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ACT English

Comma Use 2

Comma Use Rules List 4

How to Proofread for Comma Mistakes 11

Pronoun Use 15

Pronoun Types List 16

Simple Pronoun Tips 20

Advanced Pronoun Tips 21

Fragments and Run-ons 29

Fragments and Run-Ons List 30

Hyphens and Dashes 33

Apostrophes 37

Apostrophe Rules List 38

Subject/Verb Agreement 44

Punctuation Cheat Sheet 49

Comma Use

Pre-Test 1

DIAGNOSTIC TESTING DIRECTIONS:

• Place commas where they should go, and delete commas that are unnecessary.

• Not all sentences contain mistakes.

1. An owl’s hooting in the distance sounded as lonely as I felt.

2. Creosote which is made from coal tar is one of the chemicals that may cause cancer.

3. The amusement rides that are the most exciting are often the most dangerous.

4. Call a doctor if an animal bite breaks the skin, for bites can become easily infected.

5. Adam get your book out.

6. The space program that landed the first men on the moon the Apollo program was on American Endeavor.

7. A town like Cottonwood which has a population of five thousand seems ideal to me.

8. He grabbed his dinner picked out some silverware and sat down to eat.

9. Ellen who is captain of the team is an honor student.

10. Every child registering for school for the first time must be vaccinated.

11. Although the student was very tall he was not a very good basketball player.

12. The father stood over his daughter’s bed his body tensed and ready to respond to any change in her condition.

13. Her mother, April, was on the committee.

14. I knew the twin towers had fallen because my brother called me.

15. Our only math teacher who also teaches gym will retire at the end of the year.

Comma Use Pre-Test Two

16. Mosquitoes bite more men than women and they seem to bite adults more often than they bite children.

17. The Black Castle which was built as a fortress in the sixteenth century is now famous as a tourist attraction.

18. No we shouldn’t do that.

19. I wanted to buy a hybrid car after I saved enough because it would save me money in the long run.

20. Players, who are late for practice, will be sent home.

21. The kids were studying very hard but of course they always study very hard.

22. Students, planning to go on the field trip, should bring their lunches.

23. It was her money not her charm or personality that first attracted him.

24. That tall distinguished-looking fellow is going to be our new coach.

25. Elizabeth only started the job last month, but she has already been promoted.

26. The Centennial Bridge, which connects Davenport and Rock Island, is lighted at night.

27. He began to eat but he stopped when he saw a hair in his food.

28. The team had to forfeit because it didn’t have enough players present.

29. The walkway was well very old and run-down.

30. When you try to enter the database you will have to enter your password.

My Score = /30

Comma Use Rules List

Comma (n.) indicates slight pauses in reading and differentiates sentence parts

1. Compound Sentence Commas

a. Use commas to separate two independent clauses joined with a coordinating conjunction.

• She wanted to buy a new car, but she didn’t have enough money.

• She began to save, and she eventually met her goal.

b. Do NOT add a comma if you do not have a new clause after a coordinating conjunction.

• He loved his science, and history classes. NO

• They wanted to travel the world, and try every cuisine that existed. NO

2. Introductory Element Commas

a. An introductory element is any word, phrase, or clause that begins a sentence and can be deleted while still leaving a complete sentence.

b. They usually act like adverbs, describing where, when, why, or how.

c. Introductory elements include adverbs, all types of phrases, and dependent clauses. They can never stand alone.

d. Remember: the words that follow the comma should be able to stand alone as a sentence.

• Fearlessly, Tina picked up the hissing cat.

• In the blink of an eye, the cat scratched her.

• Though the wound has been bandaged, Tina still has to worry about infection.

3. Series Commas

a. Use commas to separate three or more items in a series.

b. Be sure to include the final (“Oxford”) comma between the last two items. This way, your final two elements will not be read together.

c. Items might be words, phrases, or clauses.

• My mom wanted to serve fruit salad, macaroni, and cheese.

• We advertised the dinner in the newspaper, on the Internet, and on a local bulletin board.

• The people who saw the ad, who called us, and who showed up to the event were all very nice.

4. Nonessential Element Commas

a. If a word, phrase, or clause can be removed without losing the meaning of the sentence, it is called “nonessential.” Use commas around this “extra” information (you can cross it out).

b. Nonessential elements can be one word: interjections, appositives, and vocatives.

• The whale was very large, indeed, almost incalculably enormous.

• Her boyfriend, Tom, wanted to study whales as a marine biologist.

• I asked her, “Seriously, Eliza, do you really think that will be an easy field for him to get into?”

c. Nonessential elements can also be phrases (participial or absolute) or nonessential clauses.

• Tim, hoping to be the Homecoming King, has been trying to be more friendly to the underclassmen.

• The day nearly over, we had to tabulate the votes quickly.

• Elizabeth, who is the nicest girl in her class, will definitely win Homecoming Queen this year.

d. Exception: If you have a tiny little nonessential element right after a coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence, you don’t need to surround it with commas.

• The kids were studying very hard, but of course, they always study very hard. [I don’t need commas surrounding “of course”]

• The water wasn’t warm at first, but frankly, it never got warm anyway. [I don’t need commas surrounding “frankly”]

5. Commas with Quotations and Dialogue

a. Use a comma to set off direct quotations and dialogue.

i. “When the going gets tough,” according to my coach, “the tough get going!”

ii. The coach asked, “Do you call that your best effort?”

iii. I said, “No. I’ll try harder, coach.”

b. Be careful! If a quotation blends into your sentence, don’t use a comma. Also, if the line that introduces the quotation is a full sentence, use a colon.

i. We often say “sorry” when we don’t really mean it.

ii. This great quote about grammar is attributed to Joan Didion: “Grammar is a piano I play by ear. All I know about grammar is its power.”

6. Coordinate Adjective Commas

a. If you can put an “and” in between two (or more) adjectives that are modifying a noun (or if you can switch them around), place a comma between them.

i. He had a strong, unwavering commitment to the cause.

ii. He built the large, white, expensive house.

b. Be careful! Often, the adjectives do not pass those tests, so you cannot use a comma.

i. We liked to go visit the little old ladies.

ii. One of them owned an exquisite custom houseboat.

7. Contrast Commas

a. Use a comma to separate contrasted elements.

i. He was merely ignorant, not stupid.

ii. He wanted fire, not ice, at his party.

iii. You’re one of his best friends, aren’t you?

iv. She seemed neither embarrassed, nor upset.

Comma Practice 1

DIRECTIONS: Add commas where necessary. Write what rule(s) you are following in the box to the right.

|1 |Maria Rodriguez was born in Puerto Rico but she moved to Atlanta when she was ten.| |

|2 |Although Maria spoke only Spanish before the move she learned English quickly. | |

|3 |Many Latin American kids were in Maria’s new school so she felt comfortable. | |

|4 |Even though West Elementary was small it was well funded and well managed. | |

|5 |Mrs. Karr Mr. Rivera and Miss Johnson were Maria’s teachers. | |

|6 |Because Maria earned high grades the principal asked her parents about allowing | |

| |Maria to skip a grade. | |

|7 |Despite the fact that Mr. Rodrigues thought the idea was a good one his wife | |

| |convinced him that Maria was better off staying in class with her friends. | |

|8 |Maria’s mother was concerned about three things: Maria would have been anxious | |

| |about skipping a year she would still need to adjust to the area and she would | |

| |have been a year younger than most of her classmates. | |

|9 |Maria was happy and she proceeded to do even better the next year. | |

|10 |One class Maria found difficult however was physical education. | |

Comma Practice 2

DIRECTIONS: Add commas where necessary. Write what rule(s) you are following in the box to the right.

|1 |Maria who was small for her age found physical competition intimidating. | |

|2 |She thought she would undergo a growth spurt soon so she tried to be patient. | |

|3 |Math English and Science were her favorite classes and they passed by quickly. | |

|4 |On the other hand the hour-long gym class seemed to take forever. | |

|5 |“Everything” her mother said “will work out for the best.” | |

|6 |To be honest many children hate gym. | |

|7 |Maria thought the old smelly gym was a torture chamber. | |

|8 |Her friend Cheryl thought P.E. was okay but she hated math and she thought all her| |

| |classes were hard. | |

|9 |According to numerous people both Cheryl and Maria were decent athletes but Maria | |

| |outshone Cheryl in terms of her studies. | |

|10 |Maria thought that academics not athletics were the most important. | |

Comma Practice 3

DIRECTIONS: Add commas where necessary in the following sentences. Not all sentences contain errors.

1. No I don’t want to marry him.

2. Dieters should avoid eggs meat and tropical oils.

3. As it was Monday Ashley was expecting her best friend to call from overseas.

4. When prepping the ingredients you should always wear gloves.

5. Although the referee was a good one he did not make the right call.

6. Inside it was very warm and bright.

7. After the kiss Jessica felt like she was on top of the world.

8. Until next year we won’t know if we should continue on or not.

9. The animals were very excited and they looked like they might be able to get out!

10. Really the book wasn’t that good.

11. My teacher’s remark on my final essay was so awesome! She wrote “A pleasure to read. I know you are more than ready for next year!”

