leads to physiological arousal which is then interpreted as an emotion. James and Lange discussed the idea of the body responding to the arousal through sympathetic nervous system of “fight or flight.” A useful summary of this theory posits that “we are sad because we cry,” rather than the oft-believed “we cry because we are sad.”

Point 2: The Cannon-Bard theory of emotions

Cannon and Bard’s theory of emotion says that a stimulus leads to activity in multiple areas of the brain, which then send simultaneous signals to arouse the body and interpret the emotion at the same time. Cannon and Bard differed from James and Lange because they believed that we don’t feel specific distinct emotions which mean it’s not enough to be perceived as different emotions leading to the “fight or flight” idea.

Point 3: The Schacter and Singer theory of emotions

This theory of emotion says that two things have to occur before emotion can occur: (1) the physical arousal, and (2) the labeling of the arousal based on cues from the environment. Unlike the other two theories Schachter and Singer believed that emotion is a two step process and you don’t just feel the emotion right away, or don’t perceive the emotion at all. You first have to feel it in your body and then cognitively interpret the stimulus/stimuli, and then the emotion is produced.

Question 17

How can the concepts of nAch, nAff, and nPow be integrated into the different levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Do you see these theories as complementary or contradictory? Support your position.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: The Need for Achievement (nAch)

The need for achievement involves the strong desire to succeed in attaining both realistic and challenging goals.

Point 2: The Need for Affiliation (nAff)

The need for affiliation involves the need for strong social interactions and relationships with others.

Point 3: The Need for Power (nPow)

The need for power involves the need to have control over other people and situations.

Point 4: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs involves the need for humans to build their way up in life. They need to first satisfy all of their basic needs, including physiological needs as well as short- and long-term safety and security, and build their way up to the ultimate fulfillment of self-actualization and transcendence. Self-actualization is at the top of the hierarchy where the person feels that they have achieved their full potential. Above the self-actualization is transcendence where a person feels fulfilled in their life they give back and help others achieve self-actualization.

Point 5: The Intersection of nAch, nAff, nPow and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

If a student would say that these theories are complementary here are some points they might address:

a. A person needs to use all these concepts of nAch, nAff, and nPow to work through each part of Maslow’s hierarchy and build up to self-actualization and transcendence.

b. Maslow’s hierarchy deals with the idea of growth and progress in life and by using the nAch, nAff, and nPow it allows the person to get involve and achieve different things, affiliate with others, and have power.

If a student would say these theories are contradictory here are some points they might address:

a. By using these concepts of nAch, nAff, and nPow, it may throw the person off the correct path for the hierarchy if they have too much in one area.

b. By having too much power or achievement although it may feel nice it does not last forever.

c. If a person has too much of one concept (achievement, affiliation or power) it may at first lead them up the hierarchy but they cannot successfully stay there for a long period of time.

Question 18

The relationship between stress and physical health is important across many disciplines, only one of which is psychology. Discuss the relationship between physical health and stress, making sure to involve each of the following:

• a definition of psychoneuroimmunology

• which medical illnesses have been shown to be related to stress

• personality factors

• culture

• stress response styles

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Psychoneuroimmunology

Psychoneuroimmunology is defined as the study of the effects of psychological factors on the immune system.

Point 2: Medical Illnesses Related to Stress

Cancer, heart disease, fevers, depression, and HIV/AIDS have all been found to have relationships with the levels of stress a patient experiences, though this relationship should not be described as causative in nature.

Point 3: Personality Factors

Type A people are most likely to develop heart disease (possibly via hostility), Type C people are most likely to develop cancer. Those with Type B personalities seem least likely to develop many of these illnesses as a direct result of stress.

Point 4: Culture

Culture can influence how people perceive, interpret and respond to stress, which in turn can influence health outcomes. When people from one culture have to adapt to life in a new culture, they can experience high levels of stress (acculturative stress). The greatest stress occurs when people neither maintain contact with their culture of origin nor join the majority culture (i.e., they are marginalized).

Point 5: Stress Response Styles

Problem-focused coping is when people try to address the source of stress or reduce its impact. Emotion-focused coping is when people change or control how they react to a stressor.

