White Rose University Consortium



Chimpanzees with Positive Welfare Are Happier, Extraverted, and Emotionally StableRunning header: Chimpanzee Welfare and HappinessL. M. Robinson1,2,3*, D. M. Altschul1, 3*, E. K. Wallace3,4, Y. ?beda5,6, M. Llorente5,7, Z. Machanda8,9, K. E. Slocombe3,4, M. C. Leach10, N. K. Waran2,11, and A. Weiss1,31 Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK, EH8 9JZ2 Jeanne Marchig International Centre for Animal Welfare Education, The University of Edinburgh, Roslin, UK, EH25 9RG3 Scottish Primate Research Group, UK4 Department of Psychology, University of York, York, UK, YO10 5DD5 Unitat de Recerca i Etologia, Fundació Mona, Riudellots de la Selva (Girona), Spain 6 Facultat d’Educació i Psicologia, Universitat de Girona, Girona, Spain.7 IPRIM, Institut de Recerca i Estudis en Primatologia, Spain.8 Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA, 021389 Department of Anthropology, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA, 0215510School of Agriculture, Food & Rural Development, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, NE1 7RU11 Faculty of Education, Humanities and Health Science, Eastern Institute of Technology, Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand.* Authors contributed equally to this work.Corresponding author: Lauren M. Robinson. Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, 7 George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, United Kingdom. E-mail: l.robinson@ed.ac.ukAbstractFacilities housing captive animals are full of staff who, every day, interact with the animals under their care. The expertise and familiarity of staff can be used to monitor animal welfare by means of questionnaires. It was the goal of our study to examine the association between chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) welfare, happiness, and personality. To these ends we collected two waves of welfare and subjective well-being ratings of 18 chimpanzees housed at the Edinburgh Zoo and one set of ratings of 13 chimpanzees housed at Fundació Mona. Ratings were made on a welfare questionnaire that included 12 items related to stress, psychological stimulation, and behavioural indicators of negative and positive welfare states, and a 4-item subjective well-being questionnaire. In addition, ratings were made on the 54-item Hominoid Personality Questionnaire and an abbreviated version of this scale consisting of 37 antonym pairs. We used generalizability theory to test whether welfare ratings generalized across items, raters, chimpanzees, and time. We then assessed the validity of the welfare and subjective well-being questionnaires by examining their associations with behaviour. Finally, we tested whether the welfare and subjective well-being ratings were associated with personality. Welfare ratings generalized across items, raters, chimpanzees, and time. Principal components analysis and regularized exploratory factor analysis indicated that ten welfare items and all four subjective well-being items formed a single dimension (welfareSWB). LASSO regression found that lower welfareSWB was associated with regurgitation, coprophagy, urophagy, and decreased proximity to nearest neighbour. A linear model that adjusted for age, sex, and facility, indicated that higher Extraversion and lower Neuroticism were related to higher welfareSWB. Welfare ratings were reliable and associated with subjective well-being and personality, demonstrating that staff ratings are a valid and potentially valuable tool for chimpanzee welfare assessment.Keywords: Behaviour, chimpanzee, happiness, Pan troglodytes, personality, welfareChimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) with Positive Welfare Are Happier, Extraverted, and Emotionally Stable1. IntroductionThe chimpanzee fear grimace, which indicates panic but looks like a smile to humans, is a classic example of how humans can misinterpret animal behaviour and emotion in that, what appears to be the same behaviour in animals and humans, reflects different emotional states ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1093/scan/nsl031", "ISBN" : "1749-5024 (Electronic)", "ISSN" : "17495024", "PMID" : "18985109", "abstract" : "To understand the evolution of emotional communication, comparative research on facial expression similarities between humans and related species is essential. Chimpanzees display a complex, flexible facial expression repertoire with many physical and functional similarities to humans. This paper reviews what is known about these facial expression repertoires, discusses the importance of social organization in understanding the meaning of different expressions, and introduces a new coding system, the ChimpFACS, and describes how it can be used to determine homologies between human and chimpanzee facial expressions. Finally, it reviews previous studies on the categorization of facial expressions by chimpanzees using computerized tasks, and discusses the importance of configural processing for this skill in both humans and chimpanzees. Future directions for understanding the evolution of emotional communication will include studies on the social function of facial expressions in ongoing social interactions, the development of facial expression communication and more studies that examine the perception of these important social signals.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Parr", "given" : "Lisa A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Waller", "given" : "Bridget M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social cognitive and affective neuroscience", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "page" : "221-228", "title" : "Understanding chimpanzee facial expression: insights into the evolution of communication.", "type" : "article", "volume" : "1" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Parr & Waller, 2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Parr & Waller, 2006)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Parr & Waller, 2006)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Parr & Waller, 2006). This mismatch between animal signals and human interpretations of these signals may explain why some researchers find that observer ratings of welfare are not always associated with behaviours, including abnormal behaviours ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00021", "ISSN" : "16641078", "PMID" : "24478748", "abstract" : "Healthcare practitioners such as physicians or nurses often underestimate patients' well-being impairment (e.g., pain, anxiety) which may lead to undesirable consequences on treatment decisions. Lack of recognition/identification of signals and over-exposure are two reasons invoked, but a combination of factors may be involved. Studying human decoding of animals' expressions of emotions showed that \"identification\" to the subject was necessary to decode the other's internal state. In the present study we wanted to compare caretakers' reports on the prevalence of stereotypic or abnormal repetitive behaviors, to ethological observations performed by an experienced observer on the same horses in order to test the impact of these different factors. On the first hand, a questionnaire was given hand to hand to the caretakers. On the other hand, the experienced observer spent 18 h observing the horses in each stable. Here we show that caretakers strongly underestimate horses' expressions of well-being impairment. The caretakers who had a strong concern about their horses' well-being were also those who reported the more accurately SB/ARB's prevalence, showing that \"identification\" to the subject is a primary factor of bad-being signal's detection. Over-exposure also appeared to be involved as no SB/ARB was reported in stables where most of the horses were performing these abnormal behaviors. Being surrounded by a large population of individuals expressing clear signals of bad-being may change professionals' perceptions of what are behaviors or expressions of well being. These findings are of primary importance as (1) they illustrate the interest of using human-animal relationships to evaluate humans' abilities to decode others' states; (2) they put limitations on questionnaire-based studies of welfare.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lesimple", "given" : "Cl??mence", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hausberger", "given" : "Martine", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Frontiers in Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "JAN", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "title" : "How accurate are we at assessing others' well-being? The example of welfare assessment in horses", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "5" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Lesimple & Hausberger, 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Lesimple & Hausberger, 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Lesimple & Hausberger, 2014)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Lesimple & Hausberger, 2014). However, animal care staff and researchers with years of education, training, and experience with their charges appear to be able to assess the personalities of these animals ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.45", "ISBN" : "0033-2909", "ISSN" : "0033-2909", "PMID" : "11271756", "abstract" : "The author explores the viability of a comparative approach to personality research. A review of the diverse animal-personality literature suggests that (a) most research uses trait constructs, focuses on variation within (vs. across) species, and uses either behavioral codings or trait ratings; (b) ratings are generally reliable and show some validity (7 parameters that could influence reliability and 4 challenges to validation are discussed); and (c) some dimensions emerge across species, but summaries are hindered by a lack of standard descriptors. Arguments for and against cross-species comparisons are discussed, and research guidelines are suggested. Finally, a research agenda guided by evolutionary and ecological principles is proposed. It is concluded that animal studies provide unique opportunities to examine biological, genetic, and environmental bases of personality and to study personality change, personality-health links, and personality perception.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gosling", "given" : "Samuel D.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Psychological Bulletin", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "page" : "45-86", "title" : "From mice to men: What can we learn about personality from animal research?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "127" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/zoo.20379", "ISSN" : "10982361", "PMID" : "21370251", "abstract" : "(from the chapter) Animal research has the potential to help address many fundamental questions about personality. The experimental control and wide range of methods associated with animal studies means that they provide unique opportunities to examine the biological, genetic, and environmental bases of personality and to study personality change, personality-health links, and personality perception. However, the field of animal personality research is relatively young; it has yet to establish the measurement foundations on which research on substantive topics must be based. Most fundamentally, questions remain about how best to assess personality in nonhuman subjects. In this chapter, we examine and evaluate the methods currently used to assess personality in animals, demonstrate how these methods are used, and offer some suggestions for improvement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vazire", "given" : "Simine", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gosling", "given" : "Samuel D.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dickey", "given" : "Audrey S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schapiro", "given" : "Steven J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Handbook of research methods in personality psychology", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "190-206", "title" : "Measuring personality in nonhuman animals", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gosling, 2001; Vazire, Gosling, Dickey, & Schapiro, 2007)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gosling, 2001; Vazire, Gosling, Dickey, & Schapiro, 2007)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gosling, 2001; Vazire, Gosling, Dickey, & Schapiro, 2007)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Gosling, 2001; Vazire, Gosling, Dickey, & Schapiro, 2007) and also the animals’ well-being ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.applanim.2012.11.002", "ISBN" : "0168-1591", "ISSN" : "01681591", "abstract" : "Research in animal personality has been increasing over the last decade, as scientists realize its importance to health outcomes. In particular, personality has sometimes been used, in conjunction with other tools, for aspects of captive management, including decreasing stress, increasing positive health outcomes, successful breeding, and infant survival. A few such studies have focused on felids, and have shown that there are possible applications for personality in that taxon. This study looked at the Scottish wildcat (Felis silvestris grampia), a critically endangered species, with only an estimated 400 left in the wild. Raters assessed 25 Scottish wildcats on 42 traits and on a subjective well-being questionnaire. Mean inter-rater reliability on the personality items was 0.59 and 0.53 on the subjective well-being items. Three personality components were found using principal-components analysis: Dominance, Agreeableness, and Self Control. Higher Self Control was related to higher subjective well-being (r=0.67, P<0.01). Implications for the results of this and other similar studies are discussed. \u00a9 2012 Elsevier B.V.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gartner", "given" : "Marieke Cassia", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Alexander", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Applied Animal Behaviour Science", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3-4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013", "8" ] ] }, "page" : "261-267", "title" : "Scottish wildcat (Felis silvestris grampia) personality and subjective well-being: Implications for captive management", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "147" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/j.1758-0854.2010.01045.x", "ISBN" : "1758-0854", "ISSN" : "17580846", "abstract" : "Seven types of evidence are reviewed that indicate that high subjective well- being (such as life satisfaction, absence of negative emotions, optimism, and positive emotions) causes better health and longevity. For example, prospective longitudinal studies of normal populations provide evidence that various types of subjective well-being such as positive affect predict health and longevity, controlling for health and socioeconomic status at baseline. Combined with experimental human and animal research, as well as naturalistic studies of changes of subjective well-being and physiological processes over time, the case that subjective well-being influences health and longevity in healthy populations is compelling. However, the claim that subjective well-being lengthens the lives of those with certain diseases such as cancer remains controversial. Positive feelings predict longevity and health beyond negative feelings. However, intensely aroused or manic positive affect may be detrimental to health. Issues such as causality, effect size, types of subjective well-being, and statistical controls are discussed.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Diener", "given" : "Ed", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Chan", "given" : "Micaela Y.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "1-43", "title" : "Happy people live longer: Subjective well-being contributes to health and longevity", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "3" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Diener & Chan, 2011; Gartner & Weiss, 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Diener & Chan, 2011; Gartner & Weiss, 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Diener & Chan, 2011; Gartner & Weiss, 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Diener & Chan, 2011; Gartner & Weiss, 2013). However, there is still debate about whether members of staff or other observers can reliably assess animal welfare (ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.applanim.2009.02.026", "ISBN" : "0168-1591", "ISSN" : "01681591", "abstract" : "Ratings by human observers have long been used by animal scientists and veterinarians to assess certain physical traits (e.g. body fat), and can also be applied to the assessment of behaviour and a variety of welfare-relevant variables (e.g. pain responsiveness, alopecia/barbering). Observer ratings offer a myriad of advantages, not just practical (e.g. money-saving) but also scientific: they can be used to integrate multimodal information across time and situations, and for constructs that are otherwise very difficult to assess (e.g. nest quality). Because observer ratings involve subjective judgements, some researchers may question whether they can be trusted to reflect reality in an unbiased manner. In this paper, I present evidence from a range of zoo, laboratory and farm animal studies demonstrating that observer ratings can be both reliable and valid. They have been shown to predict important biological phenomena such as reproductive success in rhinoceroses and cheetahs. Biases are indeed a risk, particularly when the ratings could reflect on the observer's own care of the animals or on their institution; however, this risk can be minimized through careful experimental design, including blinding and careful phrasing of the questions the observers need to answer. I review the steps involved in validating an observer rating scheme, and also discuss both study design issues (e.g. selecting terms to be rated and appropriate observers) and the statistical issues some schemes may raise (e.g. ordinal data are not truly normal). ?? 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Meagher", "given" : "Rebecca K.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Applied Animal Behaviour Science", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "1-14", "title" : "Observer ratings: Validity and value as a tool for animal welfare research", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "119" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/zoo.20281", "ISSN" : "1098-2361", "PMID" : "19851995", "abstract" : "Zoological institutions are in urgent need of identifying and implementing welfare assessment tools that allow for ongoing, quantitative monitoring of individual animal well-being. Although the American Zoological Association's (AZA) Animal Welfare Committee (AWC) promotes the use of such tools in internal review processes, current approaches to institutional welfare assessment are resource-based and outline the resources, environmental parameters and \"best practices\" recommended for promoting good welfare in a species in general. We highlight the value of incorporating animal-based monitoring tools that capture the individual animal's perspective and subjective experiences, including positive events and feelings, by validating zookeepers' qualitative assessments. We present evidence that, across a variety of species, caretakers' assessments of traits related to the well-being of individual animals can be both reliable and valid. Furthermore, we demonstrate that among researchers investigating the welfare of farm, laboratory, companion and even zoo animals, support already exists for developing and validating instruments that objectively evaluate the qualitative assessments of caretakers. Finally, we outline a process currently being evaluated at Brookfield Zoo for developing, validating and testing a cost-effective, user-friendly monitoring tool that will help to quantify keepers' qualitative assessments of individual well-being and can be integrated into daily operations. This tool (i.e. species-specific Welfare Score Sheets designed through consultation with animal experts) will result in weekly scores of individual well-being that are expected to provide a first indicator of welfare issues in the collection. Specifically, scores can be reviewed during regular workgroup meetings to identify welfare issues proactively, to assess whether particular conditions, practices or events impact individual well-being, and finally, to evaluate the effectiveness of efforts to address welfare issues. Upon completion of the tool validation and testing phases, we plan to make the Welfare Score Sheets for our 12 study species available to other institutions, and the methods we applied may serve as a \"blueprint\" for creating similar tools for additional species and institutions.