12. He made the little old ladies run laps.

13. I wanted the tall white expensive-looking house.

14. Usually the strongest animals are feared.

Comma Practice 4

15. It was a heavy bulky smelly box.

16. The chimpanzee seemed neither happy nor unhappy.

17. The water wasn’t very cold at first but frankly it’s never very cold at first.

18. Our program was growing rapidly and even though we bought a lot of uniforms we didn’t have enough for everyone.

19. Dang that was dumb.

20. Teddy Roosevelt the American president carried on with a speech after being shot!

21. The day nearly over we were all ready to sink into our soft warm beds.

22. My Aunt Felicity who lives in Dallas owns many beautiful pairs of designer shoes.

23. Sadly no one completed the task.

24. Players who are late to practice will be sent back to the locker room.

25. My friends knowing how much I like funny t-shirts gave me several for my birthday last month.

26. We are looking for high school students who are interested in a Saturday job.

27. The new library which is located in the center of campus is easy to find.

28. Some members of the audience thinking that the show was over left their seats.

29. People visiting the campgrounds will be banned from certain protected areas.

Comma Practice 5

1. “A group of pilots committed to preserving World War II combat planes has been in existence since the 1950s” states an Army Air Corp veteran.

2. Appropriately most of the original members of the group were fighter pilots during World War II.

3. After the war surplus military planes were sold to civilians.

4. In 1957 a group of veterans met in Mercedes Texas and the veterans decided to join together to buy a number of surplus military planes.

5. As time passed the group became more organized bought more planes and started to rescue planes that were scheduled for destruction.

6. Since the 1950s the organization has spread across the country and affiliated squadrons can be found all over America.

7. Over the last four decades the group has sponsored numerous air shows many of which have been well attended.

8. These air shows allow patriotic young people to admire the airplanes from bombers to fighters that won WWII.

9. The group founded the American Airpower Heritage Museum in 1989 to house aircraft used in World War II by the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Army.

10. The pilots of the organization have captured a slice of history for all of America to enjoy.

Comma Practice 6

1. Since attending a family reunion I have been thinking about cousins.

2. Few people can remember how second cousins third cousins and first cousins once removed are related.

3. I can remember that my first cousins are my mother’s sisters’ children.

4. I began to get confused when my mother’s cousin told me “I’d like you to meet my son Andre.”

5. I asked him if he knew what to call our relationship to each other.

6. He told me “The children of people who are first cousins are called second cousins.”

7. I asked him how I was related to his mother and his children.

8. “My mother is your first cousin once removed and my children are your second cousins once removed.”

9. Andre told me that when cousins are “removed” at least one generation separates them.

10. I really enjoyed meeting my second cousin Andre who knows a lot about cousins.

Comma Practice 7

1. In spite of occasional scandals the Olympic Games are still a high point of sports for many people.

2. Olympic moments to remember include the perfect scores earned by gymnast Nadia Comaneci the death-defying dives of Greg Louganis and the medal-winning long jumps of Carl Lewis.

3. Other moments in the history of the Games such as Hitler’s snubbing Jesse Owens the terrorist attacks in Munich and Atlanta and the U.S. hockey team trashing a hotel after losing a match are not as uplifting.

4. The quest for Olympic gold can bring out the best or the worst in an athlete.

5. The first modern Olympic Games took place in 1896 and were held in Greece the site of the ancient Olympics.

6. In spite of their ancient heritage the Olympic Games continue to adapt to the changing world of sports.

7. In the past decade several new sports have become a part of the Olympics including the trampoline and women’s soccer.

8. Snowboarding another new sport attracted controversy when a gold medalist tested positive for marijuana in 1998.

9. The snowboarder was allowed to keep his medal for he said that he had been exposed to second-hand smoke.

10. Cincinnati Ohio is one of the cities competing to host the next Olympic Games.

Comma Practice 8

1. Thousands of “snowballs” from outer space are hitting Earth’s atmosphere every day according to scientists at the recent meeting of the American Geophysical Union in Baltimore.

2. Over billions of years they reported this bombardment of cosmic slush has added vast amounts of water to Earth’s atmosphere and oceans.

3. These extraterrestrial snowballs made up of ice and cosmic dust may have played a key role in nurturing life on this planet and perhaps elsewhere in the solar system.

4. They are about forty feet in diameter the size of a small house.

5. These small comet-like objects unlike large comets are extremely hard to see because they break into fragments and then vaporize.

6. Astronomers and physicists however have speculated about the objects’ existence since 1986.

7. The physicist Dr. Louis A. Frank first theorized about the objects to explain the dark spots he observed in images on Earth’s sunlit atmosphere.

8. Dr. Frank noticed these spots or atmospheric holes while analyzing data from a NASA satellite launched in February 1996.

9. A second NASA satellite also launched in February 1996 produced more detailed images of these atmospheric holes.

10. Many scientists now believe that these snowballs are hitting Earth’s outer atmosphere at an incredible rate of five to thirty a minute or up to 43,000 a day.

How to Proofread for Comma Mistakes

1. Look for coordinating conjunctions (F.A.N.B.O.Y.S.). Check to see whether there is an independent clause on either side of the conjunction.

o If yes, then make sure a comma is there.

▪ The wind blew, and the rain poured down.

▪ (This is a compound sentence! These always need a comma!)

o If no, then make sure you DON’T have a comma there.

▪ They bought two pizzas but ate only one.

2. Make sure you do not have a comma in between the subject and the verb of any sentences.

o NO: The train coming down the track, is going to be late.

o NO: Thousands of miles of open highway, will be deserted by early evening.

3. Look at all of the commas you have used, and make sure you never have an independent clause on both sides of the comma. This is called a comma splice.

o NO: Americans speak too rapidly, this is a common complaint made by foreign visitors.

o NO: She wanted to buy a new car, she didn’t have enough money to do so.

4. Look for complex sentences! If a sentence starts with a dependent clause, make sure there is a comma after that dependent clause!

o NO: After work went so well Bill was not prepared for a disaster at home.

▪ “After work went so well” is a dependent clause! Insert a comma.

5. Look for introductory elements! Focus on the following units, and check to see whether they can be erased from the sentence without the sentence losing meaning. If so, add a comma!

o gerunds (-ing)

▪ Driving to work, Jim stopped for coffee at Starbucks.

o infinitives (to + verb)

▪ To get a good grade, you must do all of the readings.

o prepositional phrases (prepositions: like in, at, on, between, under, etc.)

▪ Across the street from the library, an old man waited for the bus.

o introductory words (such as well, yes, moreover, etc.)

▪ Yes, I agree that the exam was quite difficult.

6. Look for nonessential elements. Search for words, phrases, and clauses that could be deleted.

o Another trick is to say “by the way….” before the words you’re considering. If that seems appropriate, then it’s probably nonessential!

o Nonessential elements often begin with which or who.

▪ Students who cheat only harm themselves.

▪ Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.

Comma Proofreading 1

As soon as I get home from school I dash into my room and change clothes. My mom a homemaker insists that I must always change clothes before I do anything else. Immediately after that I run outside and get my bike. I hop on the bike a Huffy ten-speed and race off to Jimmy’s house.

After talking for a few minutes we ride over to the basketball court. There are always several other guys there. I usually look for my friends Thomas Alan and Jimmy. As soon as we warm up we begin a game of basketball.

While we play we laugh talk and joke the whole time. Jimmy thinks he is a pretty good basketball player so he always tries to show off by shooting three-pointers. One day last week he was showing off when suddenly he tripped. When you play basketball as much as we do no one expects anyone to make silly mistakes.

On this day however Jimmy made a pretty big mistake. Without thinking he ran out onto the court with his shoe untied. Just after we began playing someone maybe Thomas stepped on the loose shoestring.

Jimmy came up short immediately falling flat on his face. The expression he wore as he fell down was so funny. As soon as we knew that he was not hurt we could not help but laugh at him.

Jimmy is a good sport though and after he got up he forgave us for stepping on his shoe string and for laughing. There is never a dull moment when we get together after school.

Comma Proofreading 2

The following is an excerpt modified from “A Clean Well-Lighted Place” by Ernest Hemingway.

It was very late and everyone had left the café except an old man who sat in the shadow the leaves of the tree made against the electric light. In the daytime the street was dusty but at night the dew settled the dust and the old man liked to sit late because he was deaf and now at night it was quiet and he felt the difference. The two waiters inside the café knew that the old man was a little drunk and while he was a good client they knew that if he became too drunk he would leave without paying so they kept watch on him.

Comma Proofreading 3

The following excerpt is modified from Ernest Hemingway’s In Another Country.

In the fall the war was always there but we did not go to it any more. It was cold in the fall and the dark came very early. The electric lights would come on and while I looked in the windows I felt almost pleasant. Looking around I saw game hanging outside the shops snow powdered in the fur of the foxes and wind blowing the hems of the women’s skirts. The deer hung stiff and heavy and empty and small birds blew in the wind and the wind turned their feathers. It was a cold fall and the wind came singing down from the mountains.