Point 6: The Relationship Between Stress and Physical Health

Through the study of psychoneuroimmunology, we have learned that stress is associated with a number of medical illnesses, including cancer and heart disease. Personality factors, culture and stress response styles are thought to mediate this association. Specifically, people who are overtly hostile or angry are more likely to develop heart disease, whereas people who direct their anger inwards are more likely to develop cancer. These findings suggest that the way people manage stress influences the structure, function and effectiveness of the immune system. Additionally, stress response styles have been considered as another explanation of the association between stress and disease. It has been found that people who effectively manage stressful situations are less likely to be physically ill. It is also important to consider that different stressors require different coping techniques. Uncontrollable stressors are best managed by emotion-focused coping and controllable stressors can be best addressed using problem-focused coping techniques.

Question 19

Discuss different causes of stress in terms of their frequency in our lives, the level of impact that they have on us, and their potential to cause distress versus eustress. Then compare and contrast Lazarus’s cognitive appraisal model and Selye’s general adaptation syndrome model.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Causes of Stress and Frequency of Stressors

Catastrophes are relatively infrequent occurrences in our lives, major life events (MLEs) are more frequent than catastrophes, and daily hassles are most frequently experienced type of stressor.

All of these causes of stress can impact our lives in ways ranging from minor to severe. Major life changes, such as getting married or having a baby, are most likely to cause eustress, whereas catastrophes are most likely to be associated with distress. However, the likelihood of a particular stressor to cause distress is strongly related to how an individual interprets a situation.

Point 2: Lazarus’s Stress Appraisal Model

According to Lazarus’ cognitive appraisal model, how people think about a stressor influences their reaction. Appraisal is the first step of this model. In this step, people classify a stressor either as a threat, a challenge or a loss that has already occurred. If a stressor is identified as threatening or harmful, people have to determine if and how they will deal with the stressor. If they determine that they are able to manage it, they are able to cope effectively. If they decide they do not have the resources to manage the stressor, then they feel stress and either try to find new ways to respond, or continue to feel stress.

Point 3: Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome Model

Selye’s general adaptation model outlines the stress response as one that elicits alarm, then resistance and finally exhaustion. During the alarm stage, the sympathetic nervous system is activated and physiological stress response mechanisms increase massively. As the stressor continues, we enter the resistance stage, where stress-responses level off and our bodies get ready to fight the stressor over an extended time period (hours, days, even weeks). If the stressor is not effectively reduced, our bodies will eventually become depleted of their defenses and we will develop illnesses. This is when Selye postulated we have entered the exhaustion stage of the general adaptation syndrome.

Unlike Lazarus, who emphasized cognitive variables, Selye hypothesized that stress is primarily a physiological process.

Question 20

The developmental theory of Erik Erikson was one of the earliest theories that discussed changes that occur over the entire lifespan. List and describe, in order, the eight stages of Erikson’s theory, making sure to include the conflict that occurs at each stage and discuss the outcome of resolving each conflict in different ways. Your description should also include the appropriate age ranges of each of Erikson’s stages.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Stage 1 – Trust v. Mistrust

If resolved, child develops a healthy sense of trust in others and expects life to be pleasant.

If not resolved, child learns an unhealthy sense of mistrust which could negative impact relationships throughout the lifespan.

Erikson felt that trust or mistrust came from the consistency with which parents responded to the needs of the infant.

Point 2: Stage 2 – Autonomy v. Shame/Doubt

If resolved, child develops a sense of independence.

If not resolved, child feels dependent on the parents, and may have difficulty separating or one day individuating from the family of origin.

Erikson felt that autonomy or shame/doubt was a result of parents giving children room to explore their world or being overly protective and/or restrictive.

Point 3: Stage 3 – Initiative v. Guilt

If resolved, child feels capable and develops self-directed behavior.

If not resolved, the child feels irresponsible, anxious and/or guilty.

Erikson felt that initiative or guilt resulted from the manner in which parents helped their children overcome obstacles and/or mistakes as they attempt to become more self-efficient and self-proficient. This is the stage where parents frequently hear, “I can do it,” or “let me try all by myself.”

Point 4: Stage 4 – Industry v. Inferiority

If resolved, child feels competent and develops self-esteem.

If not resolved, child feels inadequate, incompetent, or inferior.