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Whitham", "given" : "Jessica C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wielebnowski", "given" : "Nadja", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Zoo biology", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009", "11" ] ] }, "page" : "545-560", "title" : "Animal-based welfare monitoring: using keeper ratings as an assessment tool.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "28" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Meagher, 2009; Whitham & Wielebnowski, 2009)", "manualFormatting" : "Meagher, 2009; Whitham & Wielebnowski, 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Meagher, 2009; Whitham & Wielebnowski, 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Meagher, 2009; Whitham & Wielebnowski, 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }Meagher, 2009; Whitham & Wielebnowski, 2009).Welfare is traditionally measured by coding behaviours believed to indicate negative or positive welfare, or by collecting physiological measures, such as blood cortisol. These approaches are, however, time consuming and/or expensive. Welfare questionnaires, on the other hand, can cover a broad set of states, and can be designed to be brief ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.applanim.2016.01.022", "ISBN" : "0168-1591", "ISSN" : "01681591", "abstract" : "Qualitative methods of behavioural assessment use observer rating scales to score the overall demeanour or body language of animals. Establishing the reliability of such holistic approaches requires test and validation of the methods used. Here, we compare two methodologies used in Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA): Fixed-Lists (FL) and Free-Choice Profiling (FCP). A laboratory class of 27 students was separated into two groups of 17 and 10 students (FL and FCP respectively). The FL group were given a list of 20 descriptive terms (used by the European Union's Welfare Quality\u00ae program), shown videos of group-housed sows, and as a group discussed how they would apply the descriptive terms in an assessment. The FCP group were shown the same footage but individually generated their own descriptive terms to describe body language of the animals. Both groups were then shown 18 video clips of group-housed sows and scored each clip using a visual analogue scale (VAS) system. We analysed the VAS scores using Generalised Procrustes Analysis (GPA) for each observer group separately, which indicated high inter-observer reliability for both groups (FL: 71.1% of scoring variation explained, and FCP: 63.5%). There were significant correlations between FL and FCP scores (GPA dimension 1: r16 = 0.946, P < 0.001, GPA dimension 2: r16 = 0.477, P = 0.045). Additional analysis of the raw VAS scores for the FL group by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) produced four factors; PC1 scores were correlated with GPA1 (r16 = 0.984, P < 0.001) and PC3 scores correlated with GPA2 (r16 = 0.880, P < 0.001). Kendall's coefficient of concordance (a measure of observer agreement) of the VAS scores indicated statistically significant agreement in use of the 20 descriptive terms (W range 0.37-0.64; all significant at P < 0.001, although a value of W > 0.7 is usually accepted to show strong agreement). This study demonstrates that, regardless of whether they are given their terms or are allowed to generate their own, observers score sow body language in a similar way. Strengths and weaknesses within the two methods were identified, which highlight the importance of providing thorough and consistent training of observers, including providing good quality training footage so that the full repertoire of demeanours can be identified.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Clarke", "given" : "Taya", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pluske", "given" : "John R.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Fleming", "given" : "Patricia A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Applied Animal Behaviour Science", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "77-83", "title" : "Are observer ratings influenced by prescription? A comparison of Free Choice Profiling and Fixed List methods of Qualitative Behavioural Assessment", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "177" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Clarke, Pluske, & Fleming, 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Clarke, Pluske, & Fleming, 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Clarke, Pluske, & Fleming, 2016)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Clarke, Pluske, & Fleming, 2016). These questionnaires can thus be used to rapidly and inexpensively assess welfare ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/zoo.20281", "ISSN" : "1098-2361", "PMID" : "19851995", "abstract" : "Zoological institutions are in urgent need of identifying and implementing welfare assessment tools that allow for ongoing, quantitative monitoring of individual animal well-being. Although the American Zoological Association's (AZA) Animal Welfare Committee (AWC) promotes the use of such tools in internal review processes, current approaches to institutional welfare assessment are resource-based and outline the resources, environmental parameters and \"best practices\" recommended for promoting good welfare in a species in general. We highlight the value of incorporating animal-based monitoring tools that capture the individual animal's perspective and subjective experiences, including positive events and feelings, by validating zookeepers' qualitative assessments. We present evidence that, across a variety of species, caretakers' assessments of traits related to the well-being of individual animals can be both reliable and valid. Furthermore, we demonstrate that among researchers investigating the welfare of farm, laboratory, companion and even zoo animals, support already exists for developing and validating instruments that objectively evaluate the qualitative assessments of caretakers. Finally, we outline a process currently being evaluated at Brookfield Zoo for developing, validating and testing a cost-effective, user-friendly monitoring tool that will help to quantify keepers' qualitative assessments of individual well-being and can be integrated into daily operations. This tool (i.e. species-specific Welfare Score Sheets designed through consultation with animal experts) will result in weekly scores of individual well-being that are expected to provide a first indicator of welfare issues in the collection. Specifically, scores can be reviewed during regular workgroup meetings to identify welfare issues proactively, to assess whether particular conditions, practices or events impact individual well-being, and finally, to evaluate the effectiveness of efforts to address welfare issues. Upon completion of the tool validation and testing phases, we plan to make the Welfare Score Sheets for our 12 study species available to other institutions, and the methods we applied may serve as a \"blueprint\" for creating similar tools for additional species and institutions.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Whitham", "given" : "Jessica C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wielebnowski", "given" : "Nadja", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Zoo biology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009", "11" ] ] }, "page" : "545-560", "title" : "Animal-based welfare monitoring: using keeper ratings as an assessment tool.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "28" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Whitham & Wielebnowski, 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Whitham & Wielebnowski, 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Whitham & Wielebnowski, 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Whitham & Wielebnowski, 2009). Ratings are also based on staff knowledge ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.applanim.2009.02.026", "ISBN" : "0168-1591", "ISSN" : "01681591", "abstract" : "Ratings by human observers have long been used by animal scientists and veterinarians to assess certain physical traits (e.g. body fat), and can also be applied to the assessment of behaviour and a variety of welfare-relevant variables (e.g. pain responsiveness, alopecia/barbering). Observer ratings offer a myriad of advantages, not just practical (e.g. money-saving) but also scientific: they can be used to integrate multimodal information across time and situations, and for constructs that are otherwise very difficult to assess (e.g. nest quality). Because observer ratings involve subjective judgements, some researchers may question whether they can be trusted to reflect reality in an unbiased manner. In this paper, I present evidence from a range of zoo, laboratory and farm animal studies demonstrating that observer ratings can be both reliable and valid. They have been shown to predict important biological phenomena such as reproductive success in rhinoceroses and cheetahs. Biases are indeed a risk, particularly when the ratings could reflect on the observer's own care of the animals or on their institution; however, this risk can be minimized through careful experimental design, including blinding and careful phrasing of the questions the observers need to answer. I review the steps involved in validating an observer rating scheme, and also discuss both study design issues (e.g. selecting terms to be rated and appropriate observers) and the statistical issues some schemes may raise (e.g. ordinal data are not truly normal). ?? 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Meagher", "given" : "Rebecca K.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Applied Animal Behaviour Science", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "1-14", "title" : "Observer ratings: Validity and value as a tool for animal welfare research", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "119" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Meagher, 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Meagher, 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Meagher, 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Meagher, 2009), which is an underused resource. When welfare ratings are studied in combination with traits, such as personality, they can help further our understanding of why some animals do better in captivity than others.In previous study ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.applanim.2016.05.029", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Robinson", "given" : "Lauren M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Waran", "given" : "Natalie K", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Leach", "given" : "Matthew C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Morton", "given" : "F. 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For that study we collected observer ratings of personality and happiness, the latter being measured using the subjective well-being questionnaire ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00527-5", "ISBN" : "1520621930", "ISSN" : "00926566", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "King", "given" : "J E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Landau", "given" : "V I", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Research in Personality", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003", "2" ] ] }, "page" : "1-15", "title" : "Can chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) happiness be estimated by human raters?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "37" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(King & Landau, 2003)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(King & Landau, 2003)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(King & Landau, 2003)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(King & Landau, 2003), which was based on measure of human happiness ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/j.1467-6494.1993.tb00283.x", "ISBN" : "0022-3506", "ISSN" : "0022-3506", "PMID" : "9402021310", "abstract" : "The validity of self-report measures of subjective well-being (SWB) was examined and compared with non-self-report measures using a sample of 136 college students studied over the course of a semester. A principal axis factor analysis of self- and non-self-report SWB measures revealed a single unitary construct underlying the measures. Conventional single-item and multi-item self-report measures correlated highly with alternative measures, with theoretical correlates of SWB, and with a principal axis factor underlying five non-self-report measures of well-being. Comparisons of family versus friend informant reports demonstrated the considerable cross-situational consistency and temporal stability of SWB. Evidence of the discriminant validity of the measures was provided by low correlations of the various SWB measures with constructs theoretically unrelated to well-being. It was concluded that conventional self-report instruments validly measure the SWB construct, and that alternative, non-self-report measures are useful for providing a comprehensive theoretical account of happiness and life satisfaction.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sandvik", "given" : "E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Diener", "given" : "E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Seidlitz", "given" : "L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Personality", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1993" ] ] }, "page" : "318-342", "title" : "Subjective Well-Being - the Convergence and Stability of Self-Report and Non-Self-Report Measures", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "61" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Sandvik, Diener, & Seidlitz, 1993)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Sandvik, Diener, & Seidlitz, 1993)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Sandvik, Diener, & Seidlitz, 1993)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Sandvik, Diener, & Seidlitz, 1993). Observers agreed on their ratings of welfare and that welfare and happiness were measuring the same construct in brown capuchins. Welfare and happiness were positively associated with brown capuchin Sociability, Assertiveness, and Attentiveness, and negatively associated with Neuroticism. To extend these findings across primates, we sought to conduct a similar study with another nonhuman primate species. To these ends, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are an ideal study species due to the high number that reside in zoos, sanctuaries, and research facilities, and the welfare challenges captivity may pose for them ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.applanim.2004.08.015", "ISSN" : "01681591", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hosey", "given" : "G. R.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Applied Animal Behaviour Science", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005", "2" ] ] }, "page" : "107-129", "title" : "How does the zoo environment affect the behaviour of captive primates?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "90" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hosey, 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hosey, 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hosey, 2005)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hosey, 2005). We also tested whether observer ratings of welfare are valid by examining their association with behavioural indicators of welfare states. Behaviours associated with positive welfare in chimpanzees include prosocial grooming ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0962-7286", "ISSN" : "09627286", "abstract" : "The effects of maternal and peer separation during infancy and juvenescence on adolescent and adult chimpanzee behaviour were studied. The aim was to provide an insight into the social development of the species and to investigate human influence on this process. Forty-three adolescent and adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), from a variety of backgrounds, were studied at five zoos in the UK. Details of play and grooming interactions were recorded. Competence at initiating, maintaining and contributing to play and grooming interactions was assessed. It was predicted that, regardless of their present environment, captive chimpanzees that were reared without their mother would be less competent and complex in these social abilities than mother-reared chimpanzees. Results indicated that the chimpanzees\u2019 social skills showed few detrimental effects of maternal separation. Nevertheless, individuals that had been human-reared demonstrated more unsuccessful initiations of social interactions and fewer polyadic grooming interactions than their mother-reared peers. Therefore, rearing background may have only a limited effect on adult chimpanzees\u2019 social competence. Adult chimpanzees that were hand-reared or nursery-reared may be exhibiting a recovery of their social skills, or they may be unaffected by their rearing background; alternatively, the effects of rearing may have been masked by more significant factors, such as current management.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Martin", "given" : "J. E.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Animal Welfare", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "page" : "125-133", "title" : "The effects of rearing conditions on grooming and play behaviour in captive chimpanzees", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "14" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Martin, 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Martin, 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Martin, 2005)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Martin, 2005) and play behaviour ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.01.007", "ISSN" : "00033472", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Held", "given" : "Suzanne D.E.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "\u0160pinka", "given" : "Marek", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Animal Behaviour", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011", "5" ] ] }, "page" : "891-899", "title" : "Animal play and animal welfare", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "81" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Held & \u0160pinka, 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Held & \u0160pinka, 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Held & \u0160pinka, 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Held & ?pinka, 2011). Behaviours commonly associated with negative welfare include rocking and pacing ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.7717/peerj.2225", "ISSN" : "2167-8359", "abstract" : "<p> Abnormal behaviors in captive animals are generally defined as behaviors that are atypical for the species and are often considered to be indicators of poor welfare. Although some abnormal behaviors have been empirically linked to conditions related to elevated stress and compromised welfare in primates, others have little or no evidence on which to base such a relationship. The objective of this study was to investigate a recent claim that abnormal behavior is endemic in the captive population by surveying a broad sample of chimpanzees ( <italic>Pan troglodytes</italic> ), while also considering factors associated with the origins of these behaviors. We surveyed animal care staff from 26 accredited zoos to assess the prevalence of abnormal behavior in a large sample of chimpanzees in the United States for which we had information on origin and rearing history. Our results demonstrated that 64% of this sample was reported to engage in some form of abnormal behavior in the past two years and 48% of chimpanzees engaged in abnormal behavior other than coprophagy. Logistic regression models were used to analyze the historical variables that best predicted the occurrence of all abnormal behavior, any abnormal behavior that was not coprophagy, and coprophagy. Rearing had opposing effects on the occurrence of coprophagy and the other abnormal behaviors such that mother-reared individuals were more likely to perform coprophagy, whereas non-mother-reared individuals were more likely to perform other abnormal behaviors. These results support the assertion that coprophagy may be classified separately when assessing abnormal behavior and the welfare of captive chimpanzees. This robust evaluation of the prevalence of abnormal behavior in our sample from the U.S. zoo population also demonstrates the importance of considering the contribution of historical variables to present behavior, in order to better understand the causes of these behaviors and any potential relationship to psychological wellbeing. </p>", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jacobson", "given" : "Sarah L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ross", "given" : "Stephen R.