We were all at the hospital every chill fall afternoon and there were different ways of walking across the town through the dusk to the hospital. Two of the ways were alongside canals but they were long. Sometimes I walked one way and sometimes I walked the other although they were much the same. Always though I crossed a bridge across a canal to enter the hospital. There was a choice of three bridges. On one of them a woman sold roasted chestnuts that were warm black and still steaming. It was warm standing in front of her charcoal fire which cackled and glowed in the evening darkness and the chestnuts were warm afterward in your pocket. The hospital was very old and very beautiful. One entered through a gate walked across a courtyard and passed through a gate on the other side. Yes there were usually funerals starting from the courtyard. Beyond the old hospital were the new brick pavilions and there we met every afternoon and were all very polite and interested in what was the matter and we sat in the dark in the machines that were to make so much difference.

Comma Proofreading 4

The following excerpt is modified from Gertrude Stein’s The Making of Americans. Stein was an American Modernist writer who did not follow the typical conventions of 19th century literature. Often, she played with punctuation, especially the comma, which she often omitted.

It happens very often that a man a good man has it in him. A man does something and he does it very often when he is a young man when he is an old man even when he is an older man.

One such man had a little boy and this one the little son wanted to make a collection of butterflies beetles and snails and it was all exciting to him and it was all arranged. The father said to the son “You are certain this is not a cruel thing that you are wanting to be doing killing things to make collections of them?” After he said this the son was very disturbed indeed very disturbed and they talked about it together the two of them. More and more they talked about it and then at last the boy was convinced it was a cruel thing so he said “I will not do it.” Then his father said the little boy was a noble boy a very good boy to give up pleasure when it was a cruel one.

The boy went to bed then and when the father got up in the early morning he saw a wonderfully beautiful moth in the room and he caught him and he killed him and he pinned him. He woke up his son and showed the moth to him and he said to him “See what a good father I am to have caught and killed this one?” Now the boy was all mixed up inside him. Finally he said he would go on with his collecting and that was all there was for the time being of discussing the matter.

Comma Proofreading 5

The following excerpt is modified from Gertrude Stein’s Lectures in America. Here, Stein is making a statement by bending the rules of punctuation while specifically discussing that punctuation.

And what does a comma do? A comma does nothing but make easy a thing that if you like it enough is easy enough without the comma. A long complicated sentence should force itself upon you make you know yourself knowing it and the comma well at the most a comma is a poor period that lets you stop and take a breath but if you want to take a breath you ought to know yourself that you want to take a breath. It is not like stopping altogether which has something to do with going on but taking a breath well you are always taking a breath and why emphasize one breath rather than another breath? Anyway that is the way I felt about it and I felt that about it very very strongly. So I almost never used a comma. The longer the more complicated the sentence the greater the number of the same kinds of words I had following one after another. The more the very more I had of them the more I felt the passionate need of their taking care of themselves by themselves and not helping them and thereby enfeebling them by putting in a comma. So that is the way I felt about punctuation in prose. In poetry it is a little different but more so.

Pronoun Use

Pre-Test

DIRECTIONS: Circle all the pronouns. Score: /30

1. I have always loved to read suspenseful stories.

2. My main pleasure in reading mysteries is the effect they have on my imagination.

3. What different lives I live in each of them!

4. Sometimes an author chooses to set a story in the English country side.

5. I imagine I am disguised as a guest.

6. My days are leisurely; servants attend to all of my needs.

7. None of my companions, also guests, know that I am stalking the one of them who is a thief.

8. At other times, a mystery writer will place me in an espionage ring.

9. Then, everything is sinister; no one can be trusted; anything can happen.

10. Every move counts in a spy story.

11. Any of us could be a killer, and I certainly don’t want to be the one who ends up dead!

12. Of course, the setting never alters the outcome. I always catch the thief, outwit the spies, and live on to enjoy my next mystery story.

Pronoun Types List

Pronouns are a words used in place of a noun (or more than one noun).

An antecedent is the noun the pronoun stands for. By itself, a pronoun conveys no clear meaning. For example, “She” is unclear unless I know who “she” refers to. The meaning of a pronoun becomes clear and specific only when you know the “antecedent” – the noun the pronoun stands for.

Q: What are Personal Pronouns?

A: Personal pronouns are pronouns that tell us who (person – first, second, and third), how many (number – singular and plural), what gender (male, female, or neutral) and what role (case – subject, object, or possessive).

*Note: If you are asked “What case is this pronoun in?” That’s asking whether it is a subject, object, or a possessive pronoun.

|Singular |Subjective (Nominative) |Objective |Possessive |

|First Person |I |me |mine/my |

|Second Person |you |you |yours/your |

|Third Person |he/she/it |him/her/it |his/hers/its |

|Plural |Subjective (Nominative) |Objective |Possessive |

|First Person |we |us |ours |

|Second Person |you |you |yours |

|Third Person |they |them |theirs |

Q: What are Demonstrative Pronouns?

A: Demonstrative pronouns…

o Point out or indicate specific things/persons near and far.

o They need a clear antecedent. (They stand in place of a known noun)

▪ Ex: This, that, these, and those

• This is the one I was looking for.

• Should I take those home?

Q: What are Indefinite Pronouns?

A: Indefinite Pronouns…

o Point out or indicate an identifiable but non-specific person or thing.

o They don’t have an antecedent.

▪ Singular: anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, something

▪ Plural: both, few, many, several

▪ Singular or Plural: all, any, most, none, some

• Somebody has to know the answer.

• We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars. (Oscar Wilde)

• I have nothing to say.

Q: What are Relative Pronouns?

A: Relative Pronouns…

o Are used to add more information to a sentence. They connect clauses to words they modify. They stand in place of a known noun, helping one say more about the antecedent, which has just been mentioned in the sentence.

▪ Ex: Which, that, who/whom/whose, where, [whichever, whoever, whomever – indefinite relative pronouns]

• Mr. Hansen, who taught for many years, probably would know about this method.

• The man who first saw the machine was horrified.

• This is the house that Jack built.

Q: What are Interrogative Pronouns?

A: Interrogative Pronouns…

o Are used in questions. They let us know a question is coming. They stand in for a noun, although the noun may not be known (since we’re asking a question).

▪ Ex: Who, which, what, where, whose, and how

• Who told you to call this number?

• How did you do that?

Q: What are Reflexive Pronouns?

A: Reflexive Pronouns…

o End in self/selves and refer back to another noun or pronoun in the sentence. Act as intensifiers.

▪ Ex: myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.

• He does all the laundry himself.

• We were pretty sure we could handle it ourselves.

Pronoun Types: Practice 1

➢ Circle each pronoun. Score: /37

|Ex: John took his brother and mine to the store so they could buy candy for themselves. |

|I felt terrible when I went to work last Friday. |

|My back ached and my head hurt so much that I told myself I was crazy for going to work. |

|Several guys were waiting near the time clock for the bell to ring. |

|They had already punched their time cards. |

|For them, this was just another normal day. |

|When I reached my department, my supervisor asked me which project I would prefer to start with. |

|She was so pleasant that I couldn’t tell her that I didn’t want to work on any of them. |

|One of my fellow workers offered to get the job set up for me. |

|I said to her, “Thanks, but I would rather do it myself.” |

|At the end of the morning, Sherry said to us all, “Who is going out for lunch?” |

|Somebody else asked, “Which restaurant are you going to?” |

|Sherry ignored the question and said, “Whoever is going with me better be ready to go right away.” |

Pronoun Types: Practice 2

➢ Circle each pronoun. . Score: /26

|Do you remember how you found out there was no Santa Claus? |

|My memory of the scene is as clear as if it happened yesterday. |

|Our holiday tradition included a visit from Santa himself, who joined the family in the living room shortly after |

|midnight. |

|My sister and I were always cautioned not to leave the living room or even peek out to get an advance view. |

|Santa would be displeased if he met us in the hall or in another of the rooms in the apartment. |

|On the night of my discovery, I risked a little snooping. |

|As I stole back to my sisters in the living room, whom did I see in the kitchen but Uncle Joe, adjusting a Santa beard. |

|No one seemed to notice me. |

|A little while later, Santa rushed into the living room, where everyone waited expectantly. |

|Santa greeted each by name, distributed gifts to all, and gave me a knowing wink and a big hug. |

Pronoun Types: Practice 3

➢ Add an appropriate pronoun; then write what type of pronoun you used.

| |Pronoun |Type |

|The only thing we have to fear is fear _________. | | |

|________ of Brad Pitt’s movies do you like best? | | |

|Sam cut _______ while shaving. | | |

|Is ___________ Dr. Otto’s office? | | |

|Julia completed her report, ________ was about animal | | |

|rights, in about a week. | | |

|Samantha and Kevin asked me to go with ______ to a party.| | |

|All applicants for the job must provide ______ own | | |

|transportation. | | |

|I really like those deviled eggs. May I have ______? | | |

|________ will volunteer to head the committee? | | |

|Students ______ wish to participate in sports need to | | |

|submit a physical. | | |

Simple Pronoun Tips

Tip #1

Pronouns that end in “one” or “body” are always singular.

So are each, either, and neither (even though they seem to be referring to two things).

Memory trick: Each soul has one body.