Erikson felt that industry and inferiority where the result of finding (or failing to find) an area of skill or special ability that allows the child to feel competent. This might include things such as academic skill, arts, or musical or athletic abilities.

Point 5: Stage 5 – Identity v. Role Confusion

If resolved, adolescent develops a sense of self.

If not resolved, adolescent withdraws from others or immerses themselves in interacting with others.

Erikson felt that adolescence was a time of finding one’s “self,” and thus the adolescent must confront the very challenging questions that are associated with transitioning from childhood to adulthood.

Point 6: Stage 6 – Intimacy v. Isolation

If resolved, person has satisfying relationships.

If not resolved, person feels isolated and lonely.

Clearly, Erikson felt that early adulthood was a period where we are seeking out a life-partner, and he felt that a failure to find such a relationship would lead to isolation that could impact the rest of an individual’s life.

Point 7: Stage 7 – Generativity v. Stagnation

If resolved, adult benefits himself and others by being creative, generative and nurturing.

If not resolved, adult will feel like he hasn’t contributed anything to the world or others.

This is the period where an individual experiencing stagnation might experience what is commonly referred to as a “mid-life crisis,” which is little more than an immature attempt to suddenly generate meaning in one’s life. The problem, according to Erikson’s theory, is that generativity is not something that can be created rapidly; rather, it is the result of a lifelong process.

Point 8: Stage 8 – Integrity v. Despair

If resolved, person will enjoy life and not fear death.

If not resolved, person will fear death.

This is the period where we come to the inevitable end of life, and Erikson felt that it was important to be able to approach death with a sense of calm and integrity. He felt that we make a life review, and ask ourselves if we’ve done all that we wanted to do with our lives. If we have, we could die calmly and with a sense of peace. If we had not, however, we would lament our death and struggle to cling to life.

Question 21

The changes that occur between conception and birth set the foundation for virtually everything that an individual will become after they are born. Discuss the genetic foundations of conception, noting what happens between fertilization and birth. This should include a discussion of:

• the relative ages and significant events of the three prenatal stages

• a discussion of three major teratogens

• when teratogens are most likely to have a negative impact on a developing child

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Relative Ages and Significant Events of the Three Prenatal Stages

After egg is fertilized, it becomes a one-celled zygote and cells continue to divide as the zygote moves down the fallopian tube in to the uterus. This happens during the first 2 weeks after conception and is called the germinal period.

During the embryonic period (from 2 weeks after conception to 8 weeks) all organs start to develop, including eyes, nose and ears. During his period, the embryo experiences a “critical period,” where the vulnerability to the effect of teratogens is at its highest.

During the Fetal period (8 weeks after conception to birth) the fetus gets longer and gains weight, organs finish developing, and movement becomes possible.

Point 2: Major Teratogens/Effects on a Child

Disease

a. Rubella - blindness, deafness, heart defects, brain damage

b. Syphilis - mental retardation, deafness, meningitis

Illicit drugs

a. Marijuana - infant is irritable/easily disturbed

b. Cocaine - low birth weight, respiratory problems, learning problems, infant is irritable/difficult to soothe

Other drugs

a. Alcohol - fetal alcohol syndrome, learning problems

b. nicotine - miscarriage, low birthweight, mental retardation, learning disabilities

Other substances/situations

a. Mercury - mental retardation, blindness

b. Caffeine - miscarriage, low birthweight

c. Radiation - cancer, physical deformities

Point 3: When Teratogens Exert Their Most Negative Impact

The effect of teratogens on the developing baby differ depending on the timing of the teratogen.

a. Arms/legs - 3.5 to 8 weeks

b. Heart - 2.5 to 6.5 weeks

c. Central nervous system – 2 to 5 weeks

d. Eyes - 3.5 to 8.5 weeks

e. Teeth/mouth - 7 to 12 weeks

Question 22

Perhaps the single most influential figure in the field of psychology has been Dr. Sigmund Freud. His theories have extended into many different areas of modern life and thus the impact of his ideas has been wide-reaching, though in some areas extremely controversial. Provide an in-depth discussion of the major tenets of Freud’s theory of personality, including the different levels of consciousness, the components of personality, and how personality develops. Then discuss how the theory of each of the major neo-Freudians differed from the work of Freud himself.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: The Levels of Consciousness

a. Unconscious – material that is outside of our awareness, yet continues to exert enormous influence on our day to day behaviors

b. Preconscious – material of which we are not immediately aware, but could pull into consciousness with a little effort.

c. Conscious – material that we are aware of at any given moment in time, and that comes into contact with the “outside world.”