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bloomsmith", "given" : "Mollie A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "PeerJ", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "e2225", "title" : "Characterizing abnormal behavior in a large population of zoo-housed chimpanzees: prevalence and potential influencing factors", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "4" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Jacobson, Ross, & Bloomsmith, 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Jacobson, Ross, & Bloomsmith, 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Jacobson, Ross, & Bloomsmith, 2016)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Jacobson, Ross, & Bloomsmith, 2016). Previous research has shown that ratings of chimpanzee happiness and behavioural indicators of chimpanzee welfare are associated with personality. Chimpanzees with higher Dominance, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Openness and lower Neuroticism have higher subjective well-being ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00527-5", "ISBN" : "1520621930", "ISSN" : "00926566", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "King", "given" : "J E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Landau", "given" : "V I", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Research in Personality", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003", "2" ] ] }, "page" : "1-15", "title" : "Can chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) happiness be estimated by human raters?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "37" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/ajp.20649", "ISBN" : "1098-2345", "ISSN" : "02752565", "PMID" : "19199350", "abstract" : "We tested whether the cultural background of raters influenced ratings of chimpanzee personality. Our study involved comparing personality and subjective well-being ratings of 146 chimpanzees in Japan that were housed in zoos, research institutes, and a retirement sanctuary to ratings of chimpanzees in US and Australian zoos. Personality ratings were made on a translated and expanded version of a questionnaire used to rate chimpanzees in the US and Australia. Subjective well-being ratings were made on a translated version of a questionnaire used to rate chimpanzees in the US and Australia. The mean interrater reliabilities of the 43 original adjectives did not markedly differ between the present sample and the original sample of 100 zoo chimpanzees in the US. Interrater reliabilities of these samples were highly correlated, suggesting that their rank order was preserved. Comparison of the factor structures for the Japanese sample and for the original sample of chimpanzees in US zoos indicated that the overall structure was replicated and that the Dominance, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness domains clearly generalized. Consistent with earlier studies, older chimpanzees had higher Dominance and lower Extraversion and Openness scores. Correlations between the six domain scores and subjective well-being were comparable to those for chimpanzees housed in the US and Australia. These findings suggest that chimpanzee personality ratings are not affected by the culture of the raters.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Alexander", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Inoue-Murayama", "given" : "Miho", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hong", "given" : "Kyung Won", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Inoue", "given" : "Eiji", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Udono", "given" : "Toshifumi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ochiai", "given" : "Tomomi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Matsuzawa", "given" : "Tetsuro", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hirata", "given" : "Satoshi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "King", "given" : "J E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Primatology", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "283-292", "title" : "Assessing chimpanzee personality and subjective well-being in japan", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "71" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(King & Landau, 2003; Weiss et al., 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(King & Landau, 2003; Weiss et al., 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(King & Landau, 2003; Weiss et al., 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(King & Landau, 2003; Weiss et al., 2009). Chimpanzees higher in Neuroticism also perform more self-directed behaviours, such as scratching ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/ajp.22036", "ISBN" : "0275-2565", "ISSN" : "02752565", "PMID" : "22648997", "abstract" : "We monitored chimpanzee welfare during the introduction of on-exhibit cognitive research training and testing, as measured by behavior and interest in such training, and related individual variation to personality assessments. We observed 11 chimpanzees (six males; five females) over a 16-month period and compared their behavior across three conditions: (1) Baseline (nontraining/research situations) and (2) an on-going, off-exhibit program of Husbandry Training and (3) Research Pod Activities, on-exhibit, group training for cognitive testing. There was considerable individual variation in their interest levels during research sessions; females and those scoring higher for Openness were present more frequently (including those who actively participated and those who observed others participating), but interest did not vary in relation to rates of self-directed behaviors (SDBs), rank, or the level of social disruptions within the group (i.e. large-scale displays or fights). The frequency of SDBs was predicted by the Neuroticism personality factor, but did not differ across baseline and training contexts, indicating that these activities do not negatively impact welfare. We also explored vigilance as an indicator of social uncertainty, but social monitoring did not differ in relation to either social context or rank. Finally, we explored how the specific characteristics of the research context impacted on SDBs; namely, social context, reward contingency, and visual access to keepers. SDBs increased only when visual access to keepers was restricted, suggesting that visual contact reduced uncertainty in novel training contexts. Overall, the introduction of a cognitive research program did not compromise welfare, and the chimpanzees' repeated interest and willingness to participate suggests that the research was enriching.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Herrelko", "given" : "Elizabeth S.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vick", "given" : "Sarah Jane", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Buchanan-Smith", "given" : "Hannah M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Primatology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "9", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "828-840", "title" : "Cognitive research in zoo-housed chimpanzees: Influence of personality and impact on welfare", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "74" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Herrelko, Vick, & Buchanan-Smith, 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Herrelko, Vick, & Buchanan-Smith, 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Herrelko, Vick, & Buchanan-Smith, 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Herrelko, Vick, & Buchanan-Smith, 2012). However, we do not yet know whether chimpanzee subjective well-being and welfare states, such as stress frequency and physical health, are related. Moreover, research is needed to determine whether and how chimpanzee personality is related to a more extensive set of welfare indicators. To address these questions we collected ratings of welfare, subjective well-being, and personality in chimpanzees. Our first aim was to test the degree to which staff agreed in their ratings on an existing welfare questionnaire. Our second aim was to test whether there were associations between ratings on the welfare scale and ratings on the subjective well-being questionnaire. Our third aim was to test for associations between the ratings and observed behaviours. Our fourth aim was to test for associations between welfare, subjective well-being, and personality. 2. Methods2.1 Ethical approvalOur study was observational and non-invasive. Approval was sought and gained from the Edinburgh Zoo’s Budongo Trail Research Committee on 3 July 2014, by the Edinburgh Biological Services Unit on 11 March 2014 (AWERB No: OS04-14), and by Fundació Mona’s head researcher, Dr. Miquel Llorente, on 10 March, 2015. 2.2 SubjectsWe studied 31 chimpanzees, of whom 17 were males that ranged in ge from 12.32 to 51.05 years (mean = 27.04 years ± SD = 10.06 years). Of these chimpanzees, 8 males and 11 females were housed at the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland’s Edinburgh Zoo and 9 males and 4 females were housed at Fundació Mona in Girona, Spain. The Edinburgh Zoo chimpanzees lived in 1832m2 enclosure with outdoor and indoor areas, each with complex climbing structures, and ropes (Schel et al., 2013). The Fundació Mona chimpanzees lived in a 5640m2 naturalistic outdoor enclosure. The enclosure is divided in two areas (2420m2 and 3220m2) and contained natural grasses, wooden platforms, towers and ropes. Additional details on the Edinburgh Zoo chimpanzees and Fundació Mona are available in ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/ajp.22101", "ISBN" : "0275-2565", "ISSN" : "02752565", "PMID" : "23192644", "abstract" : "Chimpanzees are highly territorial and have the potential to be extremely aggressive toward unfamiliar individuals. In the wild, transfer between groups is almost exclusively completed by nulliparous females, yet in captivity there is often a need to introduce and integrate a range of individuals, including adult males. We describe the process of successfully integrating two groups of chimpanzees, each containing 11 individuals, in the Budongo Trail facility at the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland's Edinburgh Zoo. We use social network analysis to document changes in group dynamics within this population over the 16 months following integration. Aggression rates were low overall and members of the two original groups engaged in significantly fewer aggressive interactions over time. Association and grooming data indicate that relationships between members of the original groups became stronger and more affiliative with time. Despite these positive indicators the association data revealed the continued existence of two distinct subgroups, a year after integration. Our data show that when given complex space and freedom to exhibit natural fission-fusion groupings, in which the chimpanzees choose whom they wish to associate and interact with, the building of strong affiliative relationships with unfamiliar individuals is a very gradual process.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schel", "given" : "Anne Marijke", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Rawlings", "given" : "Bruce", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Claidi\u00e8re", "given" : "Nicolas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wilke", "given" : "Claudia", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wathan", "given" : "Jen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Richardson", "given" : "Jo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pearson", "given" : "Sophie", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "S. Herrelko", "given" : "Elizabeth", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Whiten", "given" : "Andrew", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Slocombe", "given" : "Katie", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Primatology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "254-266", "title" : "Network Analysis of Social Changes in a Captive Chimpanzee Community Following the Successful Integration of Two Adult Groups", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "75" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Schel et al., 2013)", "manualFormatting" : "Schel et al. (2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Schel et al., 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Schel et al., 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }Schel et al. (2013) and ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "1474-7049", "ISSN" : "14747049", "abstract" : "e evaluate a sanctuary chimpanzee sample (N = 11) using two adapted human assessment instruments: the Five-Factor Model (FFM) and Eysenck's Psychoticism-Extraversion-Neuroticism (PEN) model. The former has been widely used in studies of animal personality, whereas the latter has never been used to assess chimpanzees. We asked familiar keepers and scientists (N = 28) to rate 38 (FFM) and 12 (PEN) personality items. The personality surveys showed reliability in all of the items for both instruments. These were then analyzed in a principal component analysis and a regularized exploratory factor analysis, which revealed four and three components, respectively. The results indicate that both questionnaires show a clear factor structure, with characteristic factors not just for the species, but also for the sample type. However, due to its brevity, the PEN may be more suitable for assessing personality in a sanctuary, where employees do not have much time to devote to the evaluation process. In summary, both models are sensitive enough to evaluate the personality of a group of chimpanzees housed in a sanctuary.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "\u00dabeda", "given" : "Yul\u00e1n", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Llorente", "given" : "Miquel", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Evolutionary Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "182-196", "title" : "Personality in sanctuary-housed chimpanzees: A comparative approach of psychobiological and penta-factorial human models", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "13" }, "uris" : [ "", "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(\u00dabeda & Llorente, 2015)", "manualFormatting" : "\u00dabeda and Llorente (2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(\u00dabeda & Llorente, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(\u00dabeda & Llorente, 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }?beda and Llorente (2015), respectively.2.3 Instruments and observationsWe used four questionnaires: the welfare questionnaire (Robinson et al., 2016), the subjective well-being questionnaire (King & Landau, 2003), the Five Factor Model Questionnaire ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "1474-7049", "ISSN" : "14747049", "abstract" : "e evaluate a sanctuary chimpanzee sample (N = 11) using two adapted human assessment instruments: the Five-Factor Model (FFM) and Eysenck's Psychoticism-Extraversion-Neuroticism (PEN) model. The former has been widely used in studies of animal personality, whereas the latter has never been used to assess chimpanzees. We asked familiar keepers and scientists (N = 28) to rate 38 (FFM) and 12 (PEN) personality items. The personality surveys showed reliability in all of the items for both instruments. These were then analyzed in a principal component analysis and a regularized exploratory factor analysis, which revealed four and three components, respectively. The results indicate that both questionnaires show a clear factor structure, with characteristic factors not just for the species, but also for the sample type. However, due to its brevity, the PEN may be more suitable for assessing personality in a sanctuary, where employees do not have much time to devote to the evaluation process. In summary, both models are sensitive enough to evaluate the personality of a group of chimpanzees housed in a sanctuary.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "\u00dabeda", "given" : "Yul\u00e1n", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Llorente", "given" : "Miquel", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Evolutionary Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "182-196", "title" : "Personality in sanctuary-housed chimpanzees: A comparative approach of psychobiological and penta-factorial human models", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "13" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(\u00dabeda & Llorente, 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(\u00dabeda & Llorente, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(\u00dabeda & Llorente, 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(?beda & Llorente, 2015), and the Hominoid Personality Questionnaire (Weiss et al., 2009). ?beda and Llorente translated the welfare and subjective well-being questionnaires into Spanish and put them into an Excel spreadsheet. We also used existing behavioural data.2.3.1 Welfare questionnaireThe welfare questionnaire is comprised of three sections. In the first section, raters are instructed to answer questions about themselves and to explain the signs they use as indicators of positive and negative welfare, for example, “What signs (both physically and behaviourally) do you use as an indication that an animal has positive welfare?” The second section consists of a 12-item welfare questionnaire that is based on the factors---social relationships, mental stimulation, physical health, stress, and control---that McMillan ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McMillan", "given" : "FD", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Mental Health and Well-Being in Animals", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "title" : "Mental wellness: The concept of quality of life in animals", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(McMillan, 2005)", "manualFormatting" : "(2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(McMillan, 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(McMillan, 2005)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(2005) identified as important welfare domains. The questionnaire design was also influenced by descriptions of animal stress, coping, and physical health ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0412395800", "ISSN" : "09627286", "abstract" : "When individual vertebrates loose grip on their life conditions stress symptoms appear and their welfare becomes problematic. Present day research supports the view that stress can originate when an organism experiences a substantial reduction of predictability and/or controllability (P/C) of relevant events. Behavioural (conflict and disturbed behaviour) and physiological (neuro-endocrine and autonomic processes) aspects of a reduction of P/C are reviewed. The highly dynamic patterns of the homeostatic mechanisms activated during stress make it difficult to deduce any simple relationship between stress and welfare. Nevertheless the following conclusions are drawn and defended: - moderate stress may be necessary to optimize vigilance - both the occurrence of one dramatic life event and a long lasting low P/C of relevant life conditions may lead to chronic stress symptoms with a pathological character - the coherence of pre- and post-pathological symptoms is decisive for an evaluation of individual welfare. A list of relevant stress symptoms has been presented, all of which indicate some stage of serious welfare problems. Their occurrence should never be typical of animals living in a farm, laboratory or zoo housing system. However, if after all this is the case, such systems have to be corrected and replaced by more appropriate ones as soon as possible", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Broom", "given" : "D M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Johnson", "given" : "K G", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Animal Welfare", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1993" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Chapman and Hall", "publisher-place" : "London", "title" : "Stress and animal welfare", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Broom", "given" : "D M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Animal welfare", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "S", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "45-53", "title" : "Quality of life means welfare: How is it related to other concepts and assessed?