Tip #2

“Who” is the SUBJECT case; “Whom” is the OBJECT case.

• Who ate the pie? (He/she (subject) ate it)

• She gave the pie to whom? (She gave the pie to him (object))

• This is the man to whom I wanted to speak. (I wanted to speak to him (object))

• Emma was the student who wanted to speak today. (She (subject) wanted to speak)

Memory trick: “whom” and “him” both end in “m.” If “him” works in the sentence, use whom.

Tip #3

“Who” refers to a single person.

“That” refers to things AND groups of people.

• Yes: Alice is the one who rescued the seals.

• Yes: My friend is on the team that won first place.

• NO: Ella is the one that started the Ecology Club.

Tip #4

“That” vs. “Which”

“That” introduces essential information (“restrictive clauses”).

“Which” introduces nonessential clauses (“non-restrictive clauses”).

Essential means that the information cannot be taken out of the sentence.

• The telephone pole that is bent is the one I ran into.

• I do not trust products that claim “all natural ingredients.”

• Cars that have hybrid technology get great gas mileage.

Nonessential means it gives you extra information (which could be taken out) about the word(s) it modifies.

• I hit the telephone pole on 53rd street, which is near my home.

• The product claiming “all natural ingredients,” which appeared in the Sunday newspaper, is on sale.

• There was an earthquake in Asia, which is very sad news.

Hint: If the extra information has commas around it, it is nonessential, so use “which.”

Advanced Pronoun Tips

Problem: Vague Pronouns

The antecedent should not be completely missing, and it shouldn’t be possible for the pronoun to refer to more than one possible antecedent!

|Problem one: Missing antecedent |Problem Two: Ambiguity |

|A pronoun that leaves one asking “who/whom?” is a problem. |A pronoun that could refer to more than one noun is a problem. |

|NO: They say that an untreated cough can have a detrimental effect on |NO: Jessica met with Sarah after she had lunch. After which person had|

|lung function. Who says that? |lunch? |

|YES: Doctors say… |YES: Jessica met with Sarah after Jessica had lunch. --or-- After |

| |having lunch, Jessica met with Sarah. |

Problem: Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

Pronouns must always match in “number” and “person” w/ their antecedent.

|Number problems: |Person problems: |

|NO: If a student wants to get a good grade, they have to learn to keep up with the homework. (a student|NO: My dad was upset when he lost his |

|is third person singular, but they is third person plural) |job. He was mostly upset because it is|

|NO: A big company’s store-house burnt down, and all their files burned. (company is singular, but their|hard when you put in so much effort |

|is plural) |for nothing. |

|NO: One should go places where they feel comfortable. (one is singular, but they is plural) |Don’t switch between 1st, 2nd, and 3rd|

|NO: When everyone gets along, they will be happier. (everyone is singular, but they is plural) |person. Be consistent. |

Problem: Using object pronouns after “to be” verbs

Use subject pronouns after “to be” verbs. If you have a linking verb, it can only connect matching grammatical units. It cannot connect a subject pronoun to an object pronoun. It doesn’t match. To solve the problem in your head, finish the sentence. Who did it? THEY did it (not “them did it”). Who’s there? I am here (not “me is here”).

|NO: Who did this? Well, I feel like it could have been them. |NO: Is this Mrs. Lamp? Yes, this is her. |

|YES: I think it could have been they. |YES: Yes, this is she. |

|Who = subject ; them = object ; they = subject |This = subject ; her = object ; she = subject |

|NO: Who’s there? Don’t worry; it’s just me! |

|YES: It is just I! |

|Who = subject ; me = object ; I = subject |

Problem: Using the wrong pronoun case (subject or object) in comparisons.

Look out for the words THAN and AS. When you see them, always mentally complete the sentence to decide.

|I am as smart as he/him. |Taylor is taller than I/me. |

|Choose “he” – I am as smart as he is. |Choose “I” – Taylor is taller than I am. |

|He did better than we/us. |Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me. |

|Choose “we” – He did better than we did. |There are two choices here. Do you mean he would rather talk to her? |

| |Or, do you mean he would rather talk to her than I would? Choose |

| |accordingly. |

Problem: Using apostrophes with possessive PERSONAL pronouns.

• Usually, we add an apostrophe to make a word possessive.

• Indefinite pronouns do need an apostrophe to be possessive, like in “One must do one’s own homework.”

• However, possessive personal pronouns never need apostrophes! They have their own forms.

• Mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, and theirs are all possessive, yet none of these words need an apostrophe!

• Remember, IT’S = it is. ITS = possessive third person pronoun.

Pronouns and Antecedents #1

We need to understand what antecedents are so that we don’t make mistakes with our pronoun/antecedent agreement.

• The “antecedent” is the noun that the pronoun stands for.

• For example, if I say, “All students must return to their seats,” their is the pronoun, and students is the antecedent.

A singular antecedent needs to go with a singular pronoun, while a plural antecedent must go with a plural pronoun.

• NO: A student (singular) must see their (plural) counselor before the end of the semester.

• YES: Students (plural) must see their (plural) counselor before the end of the semester.

• YES: A student (singular) must see his or her (singular) counselor before the end of the semester.

DIRECTIONS: Underline the pronoun(s); then circle the antecedent(s).

1. Laura passed the ball to Ann, who caught it easily.

2. Oliver called his sister, but she didn’t answer the phone.

3. When asked about the game, Mike said, “I didn’t see it.”

4. Since Gabe found the money, it belongs to him unless claimed.

5. The children like the new bus driver who drives in the mornings.

6. Although Elliott studied French in school, he didn’t feel comfortable speaking it.

7. Denise brought sandwiches with her on the hike and carried them with her.

8. “You,” Jerry said to Darlene, “definitely surprised me!”

9. Because Sheila liked romantic comedies, she tried to rent them often.

10. Peggy enjoyed volleyball so much that she played it every day.

Pronouns and Antecedents #2

Find the Pronouns and their Antecedents. The antecedent may be stated in an earlier sentence.

| |Pronoun(s) |Antecedent(s) |

|Edith Cavell was a British nurse who served in Belgium during| | |

|World War I. | | |

|In 1907, Dr. Antoine Depage had asked Miss Cavell to come to | | |

|Brussels. He wanted the hospital she ran to be modernized in | | |

|accordance with the principles of Florence Nightingale. | | |

| | | |

|With the outbreak of the war in 1914, it became a Red Cross | | |

|hospital. | | |

|The Germans marched into Belgium, despite it being a neutral | | |

|country. | | |

|While the hospital was filled with many casualties of the | | |

|war, Edith Cavell joined an underground group that gave aid | | |

|to Belgians of military age and to escaped Allied prisoners. | | |

| | | |

|The Germans discovered the group, and in 1915, they arrested | | |

|Edith Cavell and thirty-four other members. | | |

| | | |

|Edith Cavell, because of her religious convictions, refused | | |

|to lie, even in order to protect herself. | | |

| | | |

|She was sentenced to death and executed by a firing squad on | | |

|October 12, 1915. | | |

| | | |

| | | |

Note: You should be able to see from this exercise how pronouns help writers avoid repeating the same noun(s) over and over again, as has been done here by replacing “Edith Cavell” with various pronouns.

Pronoun Problems: Practice 1

DIRECTIONS:

➢ Draw a line through the error(s), and add a correction above.

➢ Look for vague pronouns and pronouns that don’t agree with their antecedents.

1. I have a good job, and I have always treated people well. I should think it would be enough to satisfy my father, but I guess not.

2. We’ve never been super close, but I’ve always loved him. However, he has become more and more judgmental and distant as he’s aged. This is one reason I have avoided his place lately.

3. Anyone that knows my father recognized the change that came over him, and it wasn’t hard to figure out why they happened.

4. My father owned a little bookstore that had been owned and operated by his family for three generations, but then a new Barnes and Noble opened up down the street. Last year, it closed its doors due to lack of business.

5. The store lost almost all of their customers in a matter of a few months. Even the most loyal of patrons started to go to the bigger store. However, my father’s old customers still said he or she preferred the atmosphere and friendliness of his small, local store more.

6. That didn’t really change how terrible my father felt though. What does it matter when your life’s work has been erased? As the months slid by, he went from being overly snappy to withdrawing completely. A few months after it closed, I brought my boyfriend over to meet my father, and he acted like he didn’t even realize he was there.

Pronoun Problems: Practice 2

DIRECTIONS: Choose the correct word and circle it.

1. Each of us like/likes horror movies, but I think I like them the most.

2. Neither of our parents approve/approves of the genre, but we have tried to get them to try the Halloween franchise, with Michael Myers.

3. Who/whom was Michael Myers?

4. Who/whom did he frighten from 1978 onward? He frightened teen movie-goers and horror fans, of course.

5. Michael was a well-known movie character twenty years ago, especially among young people who/that liked a good slasher flick.

6. If you can’t tell me who/whom Michael killed first, you’re either too young, or you don’t like scary movies.

7. The Halloween movies were some of the first to have a main character who/whom was utterly un-redeemable.

8. The movie creators were the ones who/that wanted him to be “pure evil.”

9. This seemed like a good formula though. Whoever/whomever they drew in with their blockbuster franchise was hooked for life.