Point 2: The Components of Personality

a. Id - most primitive, totally unconscious, pleasure-seeking, contains all basic biological drives (pleasure principle)

b. Ego - mostly conscious, tries to fulfill desires of id but only in socially acceptable ways (reality principle)

c. Superego - contains the conscience, moral center of personality (morality principle)

Point 3: Personality Development

Occurs through the psychosexual stages of personality development, during which libidinal energy is focused on a particular part of the body (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital). Freud theorized that children had to successfully negotiate the challenges of each stage to prevent fixation so they can move on to the next stage. If fixation occurs during any of the stages, this will be reflected in the personality. For example, a person who is fixated in the anal stage may be either anal retentive (very rigid and fussy) or anal expulsive (messy and hostile). A person can also be orally fixated (very talkative, nail biting, smoking and either too dependent and optimistic or too aggressive and pessimistic). Fixation in the phallic stage can result in sexually immature attitudes in adulthood.

Point 4: The Neo-Freudians

a. Carl Jung - Jung believed that the unconscious contained both the personal unconscious, as Freud believed, and in contrast to Freud, the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious involves an assortment of myths, beliefs and archetypes that are important to a person’s particular culture or subgroup.

b. Alfred Adler - Unlike Freud, who believed that sexuality was at the root of personality development, Adler theorized that the force behind all human endeavors was the desire for superiority. Related to this idea, he believed that birth order played a strong role in how people learn to cope with feelings of inferiority and superiority.

c. Karen Horney - Horney conflicted with Freud’s theory of penis envy and proposed a competing theory of “womb envy.” More importantly, she contended that the main force in personality development was not sexuality, but a child’s sense of basic anxiety. She emphasized the role of parents and family by hypothesizing that children who receive love, affection and security from their parents are able to master their anxiety, whereas children who parents are not so nurturing will develop neurotic personalities. She thought that children displayed difficulties with anxiety through relationships, by either becoming too clingy, too demanding or too withdrawn.

Question 23

The assessment of personality is a very important area of psychology. Talk about what the assessment of an individual’s personality can be used for, and then discuss the various methods by which personality can be assessed. Make sure to discuss the major assessment strategies covered in your textbook, as well as covering the advantages and drawbacks of each method, where appropriate.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Personality Assessment in General

Personality assessment can be used to help people learn more about themselves, to diagnose personality disorders, or for research purposes. They may also be applicable in a number of clinical realms, including (but not limited to) relationship/marital counseling, career/vocational counseling, and/or to satisfy employment requirements.

Point 2: Interviews

In a clinical interview (which can come in many different formats) a one-on-one conversation is initiated so that specific questions can be pursued and information can be drawn directly from the mouth of a client.

Advantages: feels natural, more like a conversation so people might feel more comfortable

Disadvantages: people might lie, distort truth, forget information or give socially acceptable answers. Halo effect is also common (interviewer can be influenced by first impressions and fit rest of information in to initial perception of person)

Point 3: Projective Tests

Projective tests involve the presentation of some sort of ambiguous stimulus to a client, with a request that the client interpret said stimulus according to a specific instruction. Examples might include the Rorschach test, the Thematic Apperception Test, and the Incomplete Sentences Blank.

Advantages: is believed to be able to assess unconscious, hidden emotions

Disadvantages: interpretation is subjective, lack reliability and validity

Point 4: Behavioral Assessments

Behavioral assessments are more of an observational sort of assessment, where the behaviors of a client are monitored and measured/quantified in some specific way.