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "16" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "/1991.69104167x", "ISBN" : "0021-8812", "ISSN" : "0021-8812", "PMID" : "1778832", "abstract" : "The term \"welfare\" refers to the state of an individual in relation to its environment, and this can be measured. Both failure to cope with the environment and difficulty in coping are indicators of poor welfare. Suffering and poor welfare often occur together, but welfare can be poor without suffering and welfare should not be defined solely in terms of subjective experiences. The situations that result in poor welfare are reviewed in this study with special reference to those in which an individual lacks control over interactions with its environment. The indicators of poor welfare include the following: reduced life expectancy, impaired growth, impaired reproduction, body damage, disease, immunosuppression, adrenal activity, behavior anomalies, and self-narcotization. The uses of measures of responsiveness, stereotypies, and animal preferences in welfare assessment are discussed. The need to make direct measurement of poor welfare as well as to use sophisticated studies of animal preferences is emphasized.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Broom", "given" : "D M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of animal science", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1991" ] ] }, "page" : "4167-4175", "title" : "Animal welfare: concepts and measurement.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "69" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Broom, 1991, 2007; Broom & Johnson, 1993)", "manualFormatting" : "(see Broom & Johnson, 1993; Broom, 1991, 2007)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Broom, 1991, 2007; Broom & Johnson, 1993)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Broom, 1991, 2007; Broom & Johnson, 1993)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(see Broom & Johnson, 1993; Broom, 1991, 2007). The wording of the ninth and tenth question was influenced by theADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1080/00480169.2011.610283", "ISSN" : "0048-0169", "PMID" : "22040330", "abstract" : "Ideas within the animal welfare science arena have evolved continuously throughout the last 30 years, and will continue to do so. This paper outlines some of these developments. These included reformulation of the five freedoms concept into the five domains of potential welfare compromise. This accommodated weaknesses in the former by distinguishing between the physical/functional and the mental factors that contribute to an animal's welfare state. This development reflected a rising scientific acceptance that the mental experiences of animals were legitimate foci for study and highlighted that what the animal itself experiences represents its welfare status. Initially, most concepts of animal welfare emphasised predominantly negative subjective experiences, such as thirst, hunger and pain, and negative affective states or feelings including anxiety, fear and boredom, but today positive experiences or emotions such as satiety, vitality, reward, contentment, curiosity and playfulness are also considered to be important. During the same period, the focus shifted from evaluating the impacts of individual mental subjective experiences or emotions towards seeking a more comprehensive, multifactorial understanding. The five domains concept was specifically designed to achieve this. Subsequent notions about quality of life (QoL) had the same objective, and emphasised the importance of positive experiences. However, some approaches to QoL assessment relied heavily on empathetic speculation about what animals may experience subjectively and this raised concerns about inappropriate anthropomorphic projections. Such pitfalls may be minimised when informed personnel rigorously apply objectively based methodologies to QoL assessments limited to a short time frame. It is clear that both formal and somewhat less formal QoL assessments of this type are already used to guide decision-making about the ongoing care and therapeutic management of animals on a daily basis. However, application of the recently introduced concepts of 'a life not worth living', 'a life worth avoiding', 'a life worth living' and 'a good life' is problematical, because extending the assessment time scale to the whole of life is attended by a number of as yet unresolved difficulties. Accordingly, their value in the practical management of animals is limited so that, at present, reliance on the minimum standards and recommendations for best practice outlined in codes of practice or welfare will con\u2026", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Green", "given" : "T C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mellor", "given" : "D J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "New Zealand veterinary journal", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011", "11" ] ] }, "page" : "263-271", "title" : "Extending ideas about animal welfare assessment to include 'quality of life' and related concepts.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "59" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Green & Mellor, 2011)", "manualFormatting" : " quality of life ", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Green & Mellor, 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Green & Mellor, 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" } quality of life scale ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1080/00480169.2011.610283", "ISSN" : "0048-0169", "PMID" : "22040330", "abstract" : "Ideas within the animal welfare science arena have evolved continuously throughout the last 30 years, and will continue to do so. This paper outlines some of these developments. These included reformulation of the five freedoms concept into the five domains of potential welfare compromise. This accommodated weaknesses in the former by distinguishing between the physical/functional and the mental factors that contribute to an animal's welfare state. This development reflected a rising scientific acceptance that the mental experiences of animals were legitimate foci for study and highlighted that what the animal itself experiences represents its welfare status. Initially, most concepts of animal welfare emphasised predominantly negative subjective experiences, such as thirst, hunger and pain, and negative affective states or feelings including anxiety, fear and boredom, but today positive experiences or emotions such as satiety, vitality, reward, contentment, curiosity and playfulness are also considered to be important. During the same period, the focus shifted from evaluating the impacts of individual mental subjective experiences or emotions towards seeking a more comprehensive, multifactorial understanding. The five domains concept was specifically designed to achieve this. Subsequent notions about quality of life (QoL) had the same objective, and emphasised the importance of positive experiences. However, some approaches to QoL assessment relied heavily on empathetic speculation about what animals may experience subjectively and this raised concerns about inappropriate anthropomorphic projections. Such pitfalls may be minimised when informed personnel rigorously apply objectively based methodologies to QoL assessments limited to a short time frame. It is clear that both formal and somewhat less formal QoL assessments of this type are already used to guide decision-making about the ongoing care and therapeutic management of animals on a daily basis. However, application of the recently introduced concepts of 'a life not worth living', 'a life worth avoiding', 'a life worth living' and 'a good life' is problematical, because extending the assessment time scale to the whole of life is attended by a number of as yet unresolved difficulties. Accordingly, their value in the practical management of animals is limited so that, at present, reliance on the minimum standards and recommendations for best practice outlined in codes of practice or welfare will con\u2026", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Green", "given" : "T C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mellor", "given" : "D J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "New Zealand veterinary journal", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011", "11" ] ] }, "page" : "263-271", "title" : "Extending ideas about animal welfare assessment to include 'quality of life' and related concepts.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "59" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Green & Mellor, 2011)", "manualFormatting" : "(Table 3 in Green & Mellor, 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Green & Mellor, 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Green & Mellor, 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Table 3 in Green & Mellor, 2011). Printed instructions asked raters to answer each question using a five-point scale, which includes answers that range from “very bad” to “very good” ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.02.003", "ISSN" : "0031-9384", "PMID" : "17428510", "abstract" : "It is now widely accepted that good welfare is not simply the absence of negative experiences, but rather is primarily the presence of positive experiences such as pleasure. However scientific investigation of positive emotions has long been neglected. This paper addresses two main issues: first, it reviews the current state of scientific knowledge that supports the existence of positive affective states in animals and, second, it suggests possible applications of this knowledge that may enhance quality of life under animal management conditions. In the first part of the paper, recent advances in psychology and neuroscience are reviewed to provide pragmatic frameworks based on cognitive processes (such as positive anticipation, contrast and controllability) for further investigations of positive emotions in animals. Thereafter, the neurobiological bases of positive emotions are highlighted in order to identify behavioral and physiological expressions of positive experiences in animals. Monitoring both the autonomic nervous system (via heart rate and its variability) and the immune system could offer relevant tools to better assess emotional states in animals, complementary to classical adrenocortical measures. In the second part of the paper, useful strategies for enhancing positive experiences (such as physical, social and cognitive enrichment or putative genetic selection) are outlined. Then this paper emphasizes practical applications for assessing and promoting positive emotions that may help in providing animals with a better quality of life. Play, affiliative behaviors and some vocalizations appear to be the most promising convenient indicators for assessing positive experiences in laboratory and farm animals under commercial conditions.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Boissy", "given" : "A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manteuffel", "given" : "Gerhard", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jensen", "given" : "Margit Bak", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Moe", "given" : "Randi Oppermann", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Spruijt", "given" : "Berry", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Keeling", "given" : "Linda J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Winckler", "given" : "Christoph", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Forkman", "given" : "Bj\u00f6rn", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dimitrov", "given" : "Ivan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Langbein", "given" : "Jan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bakken", "given" : "Morten", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Veissier", "given" : "Isabelle", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Aubert", "given" : "Arnaud", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Physiology & behavior", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007", "10", "22" ] ] }, "page" : "375-397", "title" : "Assessment of positive emotions in animals to improve their welfare.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "92" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "ISSN" : "1090-0233", "PMID" : "17613265", "abstract" : "As a complement to the concentration on negative states in welfare science, scientists are increasingly considering the desirability of measuring positive outcomes. Since evaluation of an animal's mental state is a critical goal for welfare assessment, considerations of both positive feelings (what an animal \"likes\") and resources that an animal is motivated to obtain (what an animal \"wants\") appear to be important. However, since animals may make choices that are not in their long-term interests, an assessment of positive feelings and resources should include an evaluation of any associated actual or potential harms, such as fear, distress, pain, injury and disease. A review of current evidence suggests that positive welfare can be best assessed by evaluation of resources (i.e. inputs) that are valued by an animal and by positive outcomes such as behavioural responses, influences on cognitive processes and physiological markers. Since negative welfare is often inversely correlated with positive welfare measures, current welfare policy will have been achieving some positive welfare outcomes, however the explicit inclusion of positive welfare outcomes in the framework allows for analyses that are both deeper and more in tune with commonsense, which can hopefully yield more objective policies.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Yeates", "given" : "J W", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Main", "given" : "D. C J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Veterinary Journal", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008", "3" ] ] }, "page" : "293-300", "title" : "Assessment of positive welfare: a review.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "175" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Boissy et al., 2007; Yeates & Main, 2008)", "manualFormatting" : "(e.g. Boissy et al., 2007; Yeates & Main, 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Boissy et al., 2007; Yeates & Main, 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Boissy et al., 2007; Yeates & Main, 2008)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(e.g. Boissy et al., 2007; Yeates & Main, 2008). The third section asks for demographic details on animals, including their date of birth and sex.2.3.2 Subjective well-being questionnaireThe chimpanzee subjective well-being questionnaire is comprised of four questions relating to the animal’s ability to achieve their goals, the animal’s satisfaction with social relationships, the amount of time the animal is happy, and how happy the rater would be if they were that animal for a week (King & Landau, 2003). For each item, raters are instructed to indicate on a Likert scale ranging from 1 “Displays either total absence or negligible amounts of the trait or state” to 7 “Displays extremely large amounts of the trait” the standing of a particular animal. 2.3.3 Personality questionnairesTen of the Fundació Mona chimps were rated on the chimpanzee Five Factor Model questionnaire ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "1474-7049", "ISSN" : "14747049", "abstract" : "e evaluate a sanctuary chimpanzee sample (N = 11) using two adapted human assessment instruments: the Five-Factor Model (FFM) and Eysenck's Psychoticism-Extraversion-Neuroticism (PEN) model. The former has been widely used in studies of animal personality, whereas the latter has never been used to assess chimpanzees. We asked familiar keepers and scientists (N = 28) to rate 38 (FFM) and 12 (PEN) personality items. The personality surveys showed reliability in all of the items for both instruments. These were then analyzed in a principal component analysis and a regularized exploratory factor analysis, which revealed four and three components, respectively. The results indicate that both questionnaires show a clear factor structure, with characteristic factors not just for the species, but also for the sample type. However, due to its brevity, the PEN may be more suitable for assessing personality in a sanctuary, where employees do not have much time to devote to the evaluation process. In summary, both models are sensitive enough to evaluate the personality of a group of chimpanzees housed in a sanctuary.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "\u00dabeda", "given" : "Yul\u00e1n", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Llorente", "given" : "Miquel", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Evolutionary Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "182-196", "title" : "Personality in sanctuary-housed chimpanzees: A comparative approach of psychobiological and penta-factorial human models", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "13" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(\u00dabeda & Llorente, 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(\u00dabeda & Llorente, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(\u00dabeda & Llorente, 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(?beda & Llorente, 2015). This questionnaire was based on King and Figueredo’s ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "King", "given" : "J E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Figueredo", "given" : "AJ", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of research in personality", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "31", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1997" ] ] }, "page" : "257-271", "title" : "The Five-Factor Model plus Dominance in Chimpanzee Personality", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "271" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(King & Figueredo, 1997)", "manualFormatting" : "(1997)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(King & Figueredo, 1997)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(King & Figueredo, 1997)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(1997) Chimpanzee Personality Questionnaire. The Five Factor Model questionnaire includes 38 Spanish antonym pairs ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "1474-7049", "ISSN" : "14747049", "abstract" : "e evaluate a sanctuary chimpanzee sample (N = 11) using two adapted human assessment instruments: the Five-Factor Model (FFM) and Eysenck's Psychoticism-Extraversion-Neuroticism (PEN) model. The former has been widely used in studies of animal personality, whereas the latter has never been used to assess chimpanzees. We asked familiar keepers and scientists (N = 28) to rate 38 (FFM) and 12 (PEN) personality items. The personality surveys showed reliability in all of the items for both instruments. These were then analyzed in a principal component analysis and a regularized exploratory factor analysis, which revealed four and three components, respectively. 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Each chimpanzee is rated on a seven-point scale where one word is assigned a “1” and its antonym is assigned a “7”. An example item is “Sumiso [Submissive] (1) vs. Dominante [Dominant] (7)”. The 18 Edinburgh chimpanzees were rated on the Hominoid Personality Questionnaire, which consists of 54 items and is an expansion of the Chimpanzee Personality Questionnaire ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/ajp.20649", "ISBN" : "1098-2345", "ISSN" : "02752565", "PMID" : "19199350", "abstract" : "We tested whether the cultural background of raters influenced ratings of chimpanzee personality. Our study involved comparing personality and subjective well-being ratings of 146 chimpanzees in Japan that were housed in zoos, research institutes, and a retirement sanctuary to ratings of chimpanzees in US and Australian zoos. Personality ratings were made on a translated and expanded version of a questionnaire used to rate chimpanzees in the US and Australia. Subjective well-being ratings were made on a translated version of a questionnaire used to rate chimpanzees in the US and Australia. The mean interrater reliabilities of the 43 original adjectives did not markedly differ between the present sample and the original sample of 100 zoo chimpanzees in the US. Interrater reliabilities of these samples were highly correlated, suggesting that their rank order was preserved. Comparison of the factor structures for the Japanese sample and for the original sample of chimpanzees in US zoos indicated that the overall structure was replicated and that the Dominance, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness domains clearly generalized. Consistent with earlier studies, older chimpanzees had higher Dominance and lower Extraversion and Openness scores. Correlations between the six domain scores and subjective well-being were comparable to those for chimpanzees housed in the US and Australia. These findings suggest that chimpanzee personality ratings are not affected by the culture of the raters.