7.

Common Pronoun Problems: Practice 3

Part One

← Circle “who” or “whom.”

1. Mrs. James, who/whom I work for, owns a pet shop.

2. Is there anyone here who/whom needs a bus pass?

3. She is the only one who/whom everybody trusts.

4. Her grandmother, to who/whom she sent flowers, won the over-fifty race!

5. I helped Mr. Smith, who/whom was shingling his roof.

6. Tiffany couldn’t guess who/whom had done it.

7. It was John Adams who/whom founded the American Society of Arts and Letters.

8. Both of the women who/whom ran for election won.

9. That author who/whom you admire is scheduled to visit our town today.

10. Picasso, who/whom we are studying, is very well known.

Part Two

← Choose “that,” “which,” or “who.”

|Here is the woman ___ wants to help you. | |

|Over there is the coat of arms ___ we drew. | |

|The children ___ love running want to play tag. | |

|The nail polish, ___ you can find in the first aisle, is on sale. | |

|She has the kind of attitude ___ works well for this job. | |

|Thomas wanted to find a raincoat ___ would last him at least three years. | |

|Those kids are people ___ always try their best. | |

|I made a miscalculation, ___ almost cost me my life. | |

|My mother was a woman ___ liked to clip coupons. | |

|People ___ like to argue should learn when and where it is appropriate. | |

Part Three

← Choose “that,” “which,” or “who.”

1. Books have been discovered _______ address the horrors of the Salem witch trials.

2. That book, ________ was discovered in the basement of the library, will be published next year.

3. A person ________ lives in s glass house shouldn't throw stones.

4. She prefers to watch movies ______ make her cry.

5. In the crowd was a recruit _______ was regarded as an excellent prospect for next year's team.

6. The police were able to find no evidence against her, _____ surprised no one who knows her well.

7. Tashonda Smith’s only child, ______ recently moved to Canada, came home for her twentieth birthday.

8. Predictably, the students _____ did best were not the ones who stayed up all night studying.

9. She wanted to buy a scarf _______ would complement her blue eyes.

10. The state law to ban logging ancient redwoods, __________ began at the grassroots level, has gained the attention of lawmakers at the national level.

Common Pronoun Problems: Practice 4

DIRECTIONS: Choose either the subject or object pronoun.

1. Diane and I/me painted the room together.

2. Everyone applauded the winning team, Mark and she/her.

3. Tom, like you and I/me, enjoys tennis.

4. At the top of the hill stood Tamara and he/him.

5. Ellen was worried about the project, but Mrs. Anderson gave she/her an A.

6. We went with two guides, Steven and he/him.

7. Eliza was as excited as they/them about their vacation.

8. Can you give Theresa and I/me directions to Brady Street?

9. Darius wrote this song for you and I/me.

10. Carol has been working on this longer than he/him.

Pronoun Types Review #1

DIRECTIONS: Underline the pronoun(s). Then write what type of pronoun each is.

1. Why did she miss the soccer banquet?

2. The record album was signed by Garth Brooks himself.

3. That is a beautiful house!

4. For Henry's birthday, which is next Tuesday, Sarah will bake a cake.

5. Someone on the faculty wrote the school song.

6. Ms. Charlotte reminded herself to order tickets as soon as possible.

7. Most of Tina's neighbors were extremely friendly.

8. Whom did David invite to the dance?

9. Sean washed and dried the dishes and stacked them in the cabinet.

10. The sailors spotted a squid that was thirty feet long.

Pronoun Types Review #2

➢ Circle the choices that are wrong. Sometimes, more than one choice is wrong!

1. We saw them as they left the parking lot.

A. We is a personal pronoun.

B. Them is a personal pronoun.

C. As is a personal pronoun.

D. They is a personal pronoun.

2. Mario is the person who said he did not say that.

A. Who is a personal pronoun.

B. He is a personal pronoun.

C. That is an relative pronoun.

D. Person is a personal pronoun.

3. That is not what I want, so take it back.

A. I is a personal pronoun.

B. That is a personal pronoun.

C. It is an relative pronoun.

D. Back is not a pronoun of any sort.

4. Narjitt said she does not like the color of her sweater.

A. She is a personal pronoun.

B. Narjitt is a personal pronoun.

C. Narjitt is the antecedent of she.

D. Her is a possessive pronoun.

5. Meaghan, you should go with whoever asks first.

A. You is a personal pronoun.

B. You is the antecedent of Meaghan.

C. Whoever is a personal pronoun.

D. Meaghan is the antecedent of you.

6. The girl whom Joe asked refused to go with him.

A. Whom is a personal pronoun.

B. Girl is a the antecedent of whom.

C. Him is the antecedent of Joe.

D. Joe is the antecedent of him.

7. The man who asked me is no longer here.

A. Who is a personal pronoun.

B. Man is the antecedent of who.

C. Me is the antecedent of who.

D. Me is a personal pronoun.

8. Malcolm invited us to visit his parents at their cabin.

A. Us is a possessive pronoun.

B. Us is a personal pronoun.

C. His is a possessive pronoun.

D. Their is a possessive pronoun.

9. I finished my job, so I can help you with yours.

A. You is a possessive pronoun.

B. You is a personal pronoun.

C. My is a possessive pronoun.

D. Yours is a possessive pronoun.

10. He said we must finish our job and help him with his.

A. Our is a possessive pronoun.

B. He is a personal pronoun.

C. His is an reflexive pronoun.

D. His is a possessive pronoun.

Fragments and Run-ons

Pre-Test

➢ Write sentence, fragment, or run-on.

1. Which was built in 1950.

2. Needed the materials for the science project.

3. Bertha gave me a computer game for my birthday last week.

4. Talking on the phone for a couple of hours last night, I forgot to do my

homework.

5. When we adopted the cutest puppy at the animal shelter.

6. The little boy's toy car was yellow, his sister had a red and white toy truck.

7. Carlos is the team captain on the football team, and he plays defensive tackle.

8. Lifting the heavy boxes, I hurt my back.

9. After I dribbled the ball down the court.

10. She won the spelling contest, she will go to the regional level next month.

Fragments and Run-Ons List

A SENTENCE FRAGMENT fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by itself. It does not contain even one independent clause.

Types of Fragments:

A) Locates something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a series of such phrases, but lacks a proper subject-verb set up.

a. Ex: In Japan, during the last war and just before the armistice.

B) Describes something, but there is no subject/verb set up.

a. Ex: Working far into the night in an effort to salvage her little boat.

b. Note: This is a verbal phrase that wants to modify something, the real subject of the sentence (about to come up), probably the she who was working so hard.

C) Looks like a sentence but is missing an important part of a verb string.

a. Ex: Some of the students working in Professor Espinoza's laboratory last semester.

b. Note: An -ing verb form without a helping verb to accompany it can never be a verb on its own.

D) Has a subject-verb relationship, but has been subordinated to another idea by a subordinating conjunction and so cannot stand by itself.

a. Ex: Even though he had the better arguments and was by far the more powerful speaker.

b. Note: This sentence fragment has a subject, he, and two verbs, had and was, but it cannot stand by itself because of the subordinating conjunction, even though. We need an independent clause to follow up this dependent clause.

A RUN-ON SENTENCE has at least two parts, either one of which can stand by itself (in other words, two independent clauses), but the two parts have been smooshed together improperly instead of being properly connected with the right words/punctuation.

You can fix them by adding a period, a semicolon, or a comma with a conjunction.

It is important to realize that the length of a sentence has nothing to do with whether a sentence is a run-on or not; you can have a 300-word sentence without it being a run-on, and being a run-on is a structural flaw that can plague even a very short sentence. “The sun is high, put on some sunblock” IS A RUN ON!

Types of Run-Ons:

A) Comma splice: when two independent clauses are connected by only a comma. The example just above (about the sunscreen) is a comma-splice. When you use a comma to connect two independent clauses, it must be accompanied by a little conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so).

a. Ex: This next chapter has a lot of difficult information in it, you should start studying right away.

b. Mr. Nguyen has sent his four children to ivy-league colleges, however, he has sacrificed his health working day and night in that dusty bakery.

c. This computer doesn't make sense to me, it came without a manual.

d. Most of those computers in the Learning Assistance Center are broken already, this proves my point about American computer manufacturers.

Practice with Fragments and Run-Ons

1.  Although he had been an often decorated soldier during World War II and had fought many battles for the losing cause of liberalism in Congress.

[pic]A. There is nothing wrong with the structure of this sentence.

[pic]B. Run-on: put a comma after World War II.

[pic]C. Run-on: put a semicolon after World War II.

[pic]D. Fragment: put a comma after Congress and finish the sentence.

2.  This is going to be the most difficult exam of your college career, you had better start studying for it immediately.

[pic]A. There is nothing wrong with the structure of this sentence.

[pic]B. Fragment: put a comma after immediately and finish the sentence.

[pic]C. Run-on: replace that comma with a semicolon.

3.  Knowing better than anyone else how the state legislature had ignored the needs of the community college system and created a crisis characterized by an uneducated workforce that had no place to go for proper training and realizing that someone had to do something about the situation or the state would begin to lose jobs to states in the American south that were more aggressive in providing and publicizing excellence in education, Representative Fuentes began to lay plans for an education bill that took into consideration the needs of the state's community colleges and the students who attended them.