Advantages: can observe individual in their natural setting

Disadvantages: observer effect, observer bias, uncontrollable external events

Point 5: Personality Inventories

A personality inventory is a “pencil and paper” type of assessment, where clients sit with a list of questions or statements and respond in writing. Common examples include the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-II)

Advantages: fairly objective and reliable because of standardization

Disadvantages: people can give socially acceptable, rather than accurate, answers, long inventories can lead to boredom and cause people to pick answers at random

Question 24

One of the most disruptive categories of mental illnesses is schizophrenia. This illness, which has the capacity to interrupt virtually every area of human functioning, can leave an individual so disturbed that their ability to live life without significant levels of intervention (e.g., psychotherapy, medication, living assistance) may be completely absent. Discuss the different symptoms of schizophrenia, and distinguish between the different subtypes of this illness. Finally, discuss why this illness is not the same as “split personality,” which is formally called dissociative identity disorder.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Symptoms of Schizophrenia

a. Delusions - false beliefs or thoughts that a person continues to hold despite a lack of evidence to support them, or even in the presence of evidence of their falseness (can include delusions of persecution, reference, influence, or grandeur, among others)

b. Hallucinations - false sensory perceptions (auditory are the most common, followed by visual hallucinations. Though uncommon, hallucinations of touch, taste and smell can also occur)

c. Disturbed speech – the use of neologisms (making up words), clang (an irrational need to make words rhyme), and word salad (presenting words in a scrambled order), among other language disturbances

d. Emotional disturbance - flat or inappropriate affect, anhedonia (loss of pleasure)

e. Disorganized or unusual behavior or a loss of self-care/adaptive skills

Point 2: Subtypes of Schizophrenia

a. disorganized - confused speech, hallucinations, inappropriate affect, thinking problems

b. catatonic - disturbed motor behavior, maintains one position for an extended period, or engages in wild, unpredictable motor behavior (least common type)

c. paranoid - hallucinations and delusions, some thinking problems but not as severe as in disorganized schizophrenia

Point 3: Distinguishing Schizophrenia from Dissociative Identity Disorder

Schizophrenia is not the same as dissociative identity disorder (DID) because DID is a disorder that involves the presence of multiple identities or personalities in the same individual, where schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder that involves disturbances in thinking, behavior, sensory perceptions and speech. The mistake is often made because schizophrenia involves a “split” from reality, while DID involves “split personalities.”

Question 25

Anxiety disorders are among the most frequently diagnosed of all psychiatric disorders, and there are many different types of anxiety disorders. Compare and contrast the following anxiety disorders, making sure to provide a clear description of what distinguishes each condition:

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Panic Disorder

• Phobic Disorder (including social phobia, agoraphobia, and specific phobia)

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

GAD is marked by excessive anxiety or worry about a number of events or activities that lasts for at least 6 months. Generally, people with GAD are characterological worriers, and can often verbalize that they recognize that their worry is unwarranted, and yet they continue to experience the anxiety.

Point 2: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

OCD is marked by anxiety-provoking thoughts (obsessions) occur repeatedly and elicit repetitive, ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) intended to reduce the anxious feelings. A primary feature of these symptoms is that they feel beyond the control of the sufferer and often will make little or no sense.

Point 3: Panic Disorder

Panic disorder is marked by frequent panic attacks that interfere with a person’s ability to function. They differ from a phobia in that they often come on “unannounced,” and are accompanied by physical symptoms that can mirror a heart attack. Those suffering from a panic attack often report (afterward) that they felt as if they were going to die or were going insane during the episode.

Point 4: Phobic Disorder (including social phobia, agoraphobia, and specific phobia)

a. social phobia - fear of interacting with others or social situations, avoid situations that could lead to embarrassment or humiliation

b. agoraphobia - fear of public places where escape would be impossible if something goes wrong.

c. specific phobia - irrational fear of a particular object or situation, such as snakes or heights.

Once again, a person with a phobia may recognize the excessive and/or irrational nature of their fear response, yet this will not help them temper or reduce that response. Phobias often lead to avoidance behaviors as a means of dealing with the problem rather than seeking therapy to help actually reduce the phobic symptoms.

Question 26

Compare and contrast the following behavioral techniques used to treat phobias, making sure to thoroughly describe the steps involved in each technique. Also comment on the effectiveness of each approach:

• Systematic desensitization

• Flooding

• Modeling

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Systematic Desensitization

Client is gradually exposed to feared stimulus. First, therapist teaches client relaxation techniques. Second, the therapist and client create a list of things related to the feared stimulus, ranking them from least feared to most feared. (often referred to as a fear hierarchy or a fear ladder). Third, the therapist exposes the client to the feared stimuli, starting with the least feared. The client uses relaxation techniques (a response that is incompatible with anxiety) as the more feared stimuli are introduced. The client works up the list until he reaches the most feared stimulus. Is the most effective empirically validated treatment for specific phobias.