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Alexander", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Inoue-Murayama", "given" : "Miho", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hong", "given" : "Kyung Won", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Inoue", "given" : "Eiji", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Udono", "given" : "Toshifumi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ochiai", "given" : "Tomomi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Matsuzawa", "given" : "Tetsuro", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hirata", "given" : "Satoshi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "King", "given" : "J E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Primatology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "283-292", "title" : "Assessing chimpanzee personality and subjective well-being in japan", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "71" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weiss et al., 2009). Each item consists of an adjective followed by one to three descriptive sentences, e.g., “GENTLE: Subject responds to others in an easy-going, kind, and considerate manner. Subject is not rough or threatening.” Each chimpanzee is rated on a seven-point Likert scale from 1 “Displays either total absence or negligible amounts of the trait.” to 7 “Displays extremely large amounts of the trait.”2.3.4 Behavioural observations Behavioural data has been collected on the Edinburgh Zoo chimpanzees by researchers since 2012. Researchers collect data on variable days and at variable times between 09:00 and 17:00. Observations occur over 30-minute periods and are focussed on one area of the enclosure, with researchers performing three 10-minute focal observations on different chimpanzees, with an instantaneous group scan sample in between each focal. This creates the following observation schedule: group scan, 10-minute focal, group scan, 10-minute focal, group scan, final 10-minute focal, final group scan. At these scan points, the identity and activity of each chimpanzee who was visible in the observed area was recorded. Each chimpanzee was recorded as resting, travelling (walking, running), climbing, foraging (moving around, looking for food), eating, playing, autogrooming, displaying, receiving or giving grooming, mutual grooming, fighting, or “other”. Chimpanzees not visible were recorded as “out of sight”. Operational definitions for these behaviours are available in Supplementary Table 1. Data collected from focal observations were primarily binary, that is, the behaviour did or did not occur during the focal sample period. During the 10-minute focal observations, a point sample of the focal animal’s nearest neighbour (identity and distance in metres) was taken at the start of the focal period. Zero-one sampling of the occurrence of the following behaviours was then recorded for the duration of the 10-minute focal sample: displaced by other, displace other, regurgitation, coprophagy, urophagy, allogrooming, autogrooming, eating, auto-hairplucking, hairplucked by other, and hairpluck other.2.4. Data collectionThe welfare and subjective well-being ratings of all the chimpanzees were collected at two time points. The first wave of data collection (Time 1) occurred between August and November of 2014 and only included the 18 Edinburgh Zoo chimpanzees. Ratings were made by two researchers and four keepers who were familiar with, i.e. able to differentiate and describe, the chimpanzees (mean = 3.0 raters per subject). The second wave of data collection (Time 2) occurred between April and June of 2016 and included the 18 Edinburgh Zoo chimpanzees and the 13 Fundació Mona chimpanzees. These 31 chimpanzees were rated by 15 researchers and 4 keepers who were familiar with the individual animals (mean = 7.61 raters per subject). One researcher rated the Edinburgh chimpanzees in both waves of data collection. All other raters only rated chimpanzees in a single wave.Between March and July of 2015 three researchers familiar with the Edinburgh Zoo chimpanzees rated all 18 individuals on the 54-item Hominoid Personality Questionnaire (mean = 2 raters per subject) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Smith", "given" : "CG", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "publisher" : "University of Edinburgh", "title" : "Correlations of Measures of Autistic-like Traits in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)", "type" : "thesis" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Smith, 2015)", "manualFormatting" : "(Smith, 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Smith, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Smith, 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Smith, 2015). As part of ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "1474-7049", "ISSN" : "14747049", "abstract" : "e evaluate a sanctuary chimpanzee sample (N = 11) using two adapted human assessment instruments: the Five-Factor Model (FFM) and Eysenck's Psychoticism-Extraversion-Neuroticism (PEN) model. The former has been widely used in studies of animal personality, whereas the latter has never been used to assess chimpanzees. We asked familiar keepers and scientists (N = 28) to rate 38 (FFM) and 12 (PEN) personality items. The personality surveys showed reliability in all of the items for both instruments. These were then analyzed in a principal component analysis and a regularized exploratory factor analysis, which revealed four and three components, respectively. The results indicate that both questionnaires show a clear factor structure, with characteristic factors not just for the species, but also for the sample type. However, due to its brevity, the PEN may be more suitable for assessing personality in a sanctuary, where employees do not have much time to devote to the evaluation process. 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For the 31 chimpanzees rated in Time 2 there were 33 missing responses to welfare questionnaire items out of 2844 possible responses. For all questionnaires, missing data were replaced with the overall mean for that item ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1080/00221309809595542", "ISBN" : "0022-1309; 0022-1309", "ISSN" : "0022-1309", "PMID" : "9935342", "abstract" : "The effects of using two methods (item mean and person mean) for replacing missing data in Likert scales were studied. The results showed that both methods were good representations of the original data when both the number of respondents with missing data and the number of items missing were 20% or less. As the numbers of missing items and of respondents with missing data increased for the person mean substitution method, a spurious increase in the inter-item correlations (and, therefore, reliability) for the sale was produced. 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These results suggest caution in the use of the person mean substitution method as the numbers of missing items and respondents increase.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Downey", "given" : "R G", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "King", "given" : "C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Journal of general psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1998" ] ] }, "page" : "175-91", "title" : "Missing data in Likert ratings: A comparison of replacement methods.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "125" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Downey & King, 1998)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Downey & King, 1998)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Downey & King, 1998)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Downey & King, 1998).2.5 Data analysisUnless otherwise stated, statistical analyses were performed using R version 3.1.1 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "3_900051_00_3", "ISSN" : "3-900051-07-0", "abstract" : "R Development Core Team (2011). 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For our study, we carried out a generalizability study on the facets and their interactions. We evaluated every combination of facet interaction using maximum likelihood estimation and linear mixed models, with the R package ‘lmer’.2.5.2 Interrater reliabilities of the personality itemsThe reliability of chimpanzee personality items has been described (King & Figueredo, 1997; Weiss et al., 2009), and as we only measured personality at one time point, it was not possible to evaluate reliability across time. However, to examine the reliability of personality items between raters, we used two intraclass correlations or ICCs. The first, ICC(3,1), indicates the reliability of individual ratings, and the second, ICC(3,k), indicates the reliability of mean ratings across k raters ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.420", "ISBN" : "0033-2909 (Print)\\r0033-2909 (Linking)", "ISSN" : "0033-2909", "PMID" : "18839484", "abstract" : "Reliability coefficients often take the form of intraclass correlation coefficients. In this article, guidelines are given for choosing among six different forms of the intraclass correlation for reliability studies in which n target are rated by k judges. Relevant to the choice of the coefficient are the appropriate statistical model for the reliability and the application to be made of the reliability results. 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If these scores were consistent across Time 1 and Time 2, then we aggregated across both time points. We performed three principal component analyses (PCA) and three regularized exploratory factor analyses (REFA) (Jung & Lee, 2011). The first included the welfare items and the subjective well-being items. The second of each of these analyses included the welfare items. The third included the subjective well-being items. To determine the number of components to extract we used parallel analyses using the paran function ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dinno", "given" : "A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dinno", "given" : "MA", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "title" : "R package 'paran'", "type" : "article" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Dinno & Dinno, 2010)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Dinno & Dinno, 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Dinno & Dinno, 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Dinno & Dinno, 2010) and inspected the scree plots. 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We conducted the REFAs in MATLAB (R20014b) using code provided by Sunho Jung.We then created unit-weighted component scores ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gorsuch", "given" : "R L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "edition" : "2nd", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Erlbaum", "publisher-place" : "Hillsdale, NJ", "title" : "Factor Analysis", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gorsuch, 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gorsuch, 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gorsuch, 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Gorsuch, 1983) based on the three structures delineated by the PCAs and REFAs. To do so, items with loadings less than |0.4| were assigned a weight of zero, items with loadings that were greater than or equal to 0.4 were assigned a weight of +1, and items with loadings that were less than or equal to -0.4 were assigned a weight of -1. If an item had loadings greater than |0.4| onto two components or factors, we assigned the item to the component or factor with the highest loading.2.5.4 Personality component scoresBecause the chimpanzees at Edinburgh Zoo and Fundació Mona were assessed on related questionnaires that had different answer formats, we matched items by their names and descriptions to create comparable component scores. For example, the antonym pair Triste [sad]/Alegre[cheerful] was matched with the adjective depressed. Only one antonym pair, Desconfiado [mistrustful]/Confiado [trustful], did not match a Hominoid Personality Questionnaire item. This antonym pair was therefore not used in our analyses (for a list of matched personality items see Supplementary Table 2). After matching the personality items, using the published structure in Weiss et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/ajp.20649", "ISBN" : "1098-2345", "ISSN" : "02752565", "PMID" : "19199350", "abstract" : "We tested whether the cultural background of raters influenced ratings of chimpanzee personality. Our study involved comparing personality and subjective well-being ratings of 146 chimpanzees in Japan that were housed in zoos, research institutes, and a retirement sanctuary to ratings of chimpanzees in US and Australian zoos. Personality ratings were made on a translated and expanded version of a questionnaire used to rate chimpanzees in the US and Australia. Subjective well-being ratings were made on a translated version of a questionnaire used to rate chimpanzees in the US and Australia. The mean interrater reliabilities of the 43 original adjectives did not markedly differ between the present sample and the original sample of 100 zoo chimpanzees in the US. Interrater reliabilities of these samples were highly correlated, suggesting that their rank order was preserved. Comparison of the factor structures for the Japanese sample and for the original sample of chimpanzees in US zoos indicated that the overall structure was replicated and that the Dominance, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness domains clearly generalized. Consistent with earlier studies, older chimpanzees had higher Dominance and lower Extraversion and Openness scores. Correlations between the six domain scores and subjective well-being were comparable to those for chimpanzees housed in the US and Australia. These findings suggest that chimpanzee personality ratings are not affected by the culture of the raters.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Alexander", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Inoue-Murayama", "given" : "Miho", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hong", "given" : "Kyung Won", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Inoue", "given" : "Eiji", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Udono", "given" : "Toshifumi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ochiai", "given" : "Tomomi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Matsuzawa", "given" : "Tetsuro", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hirata", "given" : "Satoshi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "King", "given" : "J E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Primatology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "283-292", "title" : "Assessing chimpanzee personality and subjective well-being in japan", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "71" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2009)", "manualFormatting" : "(2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss et al., 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(2009), we calculated unit-weighted scores for Dominance, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, and Openness. 2.5.5 Regression of welfare component and observed behaviourIn exploratory analyses, we examined the focal and scan data during two time frames; of the three months before and of the three months after each of the two welfare and subjective well-being rating time points. At Time 1 our models were based on 253 focal observations (mean per chimpanzee ± SD = 14.06 ± 2.69), from July to December, 2014. At Time 2, our models were based on 105 focal observations (mean per chimpanzee ± SD = 5.83 ± 1.42), taken between January and June, 2015. While the amount of scan data was larger (5471 records at Time 1, 2553 at Time 2), each record contained only a single behaviour for each chimpanzee, whereas within our focal data, each row contained many different bits of information, one bit for each behaviour, e.g. aggression or grooming. For regression modelling we tested for associations between component scores representing welfare and observed behaviours. The sparsity of the behavioural data was problematic for ordinary least squares regression. We therefore we used least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression for variable selection as it is robust to the effects of sparse data ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/j.1467-9868.2005.00503.x", "ISBN" : "1369-7412", "ISSN" : "13697412", "PMID" : "20713001", "abstract" : "We propose the elastic net, a new regularization and variable selection method. Real world data and a simulation study show that the elastic net often outperforms the lasso, while enjoying a similar sparsity of representation. In addition, the elastic net encourages a grouping effect, where strongly correlated predictors tend to be in or out of the model together. The elastic net is particularly useful when the number of predictors (p) is much bigger than the number of observations (n). By contrast, the lasso is not a very satisfactory variable selection method in the p\u226bn case. 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(Verified 29 July. 2015).", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "title" : "Lasso and Elastic-Net Regularized Generalized Linear Models", "type" : "article" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Friedman, Hastie, Simon, Tibshirani, & Hastie, 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Friedman, Hastie, Simon, Tibshirani, & Hastie, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Friedman, Hastie, Simon, Tibshirani, & Hastie, 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Friedman, Hastie, Simon, Tibshirani, & Hastie, 2015) to run the LASSO regressions.2.5.6 Correlation of welfare, subjective well-being, and personality componentsFor the 28 chimpanzees rated on personality, component scores based on the welfare and subjective well-being structures were correlated with the six chimpanzee personality dimensions using Spearman-rank correlations. The welfare and subjective well-being components were also correlated using the same method.2.5.7 Linear models of welfare, subjective well-being, and personality dimensionsWe fit linear models using the lm function. Our dependent variables were the component score or scores based on the PCA and REFA of the welfare and subjective well-being items. The predictors included sex, age, and facility, which served as covariates, and the six personality component scores. Age and the personality component scores were mean centred and divided by two standard deviations to make their effect sizes comparable to those for facility and sex ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/sim.3107", "ISBN" : "2007090091480", "ISSN" : "02776715", "PMID" : "19455509", "abstract" : "Although sample size calculations have become an important element in the design of research projects, such methods for studies involving current status data are scarce. Here, we propose a method for calculating power and sample size for studies using current status data. This method is based on a Weibull survival model for a two-group comparison. The Weibull model allows the investigator to specify a group difference in terms of a hazards ratio or a failure time ratio. We consider exponential, Weibull and uniformly distributed censoring distributions. We base our power calculations on a parametric approach with the Wald test because it is easy for medical investigators to conceptualize and specify the required input variables. As expected, studies with current status data have substantially less power than studies with the usual right-censored failure time data. 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We used the MuMIn package ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "citeulike:11961261", "abstract" : "Model selection and model averaging based on information criteria (AICc and alike).", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Barton", "given" : "Kamil", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Version", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "18", "title" : "MuMIn: Multi-model inference. R package version 1.9.13", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "1" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Barton, 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Barton, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Barton, 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Barton, 2015) to calculate the marginal r2, which indicates the amount of variance in each model.As the personality questionnaires used to rate the chimpanzees at Edinburgh Zoo and Fundació Mona differed, we ran additional linear models excluding the ten Fundació Mona chimpanzees. If we found similar effects, both in terms of size and direction, then this would suggest that the results were unaffected by the use of different questionnaires. 