[pic]A. There is nothing wrong with the structure of this sentence.

[pic]B. This sentence is too long; it must be a run-on.

[pic]C. Even though this sentence is very long, it is actually a fragment.

4.  Coach Espinoza really wants this job with Notre Dame University, she is very excited about returning to the college she graduated from.

[pic]A. There is nothing wrong with the structure of this sentence.

[pic]B. Fragment: put a comma after from and finish the sentence.

[pic]C. Run-on: change that comma to a period and start a new sentence.

5.  Right after the Christmas holidays and during those three weeks before class begins in January.

[pic]A. There is nothing wrong with the structure of this sentence.

[pic]B. Fragment: put a comma after January and finish the sentence.

[pic]C. Run-on: put a comma after holidays.

6.  She ran.

[pic]A. There is nothing wrong with the structure of this sentence.

[pic]B. Fragment: the sentence is too short and needs more details to be a complete thought.

7.  Perplexed by the rising rates of inflation and alarmed by the decline in major construction projects.

[pic]A. There is nothing wrong with the structure of this sentence.

[pic]B. Run-on: put a comma after inflation.

[pic]C. Fragment: put a comma after projects and finish the sentence.

8.  Anabel realizes what she is doing, I think, but she doing it anyway.

[pic]A. There is nothing wrong with the structure of this sentence.

[pic]B. Fragment: we're missing part of a verb.

[pic]C. Run-on: change the comma after doing to a semicolon.

9.  Professor Pepin spends a lot of time translating medieval texts on ancient medicine, however, he also stays informed about the latest developments in modern asthma treatments.

[pic]A. There is nothing wrong with the structure of this sentence.

[pic]B. Fragment: although this is a long sentence, it's missing part of a verb.

[pic]C. Run-on: remove the verb from the second independent clause.

[pic]D. Run-on: change the comma after medicine to a semicolon.

10.  If we're ever going to get out of here in time, we're going to have to re-write all these papers, set up the desks, and clean the chalkboards; stack those books in the corner and clean up the mess around the wastebasket; notify security about the broken window, the thermostat that Raoul messed up, and the desk that was stolen before we even got here.

[pic]A. There is nothing wrong with the structure of this sentence.

[pic]B. Run-on: the sentence should be broken into three smaller sentences.

[pic]C. Fragment: although the sentence is very long, it's missing a verb string.

[pic]D. Run-on: change those two semicolons to commas.

Hyphens and Dashes

Hyphen Rules

1. Hyphens are used to connect two or more words (and numbers) into a single concept.

• Italian-American communities are vibrant and interesting.

• Tina’s money-saving measures have helped her save 1,000 dollars.

• Mom stopped buying two-liter bottles and started buying half-liter bottles, instead.

2. We use hyphens in the numbers (which are adjectives) 21 through 99.

• Before the big test, Thomas studied for twenty-two hours over seven days.

• I want ninety-nine red balloons.

3. Hyphens are mostly used to combine compound adjectives. Compound adjectives modify a word TOGETHER. They aren’t each modifying the word separately. If you can’t use the word “and” between the words, and you can’t pause for a few beats between the words, you’re seeing compound adjectives.

• It was an ill-fated plan.

• She didn’t want a run-of-the-mill pony; she wanted an appaloosa.

4. Hyphens can also connect parts of compound nouns.

• Will you be a go-between for Sandy and me? We aren’t speaking.

• This documentary about whales in captivity is a real eye-opener!

5. Dictionary rule:

• To check whether a compound noun is two words, one word, or hyphenated, you sometimes need to look it up in the dictionary.

• If you can't find the word in the dictionary, treat the noun as separate words.

• For example, these “eye” words are all supposed to be treated differently; the only way to know what to do is to look them up: eyewitness, eye shadow, eye-opener.

6. A Trick:

If you are confused about a phrase that has a few different forms, you can figure out what to do based on what part of speech the phrase is performing!

If it’s a verb, write it as separate words

If it’s a noun, write it as one word

If it’s an adjective, write it as one word

The engine will eventually break down. (verb)

We suffered a breakdown in communications. (noun)

Please clean up your room. (verb)

That Superfund site will require specialized cleanup procedures. (adjective)

Dash Rules

1. Dashes usually separate extra information from the rest of the sentence. Parentheses also do this, but they de-emphasize. Dashes emphasize whatever they surround.

• Mr. Lee is suited to the job—he has more experience than everyone else in the department—but he has been dealing with some things at home recently and would probably not be available for hire.

2. Dashes are also used to indicate an interruption. This usually is useful when transcribing speech.

• They student began to say, “An organic solvent will only work with—” when someone’s cell phone rang and cut her off.

3. Next, dashes should be used to set off parenthetical elements when the parenthetical element is a list with commas (this helps avoid confusion).

• All four of them—Bob, Jeffrey, Jason, and Brett—did well in college.

4. Dashes are sometimes used as a substitute for a colon, but this use doesn’t belong in formal writing.

• There was only one person suited to the job—Mr. Lee.

En-dash Rules

The en-dash, which is shorter than an em-dash (the standard dash) and longer than a hyphen, is used to indicate a range of values, such as a span of time or numerical quantities (it is similar to using the words “to” and “from”).

Examples

9 AM – 5 PM

Monday – Friday

ages 5 – 8

HOW TO TYPE HYPHENS AND DASHES

A hyphen is created by typing the hyphen key (next to the zero) ONE time. Do not space around the hyphen. It should touch both words it connects.

You make a dash by typing the hyphen key (by the zero) twice. It will ONLY work if you do not type a space after the last word or before the next word. If you put in any spaces, it will just look like this -- (two hyphens) or it will convert into an en-dash (which is too short).

The computer will make en-dashes for you because it can recognize a range of numbers or times.

Hyphen Practice

1. The note-book that I write my notes in is gone.

2. When I think of poets who are well-known, I generally think of Robert Frost, Emily Dickinson, and Edgar Allan Poe.

3. The quickly-moving rumors about the expansion of the university ended up being true.

4. The father of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, died of cancer at the age of eighty three.

5. I wanted to make a re-mark about her dissertation on positive psychology strategies, but I did not want to offend her.

6. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale measures subjects’ level of self esteem.

7. One good study tip you might want to use is to color code one highlighter to one subject.

8. During the Civil War, the South was proslavery, while the North started to think that slavery was unAmerican.

9. The job seeker decided to deemphasize his lack of experience in writing reports.

10. While tutoring the document, the tutor found that Mary’s paragraphs were well- developed.

11. Her sister in law wanted to find more information on how to format a resume, so she went to the Academic Center website.

12. In Nick’s story, the main character Sonny was a colorful pink bird with a 25-foot wing span.

13. The lovely-shy woman could not find any research for her research project on symbolism in Walt Whitman’s poems.

14. The fur lined coat was extremely expensive.

15. The midyear report revealed that the viewers for the TV show Bones were increasing.

16. James Cameron’s film Avatar became the top grossing picture in 2009.

17. Robert was still good friends with his ex father in law—they went fishing frequently.

18. The potato salad needed to be recovered.

19. Writing tutors often undergo extra training to help nonEnglish speaking students improve their writing skills.

20. Many students are often surprised by the number of free blacks or people of color in the pre Civil War South.

Dash Practice

1. The siblings, Carl, Dirk, and Ashleigh, want to go to the water park today instead of tomorrow.

2. The less Bryce thought about his situation, the more he calmed down, even relaxed a little.

3. The document needed some additional elements:  a title page, an abstract, and a reference page.

4. This journal article needs to include some specific information (name of article, name of journal, volume number, and page number) in the reference page.

5. Most research shows that the Gilded Age was from 1875 to 1914.

6. The war presidents, Washington, Lincoln, and Roosevelt, will always be remembered for their bravery, while some presidents—Polk, Harding, and Hoover—will not be remembered as easily.

7. It seems that some students do not know how to incorporate research into their documents, or even find reliable research for that matter, because they have not been thoroughly taught how to do that.

8. The defendant decided to plead guilty to get a less severe sentence.

9. I know that the theatre is open between the hours of 3 and 6, but the show does not start till between 7 or 8.

10. “I will always be here to help you,” he smirked vindictively as Carol rolled her eyes.

11. Karen felt so overwhelmed that she started to cry—even sob.

12. Some documentation styles use page numbers to indicate where cited information came from, namely, APA.

13. The thesis statement, topic sentences, and organization, all need to be looked at thoroughly in the document.

14. Cassandra was not really paying attention when Glenn was making the statement, “You need to be more careful with how much you spend.”

Apostrophes

Pre-Test

In the following sentences, apostrophes are either missing or incorrectly used. Underneath the sentences, write the correct form of each incorrect word.

1) The discovery that the spoken word could be represented by written marks is probably one of humankinds greatest imaginative feats’.

2) Many ancient peoples, who’s awe of the written word was based on ignorance, felt that writing had a magic power of it’s own.