Point 2: Flooding

Client exposed to feared stimulus all at once. During exposure, client is prevented from avoiding the feared stimulus. Through this procedure, the client learns that nothing bad happens when they are exposed to the feared stimulus. For example, if a client is afraid of public bathrooms, the therapist might have the client sit on the bathroom floor and prevent her from washing her hands afterwards. The goal is to “power through” the fear, rather than addressing it in a slow and methodical manner.

Effectiveness - usually see effects after a few sessions. Some have raised questions regarding the ethics of using flooding to treat a phobia.

Point 3: Modeling

Based on operant conditioning, learning through the observation and imitation of a model. First, a client watches a model engage in behaviors related to the feared event. For example, a client with a fear of bridges would watch a model look at a bridge, approach a bridge, stand on a bridge and eventually cross a bridge. Then, the client would imitate the model. Has been effective for certain fears, including fear of the dentist, social withdrawal, OCD and specific phobias.

Question 27

What are the different techniques that might be used by a psychoanalytic therapist? What sorts of behaviors might the analyst might expect to see from a client who is engaged in therapy for any significant length of time? Finally, what are the pros and cons of this approach to therapy?

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Psychoanalytic Techniques/Client Behaviors

1) Dream analysis – Clients are instructed to remember (and sometimes take notes about) their dreams, and then share the details of those dreams with the analyst. It is the job of the analyst to help separate the manifest content (the actual story of the dream) from the latent content (the hidden, unconscious meaning of the dream) so that the client can understand more effectively the messages of the unconscious that are contained in these dreams.

2) Free association – Clients are instructed to “lie back” and just start talking, without worrying about editing, censoring, or controlling what they say. The goal is to have the client freely emote so that the unconscious can slowly relax its defenses and allow important messages to be verbalized. The job of the analyst is to (a) make sure to stay out of the client’s way as (s)he verbalizes, (b) provide gentle encouragement, and (c) recognize when important material is being verbalized.

3) Analyzing resistance - Freud felt that it was a virtual fact that clients in psychoanalysis would eventually begin to demonstrate behaviors that interrupted the forward progress of their own therapy. This would happen as they started to get close to the scary, painful, or uncomfortable conflicts residing in the unconscious. The only way to overcome resistance would be to process and discuss it in therapy so that it could be identified and then overcome.

4) Analyzing transference – Freud felt that it was normal for a client to “transfer” important relationships in his/her life onto the therapist, and when this started to happen it was the analyst’s job to recognize the transference and resist the urge to respond to it; rather, processing the transference would serve a positive therapeutic goal.

Point 2: Pros and Cons of Psychoanalytic Therapy

Benefits of these techniques

• might be helpful for people with anxiety, somatoform or dissociative disorders.

Drawbacks to these techniques

• clients have to be highly verbal and intelligent to actively participate in this kind of treatment.

• not useful with clients who have psychotic disorders or who are unable to communicate verbally.

Question 28

Relationships between individuals who come from varying racial and ethnic backgrounds are often full of conflict due to preconceived notions that are held about members of different groups. Provide a thorough discussion of the concepts of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. Please also discuss several ways in which these phenomena can be reduced, referring to relevant research in this area. Your answer should recognize the relevance of attitudes, attitude formation, and the process of attitude change.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Stereotypes

A stereotype is a set of characteristics that people believe is shared by all members of a particular social category. Stereotypes tend to be more negative than positive but in general are limiting and causing people to misjudge others.

Point 2: Prejudice

Prejudice is a negative attitude held by a person about the members of a particular social group. People learn prejudice through the social identity theory which says that a person learns and forms their identity through social categorization, social identity, and social organization.

Point 3: Discrimination

Discrimination is the tendency to treat people differently because of prejudice toward the social group or being. While stereotypes and prejudice refer to belief systems or attitudes, discrimination refers to a behavior or an action. Different types of prejudice and discrimination are results of a social comparison between the “in group” and the “out group.” The idea of the “in group” includes the people whom a particular person identifies with, while the “out group” is everyone else in society.