3. Results3.1 Generalizability theory and reliabilityThe variance components of the generalizability study are shown in Table 1. The majority of the variance (excluding the residual) in responses to the questionnaire is captured by the Item facet, which captures the variation between answers to different questions. Other facets that captured more than 0% of the variance include Subject and Subject × Item, both of which reflected the variation in welfare we would expect to see across a group of chimpanzees with differing mental and physical health.--- Insert Table 1 About Here --- The generalizability coefficients in Table 2 represent the reliability of the individual items, i.e., how consistently they are used, across different chimpanzees, different raters, and different study waves. All but three of these coefficients are strong (> 0.8) and all coefficients are greater than 0.6. In small sample animal studies, these estimates are within reason ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1207/s15327906mbr3002_3", "ISSN" : "0027-3171", "abstract" : "Psychometric findings are reported from two studies concerning the construct validity, temporal stability, and interrater reliability of the latent common factors underlying subjective assessments by human raters of personality traits in two nonhuman animal species: (a) the Stumptail macaque (Maraca arctoides), a cercopithecine monkey; and (b) the Zebra finch (Poephila guttata), an estrildid songbird. Because most theories of animal personality have historically implied that certain personality constructs should be relatively universal across taxa, parallel analyses of similar data are reported for two phylogenetically distant species of subject using the same psychometric methods. Each of the samples was drawn from a socially-housed colony of the same species: that of macaques consisted of 5 mature adult fem ales and 8 of their adult offspring and that of finches consisted of 5 adult individuals. A modified version of the 1978 Stevenson-Hinde and Zunz (SHZ) list of personality items was applied to the macaques at various times during the eight years from 1980-1988 and to the finches during 1992. This study also used the three SHZ scales - Confident, Excitable, and Sociable - originally derived from principal components. Generalizability analyses were used to assess the construct validity, temporal stability, and interrater reliability of the hypothesized factors. Both Stumptail macaques and Zebra finches manifest measurable personality factors that are highly valid across multiple items, stable across multiple years, and reliable across multiple raters. The same model fits both species, as predicted by theory. The construct validity of the factors is slightly higher for the finches than for the macaques, although the interrater reliability is somewhat lower. This study illustrates how generalizability analysis can be used to test prespecified confirmatory factor models when the number of individual subjects is quite small.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Figueredo", "given" : "Aurelio Jos\u00e9", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cox", "given" : "Roberta Lea", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Rhine", "given" : "Ramon J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Multivariate Behavioral Research", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1995", "4" ] ] }, "page" : "167-197", "title" : "A Generalizability Analysis of Subjective Personality Assessments in the Stumptail Macaque and the Zebra Finch", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "30" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Figueredo, Cox, & Rhine, 1995)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Figueredo, Cox, & Rhine, 1995)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Figueredo, Cox, & Rhine, 1995)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Figueredo, Cox, & Rhine, 1995) and alone, do not suggest that any items should be removed from further analysis.The overall generalizability of the instrument was Eρ2= 0.92, and so was well above all minimum acceptable standards (0.7 to 0.8) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.04.023", "ISSN" : "00033472", "abstract" : "In a sense, one could say that theories cannot be better than the data that can support or reject them. Thus, researchers should be very careful when planning the design of their study so as to ensure that the measurements obtained yield the best information in terms of relevance to the research question in hand (i.e. validity) and accuracy (i.e. reliability) (e.g. Dunbar 1976; Martin & Bateson 1986). In this paper we introduce the framework and procedures of generalizability theory (GT) and illustrate its utility by applying it to data on social grooming collected with different recording methods and at different times of day. GTcan help animal behaviour researchers to estimate multiple sources of error in their measurement procedures, to assess their relative importance, and to use this information for making decisions regarding the best measurement design that should be adopted during a particular study, including, among others, the methods of sampling and recording behavioural observations.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hernandez-Lloreda", "given" : "Maria Victoria", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Colmenares", "given" : "Fernando", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Animal Behaviour", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "page" : "983-988", "title" : "The utility of generalizability theory in the study of animal behaviour", "type" : "article", "volume" : "71" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hernandez-Lloreda & Colmenares, 2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hernandez-Lloreda & Colmenares, 2006)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hernandez-Lloreda & Colmenares, 2006)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hernandez-Lloreda & Colmenares, 2006), indicating that the relative (or between-individual) reliability is strong. The overall dependability (Φ = 0.82) also indicated that the absolute (or within-individual) reliability was strong.All 37 personality items were found to be reliable (Supplementary Table 3). The ICC(3,1) estimates ranged from 0.11 to 0.59 with a mean of 0.36 and the ICC(3,k) estimates ranged from 0.59 to 0.94 with a mean of 0.84.--- Insert Table 2 About Here ---3.2 PCA and REFA of welfare and subjective well-being itemsThe parallel analysis and scree plot revealed that the four subjective well-being items with the 12 welfare items all 16 items loaded onto a single component (Table 3, left panel), which we named welfareSWB. We also found a single component structure when we performed separate PCAs and REFA with the 12 welfare items (Table 3, middle panel) and four subjective well-being items (Table 3, right panel). The REFA revealed that the welfare items relating to the physical health and stress frequency did not have loadings that exceeded |0.4|. We therefore did not include these items in our component scores.--- Insert Table 3 About Here ---3.3 Regression of welfare and subjective well-being components and observed behaviourEvery instance of each behaviour on the focal and scan ethograms that could be related to welfare was included in our models. These focal behaviours were regurgitation, coprophagy, urophagy, allogrooming, autogrooming, autoplucking, plucked by other, pluck other, and distance to nearest neighbour. The scan sample behaviours included were resting, playing, autogrooming, aggression (displaying), receiving or giving grooming, mutual grooming, and fighting. Out of sight and “other” were included as control variables. Individual recordings of these behaviours were regressed onto the welfareSWB component using LASSO regression. We created two models for focal behaviours (one for each time point) and two models for scan behaviours (one for each time point).The LASSO models predicting welfareSWB ratings from focal behaviour are shown in Table 4. In the first model, negative behaviours, such as regurgitation and coprophagy, were retained. The more instances of these behaviours observed, the lower the individual’s welfareSWB score. The other behaviours included were social, e.g. grooming, distance to nearest neighbour, which were related to lower welfareSWB.--- Insert Table 4 About Here ---The smaller coefficients in the first model could have been retained as a result of noise. This bears out in the second regression, which is modelled with fewer observations, and does not retain grooming or plucking with the same sign in both models. The second regression is thus useful for determining which variables consistently predict welfare. Regurgitation, coprophagy, and urophagy were retained in the second model, with the same signs and similar effect sizes. The only other variable to be retained was nearest neighbour distance, which also had a negative and small effect size. Effect sizes for the LASSO models of the scan samples were smaller and less consistent between time points (Table 5). The scan models retained resting, playing, and “out of sight”, with the same sign in both models. Chimpanzees who were resting were not engaged in other behaviours, most of which were positively associated with welfareSWB. --- Insert Table 5 About Here ---3.4 Correlation of welfare, subjective well-being, welfareSWB, and personalityThe welfare and subjective well-being components were highly correlated (rs = 0.95, 95% CI = 0.90 to 0.98). Higher Openness and lower Neuroticism were associated with higher welfare, subjective well-being, and welfareSWB; higher Extraversion was associated with higher subjective well-being and welfareSWB (Table 6).--- Insert Table 6 About Here ---3.5 Linear models of welfareSWB and personality dimensionsIn the model of welfareSWB predicted by the personality dimensions we found that chimpanzees who were higher in Extraversion and lower in Neuroticism were higher in welfareSWB (Table 7). This held true for models predicting welfare but there was no association between personality and subjective well-being (Supplementary Table 4). There were no significant effects of age, sex, or facility in any model predicting the welfare, SWB, or welfareSWB. --- Insert Table 7 About Here ---As a sensitivity check, we ran the same models, but only included the 18 Edinburgh Zoo chimpanzees. We found that personality was not significantly associated with the subjective well-being, welfare, or welfareSWB, but that the directions of the effects were unchanged. The only exceptions to this were for Agreeableness in all models and the association between sex and subjective well-being. In both cases, the direction of the effect flipped from positive to negative (Supplementary Table 5). This suggests that we did not find significant associations due to the reduced sample size and low statistical power.4. DiscussionWe found that staff familiar with captive chimpanzees agreed on ratings of welfare and happiness. These ratings were highly correlated and comprised a single dimension, welfareSWB. Higher welfareSWB scores were associated with behavioural indicators of positive and negative welfare states, a finding that was replicated across two time points. Higher welfareSWB scores were associated with higher Extraversion and lower Neuroticism. These results are consistent with previous studies of brown capuchin monkeys (Robinson et al., 2016) and happiness in nonhuman primates ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/ajp.20649", "ISBN" : "1098-2345", "ISSN" : "02752565", "PMID" : "19199350", "abstract" : "We tested whether the cultural background of raters influenced ratings of chimpanzee personality. Our study involved comparing personality and subjective well-being ratings of 146 chimpanzees in Japan that were housed in zoos, research institutes, and a retirement sanctuary to ratings of chimpanzees in US and Australian zoos. Personality ratings were made on a translated and expanded version of a questionnaire used to rate chimpanzees in the US and Australia. Subjective well-being ratings were made on a translated version of a questionnaire used to rate chimpanzees in the US and Australia. The mean interrater reliabilities of the 43 original adjectives did not markedly differ between the present sample and the original sample of 100 zoo chimpanzees in the US. Interrater reliabilities of these samples were highly correlated, suggesting that their rank order was preserved. Comparison of the factor structures for the Japanese sample and for the original sample of chimpanzees in US zoos indicated that the overall structure was replicated and that the Dominance, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness domains clearly generalized. Consistent with earlier studies, older chimpanzees had higher Dominance and lower Extraversion and Openness scores. Correlations between the six domain scores and subjective well-being were comparable to those for chimpanzees housed in the US and Australia. These findings suggest that chimpanzee personality ratings are not affected by the culture of the raters.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Alexander", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Inoue-Murayama", "given" : "Miho", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hong", "given" : "Kyung Won", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Inoue", "given" : "Eiji", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Udono", "given" : "Toshifumi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ochiai", "given" : "Tomomi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Matsuzawa", "given" : "Tetsuro", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hirata", "given" : "Satoshi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "King", "given" : "J E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Primatology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "283-292", "title" : "Assessing chimpanzee personality and subjective well-being in japan", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "71" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/ajp.22275", "ISBN" : "0275-2565; 1098-2345", "ISSN" : "10982345", "PMID" : "24677279", "abstract" : "The purpose of this study was to determine the personality structure of eight male gorillas (five silverbacks and three blackbacks) housed at the Sedgwick County Zoo in Wichita, Kansas and to determine if personality predicts behavior and subjective well-being in male gorillas living in bachelor groups. We used the Hominoid Personality Questionnaire which contains 54 descriptive adjectives with representative items from the human five-factor model. Rates of 12 behaviors that are broadly defined as agonistic or affiliative were independently recorded and calculated. Principal components analysis yielded three reliable personality factors: Dominance, Extraversion/Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. These results are the first potential quantitative evidence for a Conscientiousness factor in a hominoid other than chimpanzees and humans. This suggests that Conscientiousness originated with the common ancestor of male gorillas and humans around 10 million years ago. These results indicate that humans can reliably assess the personality and subjective well-being of captive male gorillas living in bachelor groups with robust levels of inter-rater reliability and validity. Furthermore, personality can accurately predict behavior (r\u2009=\u20090.79; n\u2009=\u200913) and subjective well-being (r\u2009=\u20090.83; n\u2009=\u20095) in gorillas and provide convergent and discriminant validity for the personality factors. The results advocate for the use of personality questionnaires in the captive management of bachelor gorillas over long-term multi-institutional behavioral studies. Am. J. Primatol. \u00a9 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schaefer", "given" : "Sarah A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Steklis", "given" : "H. Dieter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Primatology", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "9", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "page" : "879-889", "title" : "Personality and subjective well-being in captive male western lowland gorillas living in bachelor groups", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "76" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Schaefer & Steklis, 2014; Weiss et al., 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Schaefer & Steklis, 2014; Weiss et al., 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Schaefer & Steklis, 2014; Weiss et al., 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Schaefer & Steklis, 2014; Weiss et al., 2009).Higher welfareSWB was associated with behaviours, including, but not limited to, regurgitation, urophagy, and coprophagy, as well as with lower frequencies of resting and greater distance from conspecifics. The negative association between resting and welfareSWB likely reflects a lack of independence between observations; when a chimpanzee is resting, he or she is not doing something more enjoyable, for example, engaging in social behaviours.We expected that chimpanzees who played more would be rated as higher in welfare, but the opposite was true. This may be because, although play is often considered a sign of positive welfare, it can be higher in stressful situations ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.01.007", "ISSN" : "00033472", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Held", "given" : "Suzanne D.E.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "\u0160pinka", "given" : "Marek", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Animal Behaviour", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011", "5" ] ] }, "page" : "891-899", "title" : "Animal play and animal welfare", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "81" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Held & \u0160pinka, 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Held & \u0160pinka, 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Held & \u0160pinka, 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Held & ?pinka, 2011). When we examined our data, we found that there were few observations of play and that these instances were observed in a select group of females at Edinburgh Zoo. It may be that individuals who spend more time playing alone may lack the social standing to engage in prosocial grooming and other social activities. Welfare ratings were stable over time and the variation across time that we did find was not easily attributable to any particular source. It may be that that there were no events strong enough to influence welfare, such as the introduction of a new group member ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/(SICI)1098-2361(1997)16:4<335::AID-ZOO5>3.0.CO;2-B", "ISBN" : "0733-3188", "ISSN" : "07333188", "abstract" : "Chimpanzee introductions can be stressful and even dangerous for the individuals involved, and different facilities use different approaches to group formation. However, little empirical evidence has been available to evaluate the different factors related to successful or unsuccessful chimpanzee introductions....", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Brent", "given" : "L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kessel", "given" : "a. L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Barrera", "given" : "H.