3) Writing was practiced by the elders’ of a tribe to preserve the tribes lore as well as its laws.

4) Were not sure when or how writing began, but we do know that it existed several century’s before 3000 B.C.

5) Theres plenty of evidence that people communicated through they’re drawings long before they could write.

6) Spain and France’s wonderful cave drawings were painted 30,000 or more year’s ago.

7) The Peruvians message system was a complicated arrangement of knots.

8) The Sumerians cuneiforms and the Egyptians hieroglyphics are the earliest complete systems’ of writing known to us.

9) After many years work, scholars were still unable to decipher the hieroglyphics.

10) Then one of Napoleons soldiers found a tablet that provided the key.

Apostrophe Rules List

Apostrophes indicate possession when added to a singular or plural NOUN.

|Singular |Plural, not ending in “s” |Plural, ending in “s” |

| | | |

|Add an apostrophe and “s.” |Add an apostrophe and “s.” |Add only an apostrophe. |

| | | |

|women’s voices |the deer’s trail |the carpenters’ tools |

|Jonas’s car |the men’s equipment |the workers’ experience |

|the cat’s dish | | |

|the child’s skates | | |

|people’s opinions | | |

|the criteria’s common theme | | |

Ex1: Ms. Fox’s office is on the first floor.

One person possesses the office. Simply add an apostrophe and “s.”

Ex2: The Foxes’ apartment has a wonderful view.

There are several people named Fox living in the same apartment.

First you must form the plural; then you add the apostrophe to indicate possession.

An apostrophe also indicates that one or more letters have been left out in a contraction.

a. they’re (they are)

a. she’d (she would)

b. don’t (do not)

c. you’re (you are)

d. it’s (it is) *its = possessive

e. you’ve (you have)

f. the boy’s (the boy is)

g. Harry’s (Harry has)

h. we’d (we would)

i. wasn’t (was not)

Don’t confuse possessive personal pronouns with contractions. PPPs do not contain apostrophes!

|Possessive Personal Pronouns |Contractions |

| | |

|Its front door was jammed. |It’s cold outside. |

|Your bag is dirty. |You’re my best friend. |

|Whose shoes are those? |Who’s at the door? |

The apostrophe is used to indicate possession only with nouns; with PRONOUNS, there are separate words that we use as possessives for each person/number.

a. my, mine

b. your, yours

c. his, his

d. her, hers, its

e. our, our

f. their, theirs

g. Exception: the neutral “one,” which forms its possessive by adding an apostrophe and an “s.”

Apostrophe Practice 1

1. Whos the partys candidate for vice president this year?

2. The fox had its right foreleg caught securely in the traps jaws.

3. Our neighbors car is an old Chrysler, and its just about to fall apart.

4. In three weeks time well have to begin school again.

5. Didnt you hear that theyre leaving tomorrow?

6. Whenever I think of the stories I read as a child, I remember Cinderellas glass slipper and Snow Whites wicked stepmother.

7. We claimed the picnic table was ours, but the Smiths children looked so disappointed that we found another spot.

8. Its important that the kitten learns to find its way home.

9. She did not hear her childrens cries.

10. My address has three 7s, and Tims phone number has four 2s.

11. Didnt he say when he would arrive at Arnies house?

12. Its such a beautiful day that Ive decided to take a sun bath.

13. She said the watch Jack found was hers, but she couldnt identify the manufacturers name on it.

14. Little girls clothing is on the first floor, and the mens department is on the second.

15. The dogs bark was far worse than its bite.

16. The moons rays shone feebly on the path, and I heard the insects chirpings and whistlings.

17. Theyre not afraid to go ahead with the plans, though the choice is not theirs.

18. The man whose face was tan said that he had spent his two weeks vacation in the mountains.

19. I found myself constantly putting two cs in the word process.

20. Johns 69 Ford is his proudest possession.

Apostrophe Practice 2

1. I bought some _____.

a. apples

b. apple's

c. apples'

2. I went to ____ flat.

a. Adams

b. Adams'

c. Adam's

3. I bought them at the ____.

a. grocer's

b. grocers'

4. That _____ the quickest.

a. ways

b. way's

c. ways'

5. Did you invite the ___.

a. Brown's

b. Browns

c. Browns'

6. ___ mine.

a. Its

b. It's

7. The cat was left on ____ own.

a. its

b. it's

8. The _____ were very hard.

a. question's

b. questions

9. It was the ____ fault.

a. banks

b. bank's

10. ____ not ideal.

a. Its

b. It's

11. ____ mine.

a. That's

b. Thats

12. This ____ too sweet

a. coffees

b. coffee's

c. coffees'

13. ____ not going to happen.

a. Its

b. It's

14. I gave it to the ____ mother.

a. children's

b. childrens'

Apostrophe Practice 3

1. Choose the correct sentence.

A) Her husbands wallet was full of curious, little items.

B) Her husband's wallet was full of curious, little items.

C) Her husbands' wallet was full of curious, little items.

2. Choose the correct sentence.

A) I went to my mother-in-law house for dinner last night.

B) I went to my mother-in-law's house for dinner last night.

C) I went to my mother-in-laws' house for dinner last night.

3. Choose the correct sentence.

A) You may not enter Mr. Harris's office without his permission.

B) You may not enter Mr. Harris office without his permission.

C) You may not enter Mr. Harrises office without his permission.

D) You may not enter Mr. Harrises' office without his permission.

4. Choose the correct sentence.

A) The girls vitality and humor were infectious. [one girl]

B) The girl's vitality and humor were infectious. [one girl]

C) The girls' vitality and humor were infectious. [one girl]

5. Choose the correct sentence.

A) The women's dresses are on the second floor.

B) The womens dresses are on the second floor.

C) The womens' dresses are on the second floor.

6. Have you ever thought of how a (carpenters / carpenter’s / carpenters’ ) tools find (their / they’re / there) way into art and music?

7. Think of a chisel, for example. (It’s / Its) operation depends on the principle of the inclined plane.

8. (Its / It’s) a (carpenters / carpenter’s / carpenters’ ) machine, yet (its / it’s) also a (sculptors / sculptor’s / sculptors’) machine.

9. Without the hammer and chisel, (their / they’re / there) would be no marble, granite, or wood statues.

10. We would not have (Michelangelos / Michelangelos’ / Michelangelos’s) David or the Native (Americans / Americans’) totem poles.

11. The hammer and chisel have (their / they’re / there) place in an orchestra as well.

12. (Youll / You’ll) find the hammer in an (orchestras / orchestras’ / orchestra’s) percussion section, and the chisel is inside the (woodwinds / woodwind’s / woodwinds’) mouthpieces.

Apostrophe Practice 4

1. The troopers cars have flashing red lights on the top.

2. Theyre going to the store now for their supplies.

3. The chorus has it’s rehearsal on Tuesday nights.

4. Were working through the list alphabetically, but were only up to the ms.

5. Shes sure its going to be all right with her mother.

6. Charles poem was selected for publication in his schools yearbook.

7. The five students parents will be guests of honor.

8. Helens car wouldnt start, so she never made it to the game.

9. Whos going to the graduates dinner with you?

10. Ive no idea who took your book.

11. I used to play in my grandfathers workshop and watch him work.

12. I was fascinated by his carpenters tools.

13. Id borrow my brothers bike and ride to where houses were being built.

14. Id stay out of the mens way, but I would try to get a look at the crews equipment.

15. I knew I wanted carpentry to be my lifes work.

16. For years, people kept telling me construction wasnt a womans work.

17. Finally, the nations laws supported my opinion.

18. It took me a long time, but I finally got my union members card.

19. Now I’m eager to encourage young girls dreams of doing whatever they like.

Apostrophe Practice 5

1. The (levers/ lever’s) one of the simplest machines.

2. (Who’s / Whose) able to name an even simpler one?

3. (Curtis’s/ Curtis’) suggestion is the inclined plane.

4. He says (it/ it’s) simpler because there (arent/ aren’t) any moving parts.

5. Anna thinks (there/ they’re/ their) using the term machine incorrectly.

6. “(What’s/ Whats/ Whats’) a machine?” she asks.

7. Her friends look up machine in (there / they’re / their) dictionary.

8. (Its/ It’s) definition is “a device that performs work.”

9. I guess (Im/ I’m) confused about the (scientist’s/ scientists) definition of work.

10. While (your/ you’re) dictionary is open, look up inclined plane.

11. Hey! (There/ They’re/ Their) are four (planes/ plane’s) listed in the dictionary.

12. I think (we’re/ were) getting somewhere now.

13. (Let’s/ Lets) try to think of some other simple machines.

14. Is there anyone (whose/ who’s) willing to help me with this science unit?

15. These (children’s/ childrens/ childrens’) books on energy might be helpful.

Subject/Verb Agreement

Basically… singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs. My brother is a nutritionist. My sisters are mathematicians.

The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are always singular and, therefore, require singular verbs.

• Everyone has done his or her homework.

• Somebody has left her purse.

Some indefinite pronouns — such as all, some — are singular (not countable) or plural (countable) depending on what they're referring to.

• Some of the beads are missing.

• Some of the water is gone.