Point 4: Attitudes and Attitude Formation

Attitudes/Formation of Attitudes: An attitude is the tendency to respond positively or negatively to a person, object, or situation. Attitudes have three components - (a) affect (feelings about the particular subject), (b) behavior (the way the person acts or does not act), (b) and cognition (the thoughts or beliefs that center around the subject of the attitude.). Attitudes form for a variety of reasons such as direct contact with someone, direct instruction of someone (telling you to feel/do certain things), interactions with others, and observational (vicarious) learning. Persuasion can result from these interactions and the resources that the person experiences. In relation to stereotypes, the attitudes and misjudgments of others can quickly change due to the interactions with others and the thoughts/beliefs that are put in others’ head by the ones starting the “believed stereotype.” Also, with these ideas of prejudice and discrimination, a person is more likely to change or sway to a particular side of prejudice or discrimination based on the attitudes surrounding the person and his/her environment.

Point 5: Reducing Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

To reduce these attitudes and negative situations from occurring like prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination, a person can do several things. One is the use of an equal status contact, where different groups of different backgrounds and beliefs are placed in the same situation with no one holding any power over the other. This idea has shown to reduce prejudice and discrimination because it allows personal involvement with people from different groups. Another technique to avoid discrimination, prejudice, and stereotypes is the jigsaw classroom. This is a common educational technique where a person is only given part of the solution or information needed to solve the problem and must interact with others from different groups and backgrounds to solve the problem. By working together with other groups and people a person can learn and it reduces the prejudice and discrimination from occurring.

Question 29

Social influence is one of the keys to living amidst and amongst others. In fact, even those who live in relative isolation may be influenced, albeit in a more indirect manner, by others in society. Compare and contrast the phenomena of conformance, compliance, and obedience, and discuss the most relevant studies that have demonstrated each concept.

Scoring Guidelines

Point 1: Conformity

Conformity is when a person changes his/her views and behaviors to more closely match the actions of others. It can occur in response to either real or imagined social pressure; that is, one may only imagine an external pull to change their actions or believes even if such a pull does not truly exist. The most relevant study associated with conformity is that of Solomon Asch. Asch did an experiment with 7 participants all in one room. The experimenter than showed the participants white cards with 3 black lines of varying lengths and than a white card with one black line on it. The participants than had to figure out which line on the first card was most similar in length to the line on the second card. In reality, only the next to last participant was a true participant and the other six were confederates who were instructed to pick the same incorrect line. The results of this experiment showed that conformity often occurs in response to a variety of social cues. Asch’s work has been lauded for its relevance to a variety of different areas and students can often provide a variety of examples of how their own experiences relate directly to this research.

Point 2: Compliance

Compliance is when a person changes his or her behavior because other people are asking for the change. With compliance there are a few techniques and studies. The foot in the door technique where you start off with small request and work up to a bigger request. Each time a small request is asked the person complies. With the door in the face technique, the person begins by asking a huge request and then asks smaller requests to get what he or she really wanted. A third technique, lowballing, occurs when one makes an agreement on a particular “transaction,” only to change the rules of the agreement in his/her own favor at the end of the transaction. This is a technique of compliance because once a person has committed to a particular deal, it may be quite difficult for them to pull out of the deal even after rules or conditions have been altered. The main distinction between compliance and obedience is that compliance occurs in the lack of some external authority.

Point 3: Obedience

Obedience is changing the behavior at direct order of authority. The research study that displays obedience is Stanley Milgram’s Shock Study. Milgram did a study where he told participants they would test the effects of punishment on learned behavior. The participants were assigned a “teacher” role and the “learner” was a confederate. The “teacher” was given instructions to give a shock to the “learner” who was strapped ton a chair in the next room. The “learner” was asked to memorize words and for every wrong answer they were administered a higher shock value. As the “teachers” became hesitant to participate as the shocks grew higher the experimenter came out in a white lab coat and said that “they must continue and the experimenter takes full responsibility.” The participants continued to administer because of the idea that the man in the white lab coat told them to. This study exhibits the idea of obedience, though it has been widely criticized for being ethically ambiguous at best, and unethical at worst.

................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download