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Zoo Biology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1997" ] ] }, "page" : "335-342", "title" : "Evaluation of introduction procedures in captive chimpanzees", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "16" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Brent, Kessel, & Barrera, 1997)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Brent, Kessel, & Barrera, 1997)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Brent, Kessel, & Barrera, 1997)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Brent, Kessel, & Barrera, 1997). It may be worth evaluating welfare ratings before and after such a major change to see how the chimpanzees and corresponding ratings are affected. An alternative explanation for this finding is that our welfare and subjective well-being instruments are not sensitive enough to detect small changes in welfare or subjective well-being over short periods of time. To test this future studies could include additional indicators of welfare, such as self-injury and cortisol levels. As there is now work validating animal welfare and personality questionnaires, future studies may want to examine how ratings are influenced by characteristics of the observers, such as their gender, experience, and understanding of animal welfare.Chimpanzees who were higher in Extraversion and lower in Neuroticism were rated as being happier and having higher welfare. Similar associations have been found in humans ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.138", "ISBN" : "0033-2909\\n1939-1455", "ISSN" : "0033-2909", "PMID" : "18193998", "abstract" : "Understanding subjective well-being (SWB) has historically been a core human endeavor and presently spans fields from management to mental health. Previous meta-analyses have indicated that personality traits are one of the best predictors. Still, these past results indicate only a moderate relationship, weaker than suggested by several lines of reasoning. This may be because of commensurability, where researchers have grouped together substantively disparate measures in their analyses. In this article, the authors review and address this problem directly, focusing on individual measures of personality (e.g., the Neuroticism-Extroversion-Openness Personality Inventory; P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1992) and categories of SWB (e.g., life satisfaction). In addition, the authors take a multivariate approach, assessing how much variance personality traits account for individually as well as together. Results indicate that different personality and SWB scales can be substantively different and that the relationship between the two is typically much larger (e.g., 4 times) than previous meta-analyses have indicated. Total SWB variance accounted for by personality can reach as high as 39% or 63% disattenuated. These results also speak to meta-analyses in general and the need to account for scale differences once a sufficient research base has been generated.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Steel", "given" : "Piers", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schmidt", "given" : "Joseph", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Shultz", "given" : "Jonas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Psychological bulletin", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "138-161", "title" : "Refining the relationship between personality and subjective well-being.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "134" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.197", "ISBN" : "0033-2909", "ISSN" : "0033-2909", "PMID" : "9747186", "abstract" : "This meta-analysis used 9 literature search strategies to examine 137 distinct personality constructs as correlates of subjective well-being (SWB). Personality was found to be equally predictive of life satisfaction, happiness, and positive affect, but significantly less predictive of negative affect. The traits most closely associated with SWB were repressive-defensiveness, trust, emotional stability, locus of control-chance, desire for control, hardiness, positive affectivity, private collective self-esteem, and tension. When personality traits were grouped according to the Big Five factors, Neuroticism was the strongest predictor of life satisfaction, happiness, and negative affect. Positive affect was predicted equally well by Extraversion and Agreeableness. The relative importance of personality for predicting SWB, how personality might influence SWB, and limitations of the present review are discussed.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "DeNeve", "given" : "K M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cooper", "given" : "H", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Psychological bulletin", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1998" ] ] }, "page" : "197-229", "title" : "The happy personality: a meta-analysis of 137 personality traits and subjective well-being.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "124" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; Steel, Schmidt, & Shultz, 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; Steel, Schmidt, & Shultz, 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; Steel, Schmidt, & Shultz, 2008)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; Steel, Schmidt, & Shultz, 2008), gorillas ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/ajp.22275", "ISBN" : "0275-2565; 1098-2345", "ISSN" : "10982345", "PMID" : "24677279", "abstract" : "The purpose of this study was to determine the personality structure of eight male gorillas (five silverbacks and three blackbacks) housed at the Sedgwick County Zoo in Wichita, Kansas and to determine if personality predicts behavior and subjective well-being in male gorillas living in bachelor groups. We used the Hominoid Personality Questionnaire which contains 54 descriptive adjectives with representative items from the human five-factor model. Rates of 12 behaviors that are broadly defined as agonistic or affiliative were independently recorded and calculated. Principal components analysis yielded three reliable personality factors: Dominance, Extraversion/Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. These results are the first potential quantitative evidence for a Conscientiousness factor in a hominoid other than chimpanzees and humans. This suggests that Conscientiousness originated with the common ancestor of male gorillas and humans around 10 million years ago. These results indicate that humans can reliably assess the personality and subjective well-being of captive male gorillas living in bachelor groups with robust levels of inter-rater reliability and validity. Furthermore, personality can accurately predict behavior (r\u2009=\u20090.79; n\u2009=\u200913) and subjective well-being (r\u2009=\u20090.83; n\u2009=\u20095) in gorillas and provide convergent and discriminant validity for the personality factors. The results advocate for the use of personality questionnaires in the captive management of bachelor gorillas over long-term multi-institutional behavioral studies. Am. J. Primatol. \u00a9 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schaefer", "given" : "Sarah A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Steklis", "given" : "H. Dieter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Primatology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "9", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "page" : "879-889", "title" : "Personality and subjective well-being in captive male western lowland gorillas living in bachelor groups", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "76" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Schaefer & Steklis, 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Schaefer & Steklis, 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Schaefer & Steklis, 2014)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Schaefer & Steklis, 2014), orangutans ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1037/0022-3514.90.3.501", "ISBN" : "0022-3514", "ISSN" : "0022-3514", "PMID" : "16594834", "abstract" : "Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus and Pongo abelii) are semisolitary apes and, among the great apes, the most distantly related to humans. Raters assessed 152 orangutans on 48 personality descriptors; 140 of these orangutans were also rated on a subjective well-being questionnaire. Principal-components analysis yielded 5 reliable personality factors: Extraversion, Dominance, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, and Intellect. The authors found no factor analogous to human Conscientiousness. Among the orangutans rated on all 48 personality descriptors and the subjective well-being questionnaire, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and low Neuroticism were related to subjective well-being. These findings suggest that analogues of human, chimpanzee, and orangutan personality domains existed in a common ape ancestor.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Alexander", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "King", "given" : "J E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Perkins", "given" : "Lori", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of personality and social psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "page" : "501-511", "title" : "Personality and subjective well-being in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus and Pongo abelii).", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "90" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weiss, King, & Perkins, 2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss, King, & Perkins, 2006)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss, King, & Perkins, 2006)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weiss, King, & Perkins, 2006), and rhesus macaques ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1037/a0021187", "ISSN" : "1939-2087", "PMID" : "21341912", "abstract" : "Personality dimensions capturing individual differences in behavior, cognition, and affect have been described in several species, including humans, chimpanzees, and orangutans. However, comparisons between species are limited by the use of different questionnaires. We asked raters to assess free-ranging rhesus macaques at two time points on personality and subjective well-being questionnaires used earlier to rate chimpanzees and orangutans. Principal-components analysis yielded domains we labeled Confidence, Friendliness, Dominance, Anxiety, Openness, and Activity. The presence of Openness in rhesus macaques suggests it is an ancestral characteristic. The absence of Conscientiousness suggests it is a derived characteristic in African apes. Higher Confidence and Friendliness, and lower Anxiety were prospectively related to subjective well-being, indicating that the connection between personality and subjective well-being in humans, chimpanzees, and orangutans is ancestral in catarrhine primates. As demonstrated here, each additional species studied adds another fold to the rich, historical story of primate personality evolution.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weiss", "given" : "Alexander", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Adams", "given" : "Mark J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Widdig", "given" : "Anja", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gerald", "given" : "Melissa S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of comparative psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011", "2" ] ] }, "page" : "72-83", "title" : "Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) as living fossils of hominoid personality and subjective well-being.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "125" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weiss, Adams, Widdig, & Gerald, 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss, Adams, Widdig, & Gerald, 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weiss, Adams, Widdig, & Gerald, 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weiss, Adams, Widdig, & Gerald, 2011). This consistency of this finding across the primate order suggests that emotional stability and sociability are pillars of primate happiness. This finding may be unsurprising given the social nature of primate species and the influence that emotional stability has on health ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0033-3190", "abstract" : "BACKGROUND: The goal of the current study was to determine the association between personality factors and peptic ulcer disease (PUD) among adults in the general population. METHOD: Data were drawn from the Midlife Development in the United States Survey (MIDUS), a representative household survey of the adult population (ages 25-74; n = 3,032) of the United States. Multiple logistic regression analyses were used to determine the association between the big five personality factors and PUD, adjusting for differences in sociodemographic characteristics, psychiatric and physical comorbidity. RESULTS: Neuroticism was associated with significantly increased odds of PUD [OR = 1.5 (95% CI: 1.03, 2.4)], which persisted after controlling for differences in sociodemographic characteristics, cigarette smoking, perception of poor health, comorbid mental disorders and physical illnesses. This relationship was specific to neuroticism. CONCLUSIONS: These findings are consistent with and extend previous clinical and epidemiologic data by providing evidence of an independent association between neuroticism and PUD among adults in the general population. Future work investigating the relationship between neuroticism and the development of PUD in prospective data, including objective measures of physical and mental health status, may contribute to our understanding of this association.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Goodwin", "given" : "R D", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Stein", "given" : "M B", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Psychother Psychosom", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "page" : "10-15", "title" : "Peptic ulcer disease and neuroticism in the United States adult population", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "72" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.4061/2011/759170", "ISSN" : "2090-2212", "PMID" : "21766032", "abstract" : "We review evidence for links between personality traits and longevity. We provide an overview of personality for health scientists, using the primary organizing framework used in the study of personality and longevity. We then review data on various aspects of personality linked to longevity. In general, there is good evidence that higher level of conscientiousness and lower levels of hostility and Type D or \"distressed\" personality are associated with greater longevity. Limited evidence suggests that extraversion, openness, perceived control, and low levels of emotional suppression may be associated with longer lifespan. Findings regarding neuroticism are mixed, supporting the notion that many component(s) of neuroticism detract from life expectancy, but some components at some levels may be healthy or protective. Overall, evidence suggests various personality traits are significant predictors of longevity and points to several promising directions for further study. We conclude by discussing the implications of these links for epidemiologic research and personalized medicine and lay out a translational research agenda for integrating the psychology of individual differences into public health and medicine.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Chapman", "given" : "Benjamin P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Roberts", "given" : "Brent", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Duberstein", "given" : "Paul", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of aging research", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "759170", "title" : "Personality and longevity: knowns, unknowns, and implications for public health and personalized medicine.", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2011" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Chapman, Roberts, & Duberstein, 2011; Goodwin & Stein, 2003)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Chapman, Roberts, & Duberstein, 2011; Goodwin & Stein, 2003)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Chapman, Roberts, & Duberstein, 2011; Goodwin & Stein, 2003)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Chapman, Roberts, & Duberstein, 2011; Goodwin & Stein, 2003). Further research to determine the degree to which this association is across primates and other orders of animal.The association between Extraversion and welfare is consistent with the literature demonstrating the importance of social relationships in nonhuman primates ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McCowan", "given" : "BJ", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Beisner", "given" : "Brianne A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bliss-Moreau", "given" : "E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vandeleest", "given" : "Jessica J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jin", "given" : "Jian", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hannibal", "given" : "D", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hsieh", "given" : "F", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Frontiers in Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "433", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "1-11", "title" : "Connections matter: Social networks and lifespan health in primate translational models.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "7" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.applanim.2006.05.022", "ISSN" : "01681591", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Olsson", "given" : "I. Anna S.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Westlund", "given" : "K", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Applied Animal Behaviour Science", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "3-4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007", "3" ] ] }, "page" : "229-254", "title" : "More than numbers matter: The effect of social factors on behaviour and welfare of laboratory rodents and non-human primates", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "103" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(McCowan et al., 2016; Olsson & Westlund, 2007)", "manualFormatting" : "(as reviewed by McCowan et al., 2016 and Olsson & Westlund, 2007)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(McCowan et al., 2016; Olsson & Westlund, 2007)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(McCowan et al., 2016; Olsson & Westlund, 2007)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(reviewed by McCowan et al., 2016 and Olsson & Westlund, 2007) and the association between social relationships and well-being in humans ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/0191-8869(90)90157-M", "ISBN" : "0191-8869", "ISSN" : "01918869", "PMID" : "9180", "abstract" : "The relationship between extraversion and happiness or subjective well-being (SWB) is one of the most consistently replicated and robust findings in the SWB literature. The present study was conducted in order to examine three key aspects of the relationship: (1) Whether it is primarily substantive in nature, or a product of self-report response artifacts, such as social desirability; (2) What the underlying systems or mechanisms involved in the relationship are; and (3) Whether Eysenck's two dimensions of extraversion and neuroticism combine additively or interactively in their influence upon an individual's level of SWB. The results are supportive of the substantive nature of the relationship, and suggest that both situational and personality factors combine to produce the positive correlation between extraversion and SWB. In terms of the interaction of extraversion and neuroticism, the results are mixed in supporting both an additive and interactive relationship. ?? 1990.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pavot", "given" : "William", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Diener", "given" : "Ed", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Fujita", "given" : "Frank", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Personality and Individual Differences", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "12", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1990" ] ] }, "page" : "1299-1306", "title" : "Extraversion and happiness", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "11" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00783.x", "ISBN" : "10508392", "ISSN" : "10508392", "abstract" : "This longitudinal study was designed to investigate whether or not social connectedness predicts psychological well- being over time. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the temporal relations between these constructs assessed yearly for 3 years for a sample of 1,774 10- to 15-year-olds (at Time 1). Results indicated that global connect- edness (i.e., connectedness combined across the domains of family, school, peers, and neighborhood) predicted well- being, but no reciprocal relation was found. However, reciprocal relations were revealed by analyses that examined connectedness at the domain level, that is, for family and school contexts. The results suggest that youth who reported higher levels of social connectedness at one point in time would subsequently report higher well-being (i.e., life satis- faction, confidence, positive affect, and aspirations).", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jose", "given" : "Paul E.