Some indefinite pronouns are particularly troublesome Everyone and everybody (listed above, also) certainly feel like more than one person, and therefore, students are sometimes tempted to use a plural verb with them. They are always singular, though. Each is often followed by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the cars), thus confusing the verb choice. Each, too, is always singular and requires a singular verb.

Everyone has finished his or her homework.

You would always say, "Everybody is here." This means that the word is singular and nothing will change that.

Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.

Don't let the word "students" confuse you; the subject is each and each is always singular — Each is responsible.

Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The phrase introduced by as well as or along with will modify the earlier word (mayor in this case), but it does not compound the subjects (as the word and would do).

• The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.

• The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.

The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even though they seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things.

• Neither of the two traffic lights is working.

• Which shirt do you want for Christmas?

Either is fine with me.

In informal writing, neither and either sometimes take a plural verb when these pronouns are followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with of. This is particularly true of interrogative constructions: "Have either of you two clowns read the assignment?" "Are either of you taking this seriously?"

The conjunction or does not conjoin (as and does): when nor or or is used the subject closer to the verb determines the number of the verb. Whether the subject comes before or after the verb doesn't matter; the proximity determines the number.

• Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.

• Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.

• Are either my brothers or my father responsible?

• Is either my father or my brothers responsible?

Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house" sounds peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer to the verb whenever that is possible.

 

Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its verb, but these modifiers must not confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb.

The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of various crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several political lives, is finally going to jail.

Sometimes nouns take weird forms and can fool us into thinking they're plural when they're really singular and vice-versa. Words such as glasses, pants, pliers, and scissors are regarded as plural (and require plural verbs) unless they're preceded the phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the subject).

• My glasses were on the bed.

• My pants were torn.

• A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.

Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and require singular verbs.

• The news from the front is bad.

• Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.

On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are nonetheless plural and require a plural verb.

• My assets were wiped out in the depression.

• The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.

• Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.

 Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. (The same is true, of course, when all, any, more, most and some act as subjects.) Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and require singular verbs. The expression "more than one" (oddly enough) takes a singular verb: "More than one student has tried this."

• Some of the voters are still angry.

• A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.

• Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.

• Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.

• Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.

• Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy.

• Two and two is four.

• Four times four divided by two is eight.

Subject/Verb Agreement Practice

➢ For each of the following, choose the sentence in which the subjects and verbs have been correctly identified and in which the subjects and verbs agree. The subjects are in bold and the verbs are underlined.

1. 

|[pic]  |A)  |At the end of the story, they was living happily ever after. |

|[pic]  |B)  |At the end of the story, they were living happily ever after. |

|[pic]  |C)  |At the end of the story, they were living happily ever after. |

|[pic]  |D)  |At the end of the story, they was living happily ever after. |

2. 

|[pic]  |A)  |Al and Eli go to the beach to surf with their friends. |

|[pic]  |B)  |Al and Eli go to the beach to surf with their friends. |

|[pic]  |C)  |Al and Eli goes to the beach to surf with their friends. |

|[pic]  |D)  |Al and Eli goes to the beach to surf with their friends. |

3. 

|[pic]  |A)  |When Al and Eli arrive, they find that their friends has waxed their boards. |

|[pic]  |B)  |When Al and Eli arrive, they find that their friends has waxed their boards. |

|[pic]  |C)  |When Al and Eli arrive, they find that their friends have waxed their boards. |

|[pic]  |D)  |When Al and Eli arrive, they find that their friends have waxed their boards. |

4. 

|[pic]  |A)  |A group of children from that school are not being cooperative. |

|[pic]  |B)  |A group of children from that school is not being cooperative. |

|[pic]  |C)  |A group of children from that school is not being cooperative. |

|[pic]  |D)  |A group of children from that school are not being cooperative. |

5. 

|[pic]  |A)  |Unless our staff members really do cooperate, we will not meet our goals. |

|[pic]  |B)  |Unless our staff members really do cooperate, we will not meet our goals. |

|[pic]  |C)  |Unless our staff members really do cooperate, we will not meet our goals. |

|[pic]  |D)  |Unless our staff members really do cooperate, we will not meet our goals. |

6. 

|[pic]  |A)  |Either Gary or I am responsible for allocating the funds. |

|[pic]  |B)  |Either Gary or I are responsible for allocating the funds. |

|[pic]  |C)  |Either Gary or I am responsible for allocating the funds. |

|[pic]  |D)  |Either Gary or I are responsible for allocating the funds. |

7. 

|[pic]  |A)  |Neither she nor they were willing to predict the election results. |

|[pic]  |B)  |Neither she nor they was willing to predict the election results. |

|[pic]  |C)  |Neither she nor they was willing to predict the election results. |

|[pic]  |D)  |Neither she nor they were willing to predict the election results. |

8. 

|[pic]  |A)  |Nora is one of the candidates who are worthy of my vote. |

|[pic]  |B)  |Nora is one of the candidates who is worthy of my vote. |

|[pic]  |C)  |Nora is one of the candidates who are worthy of my vote. |

|[pic]  |D)  |Nora is one of the candidates who is worthy of my vote. |

9. 

|[pic]  |A)  |Nora, of all the candidates who are running, is the best. |

|[pic]  |B)  |Nora, of all the candidates who are running, is the best. |

|[pic]  |C)  |Nora, of all the candidates who is running, is the best. |

|[pic]  |D)  |Nora, of all the candidates who is running, is the best. |

10. 

|[pic]  |B)  |My problem, which is minor in comparison with others, exist because I dropped out of high school. |

|[pic]  |C)  |My problem, which is minor in comparison with others, exists because I dropped out of high school. |

|[pic]  |D)  |My problem, which is minor in comparison with others, exist because I dropped out of high school. |

11. 

|[pic]  |B)  |His dogs, which is kept outside, bark all day long. |

|[pic]  |C)  |His dogs, which are kept outside, bark all day long. |

|[pic]  |D)  |His dogs, which are kept outside, bark all day long. |

| | | |

Punctuation Cheat Sheet

Commas ( , )

|The big four: |And three more: |

| | |

|Set off introductory clauses/phrases |Used to introduce a quote or dialogue |

|In a compound sentence before the coordinating conjunction |Used in-between coordinate adjectives |

|Set off “extra information” |(you can say “and” between them) |

|Separate items in a list (be sure that you do use the Oxford comma!) |Used to indicate contrast |

Semicolons ( ; )

Use a semicolon to connect two sentences that are closely related.

A semicolon can ONLY go where a period could also go!

Colons ( : )

Place a colon to introduce a list or an illustration/example*.

A colon can ONLY go after an independent clause!!!

YES:

Bring these items to the ACT: an admission ticket, pencils, and a watch.

There is only necessary personal trait: perseverance.

*Notice the “illustration/example” word is sort of like an answer when the independent clause left you asking “what?”

NO:

You should bring: an admission ticket, pencils, and a watch to the ACT.

Apostrophes (’)

Used in contractions. (Ex: You’re = You Are, he’s = He Is, don’t = Do Not)

Used to make nouns possessive. (Note: possessive pronouns have their own forms, like my/mine and their/theirs)

Add ’s to all singular nouns and plural nouns that don’t end in “s.”

Paul’s book. Jesus’s life. The women’s shoe department

Add just ’ to plural nouns that end in “s”

The carpenters’ tools

Don’t mix up your plurals and your possessives!

Adding an s makes most nouns plural. Adding ’s makes nouns possessive.

Parentheses ( )

Use parentheses to set off explanations or definitions.

Whatever is in parentheses is extra information. It is of lesser importance than the rest of the sentence.

YES:

The atmosphere on Venus (an uninhabitable planet) is not like Earth’s.

There is a paucity (scarcity) of information about the most distant parts of the galaxy.

Dashes( –)

Dashes usually separate extra information from the rest of the sentence. They emphasize whatever they surround.

The extra info is often an idea that interrupted the original idea of the sentence.

Unlike commas, dashes and parentheses can set off entire independent clauses within another sentence!

YES:

Mr. Lee is suited to the job—he has more experience than everyone else in the department—but he has been dealing with some things at home recently and would probably not be available for hire.

All four of them—Bob, Jeffrey, Jason, and Brett—did well in college.

Hyphens (-)

Hyphens combine compound adjectives. Compound adjectives are modifying a word as one unit; they do not each modify the word separately.

Tricks to see if you need a hyphen:

A) If can’t use the word “and” between the words, you need a hyphen.

B) If you can’t pause for 2 beats between the last adjective and the noun modified, you need a hyphen.

YES:

It was an ill-fated plan.

She didn’t want a run-of-the-mill pony; she wanted an appaloosa.

No:

She was wearing tall-black boots.

Quotation Marks

Place double quotation marks around direct quotations.

Place single quotation marks around quotations within quotations (triple-quote dialogue).

You do NOT place quotation marks around something that is paraphrased.

|You are working with dialogue, not citing from a text: |You are citing from a text: |

|Place periods and commas inside the quotation marks. |Remove the final period, comma, colon, or semicolon. |

|Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks. |Keep a final “?” or “!” |

|Place question marks and exclamation points inside quotation marks if they |Place a period after the parenthetical |

|belong to the quotation. | |

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