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ryan", "given" : "Nicholas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pryor", "given" : "Jan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Research on Adolescence", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "235-251", "title" : "Does Social Connectedness Promote a Greater Sense of Well-Being in Adolescence Over Time?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "22" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Jose, Ryan, & Pryor, 2012; Pavot, Diener, & Fujita, 1990)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Jose, Ryan, & Pryor, 2012; Pavot, Diener, & Fujita, 1990)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Jose, Ryan, & Pryor, 2012; Pavot, Diener, & Fujita, 1990)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Jose, Ryan, & Pryor, 2012; Pavot, Diener, & Fujita, 1990). In nonhuman primates, the presence of a social partner and the quality of social relationships are associated with reduced risk of self-injury ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1080/10888700802536798", "ISBN" : "1088870080253", "ISSN" : "1088-8705", "PMID" : "19107665", "abstract" : "Considered signs of decreased welfare--abnormal behaviors such as self-injury and self-abuse among nonhuman primates housed in the laboratory--may put into question the validity and reliability of scientific research using these animals as models. Providing environmental enrichment decreases the incidence of some undesirable behaviors but is often unsuccessful at ameliorating the most severe types of abnormal behaviors. To prevent such behaviors from developing, it is important to identify risk factors that provide insight into the causes of certain abnormal behaviors. This study confirmed previous research identifying nursery rearing, single housing, and time spent in single housing as important risk factors. Results also indicate that the number of cage relocations affects the development of these behaviors. In addition, this study presents new data on comorbidity of several abnormal behaviors and discusses possible reasons for these patterns.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Rommeck", "given" : "Ina", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Anderson", "given" : "Kristen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Heagerty", "given" : "Allison", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cameron", "given" : "Ashley", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McCowan", "given" : "Brenda", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of applied animal welfare science : JAAWS", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "61-72", "title" : "Risk factors and remediation of self-injurious and self-abuse behavior in rhesus macaques.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "12" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/ajp.10075", "ISSN" : "0275-2565", "PMID" : "12766938", "abstract" : "Abnormal behavior in captive rhesus monkeys can range from active whole-body and self-directed stereotypies to self-injurious behavior (SIB). Although abnormal behaviors are common in singly-housed rhesus monkeys, the type and frequency of these behaviors are highly variable across individual animals, and the factors influencing them are equally varied. The purpose of this investigation was to survey abnormal behavior in a large population of rhesus macaques, to characterize the relationship between stereotypies and self-injury, and to identify potential risk factors for these aberrant behaviors. Behavioral assessments of 362 individually housed rhesus monkeys were collected at the New England Regional Primate Research Center (NERPRC) and combined with colony records. Of the 362 animals surveyed, 321 exhibited at least one abnormal behavior (mean: 2.3, range: 1-8). The most common behavior was pacing. Sex differences were apparent, with males showing more abnormal behavior than females. SIB was also associated with stereotypies. Animals with a veterinary record of self-injury exhibited a greater number of self-directed stereotypies than those that did not self-injure. Housing and protocol conditions, such as individual housing at an early age, longer time housed individually, greater number of blood draws, and nursery rearing, were shown to be risk factors for abnormal behavior. Thus, many factors may influence the development and maintenance of abnormal behavior in captive primates. Some of these factors are intrinsic to the individual (e.g., sex effects), whereas others are related to colony management practices, rearing conditions, and research protocols.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lutz", "given" : "Corrine K.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Well", "given" : "Arnold", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Novak", "given" : "Melinda a.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American journal of primatology", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003", "5" ] ] }, "page" : "1-15", "title" : "Stereotypic and self-injurious behavior in rhesus macaques: A survey and retrospective analysis of environment and early experience.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "60" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Lutz, Well, & Novak, 2003; Rommeck, Anderson, Heagerty, Cameron, & McCowan, 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Lutz, Well, & Novak, 2003; Rommeck, Anderson, Heagerty, Cameron, & McCowan, 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Lutz, Well, & Novak, 2003; Rommeck, Anderson, Heagerty, Cameron, & McCowan, 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Lutz, Well, & Novak, 2003; Rommeck, Anderson, Heagerty, Cameron, & McCowan, 2009). Furthermore, primates with higher quality relationships exhibit lower levels of stress ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.02.009", "ISSN" : "1095-6867", "PMID" : "18396288", "abstract" : "We examine the relationship between glucocorticoid (GC) levels and grooming behavior in wild female baboons during a period of instability in the alpha male rank position. All females' GC levels rose significantly at the onset of the unstable period, though levels in females who were at lower risk of infanticide began to decrease sooner in the following weeks. Three factors suggest that females relied on a focused grooming network as a coping mechanism to alleviate stress. First, all females' grooming networks became less diverse in the weeks following the initial upheaval. Second, females whose grooming had already focused on a few predictable partners showed a less dramatic rise in GC levels than females whose grooming network had been more diverse. Third, females who contracted their grooming network the most experienced a greater decrease in GC levels in the following week. We conclude that close bonds with a few preferred partners allow female baboons to alleviate the stress associated with social instability.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wittig", "given" : "Roman M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Crockford", "given" : "Catherine", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lehmann", "given" : "Julia", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Whitten", "given" : "P.L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Seyfarth", "given" : "Robert M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cheney", "given" : "Dorothy L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Hormones and behavior", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008", "6" ] ] }, "page" : "170-7", "title" : "Focused grooming networks and stress alleviation in wild female baboons.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "54" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Wittig et al., 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Wittig et al., 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Wittig et al., 2008)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Wittig et al., 2008) and reduced parasite loads ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.12.012", "ISBN" : "0003-3472", "ISSN" : "00033472", "PMID" : "24659824", "abstract" : "Nonhuman primate species spend a conspicuous amount of time grooming during social interactions, a behaviour that probably serves both social and health-related functions. While the social implications of grooming have been relatively well studied, less attention has been paid to the health benefits, especially the removal of ectoparasites, which may act as vectors in disease transmission. In this study, we examined whether grooming behaviour reduced tick load (number of ticks) and haemoprotozoan infection status in a population of wild adult baboons (. Papio cynocephalus). We found that younger and higher-ranking adults were groomed more often than older, low-ranking adults, and females were groomed more often than males. Animals that received more grooming, in turn, had lower tick loads. Baboons with lower tick loads had higher packed red cell volume (PCV or haematocrit), one general measure of health status. We detected a tick-borne haemoprotozoan, Babesia microti, but its low prevalence in the population precluded identifying sources of variance in infection. \u00a9 2012 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Akinyi", "given" : "Mercy Y", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tung", "given" : "Jenny", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jeneby", "given" : "Maamun", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Patel", "given" : "Nilesh B", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Altmann", "given" : "Jeanne", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alberts", "given" : "Susan C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Animal Behaviour", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "559-568", "title" : "Role of grooming in reducing tick load in wild baboons (Papio cynocephalus)", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "85" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Akinyi et al., 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Akinyi et al., 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Akinyi et al., 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Akinyi et al., 2013). The association between higher welfare and happiness and lower Neuroticism matches a 2012 study of the Edinburgh Zoo chimpanzees, which found an inverse association between Neuroticism and self-directed behaviours, including self-rubbing ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/ajp.22036", "ISBN" : "0275-2565", "ISSN" : "02752565", "PMID" : "22648997", "abstract" : "We monitored chimpanzee welfare during the introduction of on-exhibit cognitive research training and testing, as measured by behavior and interest in such training, and related individual variation to personality assessments. We observed 11 chimpanzees (six males; five females) over a 16-month period and compared their behavior across three conditions: (1) Baseline (nontraining/research situations) and (2) an on-going, off-exhibit program of Husbandry Training and (3) Research Pod Activities, on-exhibit, group training for cognitive testing. There was considerable individual variation in their interest levels during research sessions; females and those scoring higher for Openness were present more frequently (including those who actively participated and those who observed others participating), but interest did not vary in relation to rates of self-directed behaviors (SDBs), rank, or the level of social disruptions within the group (i.e. large-scale displays or fights). The frequency of SDBs was predicted by the Neuroticism personality factor, but did not differ across baseline and training contexts, indicating that these activities do not negatively impact welfare. We also explored vigilance as an indicator of social uncertainty, but social monitoring did not differ in relation to either social context or rank. Finally, we explored how the specific characteristics of the research context impacted on SDBs; namely, social context, reward contingency, and visual access to keepers. SDBs increased only when visual access to keepers was restricted, suggesting that visual contact reduced uncertainty in novel training contexts. Overall, the introduction of a cognitive research program did not compromise welfare, and the chimpanzees' repeated interest and willingness to participate suggests that the research was enriching.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Herrelko", "given" : "Elizabeth S.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vick", "given" : "Sarah Jane", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Buchanan-Smith", "given" : "Hannah M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Primatology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "9", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "828-840", "title" : "Cognitive research in zoo-housed chimpanzees: Influence of personality and impact on welfare", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "74" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Herrelko et al., 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Herrelko et al., 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Herrelko et al., 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Herrelko et al., 2012).Our results deviated some from previous findings. For one, Weiss et al. (2009) found that higher Dominance, Agreeableness, and Openness were associated with higher subjective well-being. Similarly, King and Landau ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00527-5", "ISBN" : "1520621930", "ISSN" : "00926566", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "King", "given" : "J E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Landau", "given" : "V I", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Research in Personality", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003", "2" ] ] }, "page" : "1-15", "title" : "Can chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) happiness be estimated by human raters?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "37" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(King & Landau, 2003)", "manualFormatting" : "(2003)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(King & Landau, 2003)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(King & Landau, 2003)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(2003) found that higher subjective well-being was associated with higher Dominance, Extraversion, and Dependability (since renamed Conscientiousness). In the present study, higher Extraversion and lower Neuroticism were only associated with higher welfare and welfareSWB. The reason for this may be that we lacked the statistical power to detect these associations. This could be tested by extending our data collection to include additional facilities, thus increasing our sample size and statistical power. Even with a limited sample size we found significant associations between welfare, welfareSWB, and Extraversion, and between lower Neuroticism. This suggests that these personality dimensions play an important role in chimpanzee welfare. Overall, these findings suggest that questionnaire may be useful for improving animal welfare. For example, facilities housing chimpanzees can use these questionnaires to identify chimpanzees that are lower in Extraversion and higher in Neuroticism and behaviourally monitor the welfare of these individuals more carefully. These facilities may also be able to use the welfare questionnaire to track welfare over time to provide interventions when welfare is compromised. ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1002/zoo.20281", "ISSN" : "1098-2361", "PMID" : "19851995", "abstract" : "Zoological institutions are in urgent need of identifying and implementing welfare assessment tools that allow for ongoing, quantitative monitoring of individual animal well-being. Although the American Zoological Association's (AZA) Animal Welfare Committee (AWC) promotes the use of such tools in internal review processes, current approaches to institutional welfare assessment are resource-based and outline the resources, environmental parameters and \"best practices\" recommended for promoting good welfare in a species in general. We highlight the value of incorporating animal-based monitoring tools that capture the individual animal's perspective and subjective experiences, including positive events and feelings, by validating zookeepers' qualitative assessments. We present evidence that, across a variety of species, caretakers' assessments of traits related to the well-being of individual animals can be both reliable and valid. Furthermore, we demonstrate that among researchers investigating the welfare of farm, laboratory, companion and even zoo animals, support already exists for developing and validating instruments that objectively evaluate the qualitative assessments of caretakers. Finally, we outline a process currently being evaluated at Brookfield Zoo for developing, validating and testing a cost-effective, user-friendly monitoring tool that will help to quantify keepers' qualitative assessments of individual well-being and can be integrated into daily operations. This tool (i.e. species-specific Welfare Score Sheets designed through consultation with animal experts) will result in weekly scores of individual well-being that are expected to provide a first indicator of welfare issues in the collection. Specifically, scores can be reviewed during regular workgroup meetings to identify welfare issues proactively, to assess whether particular conditions, practices or events impact individual well-being, and finally, to evaluate the effectiveness of efforts to address welfare issues. Upon completion of the tool validation and testing phases, we plan to make the Welfare Score Sheets for our 12 study species available to other institutions, and the methods we applied may serve as a \"blueprint\" for creating similar tools for additional species and institutions.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Whitham", "given" : "Jessica C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wielebnowski", "given" : "Nadja", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Zoo biology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009", "11" ] ] }, "page" : "545-560", "title" : "Animal-based welfare monitoring: using keeper ratings as an assessment tool.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "28" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Whitham & Wielebnowski, 2009)", "manualFormatting" : "Whitham and Wielebnowski (2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Whitham & Wielebnowski, 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Whitham & Wielebnowski, 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }Whitham and Wielebnowski (2009) outline automated ways to do so, such as online questionnaires that notify keepers when ratings change drastically. Finally, these questionnaires can be used to identify chimpanzees at low risk, so that time resources dedicated to enrichment can be effectively allocated.More than ever, animal welfare is at centre stage. In fact, in 2015, when Francis Collins, director of United States National Institutes of Health, announced the removal of chimpanzees from biomedical research, he cited the need to track the chimpanzees’ welfare when they were moved to sanctuaries ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Collins", "given" : "FS", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "National Institutes of Health", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "11", "18" ] ] }, "title" : "NIH Will No Longer Support Biomedical Research on Chimpanzees", "type" : "article-newspaper" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Collins, 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Collins, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Collins, 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Collins, 2015). However, he did not mention how welfare would be assessed. Questionnaires offer a quick and easy-to-use way to monitor chimpanzee welfare and can be integrated into common husbandry practice and applied during major changes in the circumstances or chimpanzees and other nonhuman primates. As we demonstrated here, the reliability and validity of welfare ratings makes it worthwhile to expand this line of research to include other species. AcknowledgementsWe thank the Budongo Trail staff at the Edinburgh Zoo, the staff at Fundació Mona, Emma Tecwyn, and Vanessa Wilson for filling out welfare questionnaires. We would further like to thank Conor Smith for performing data formatting and for sharing personality ratings he collected for his MSc dissertation. Thank you to Sunho Jung for providing the MATLAB code.ReferencesADDIN Mendeley Bibliography CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Akinyi, M. Y., Tung, J., Jeneby, M., Patel, N. B., Altmann, J., & Alberts, S. C. (2013). 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