Ms. G's Classroom
AP Psychology ReviewResearchers, Experiments, Theories, & Other Important InfoPerspectivesStructuralism – William Wundt & Edward Titchener--attempted to determine the elemental structure of the mind--trained people to use introspection to look inward and report elements of their experiencesFunctionalism – William James (wrote The Principles of Psychology – still used today)--focused on how mental & behavioral processes function Behaviorism – Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson (established the first school of behaviorism), BF Skinner --behavior mainly determined by an organism’s experiences and its environment rather than by geneticsPsychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Approach --Concerned with how unconscious instincts, conflicts, motives, and defenses influence one’s behavior.--Sigmund Freud: Father of Psychoanalysis – treated patients with mental disorders by talking with them over long periods of time to reveal unconscious conflicts, motives, and defenses in order to enhance patients’ self-knowledge. He believed that early life experiences were important to personality development. --Other well-known psychoanalysts include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, and Heinz KohurHumanistic Approach--Asserts humans have unique qualities different from other animals--humanistic pioneers such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow emphasized that free will and the potential for personal growth influence human behavior and mental processes. Biological Approach--Concerned with the physiological and biological factors that determine behavior and mental processes.Evolutionary Approach--An offshoot of the biological approach; takes a Darwinian view and emphasizes how natural selection favored behaviors that contributed to survival and the spread of our ancestors’ genes.Gestalt (the whole is greater than the sum of its parts) -- Emphasizes the organization process in behavior. Focuses on problem of perceptionResearchTypes of ResearchCorrelational ResearchCase StudySurvey (questionnaires, interviews) Natural Observation (field studies)Experimental Method ( controlled experiment - cause and effect)-- Independent Variable (IV): the factor that changes in the experiment.--Dependent Variable (DV): the mental process or behavior that is being measured. --Sample Size: should be random and large to minimize effects of genetic variations. This population should be randomly assigned to the experimental & control groups to minimize the effects of individual variations between the 2 groups--Quasi Experimental Research: Similar to controlled experiments, however, participants are NOT randomly assigned. Due to confounding variables, results CANNOT establish cause and effect, but they can point researchers in the “right” direction.Descriptive Statistics -- Frequency distribution: orderly arrangement of scores that reflect the frequency of a score or groups of scores usually illustrated in a histogram (bar graph of frequency distributions) or a frequency polygon (line graph)--Nominal Scale: numbers used to name something--Ordinal Scale: numbers than can be ranked (1st highest, 2nd highest etc…)--Interval Scale: when there is a meaningful difference between each of the numbers--Ratio Scale: a meaningful ratio can be made with two numbers (has a real or absolute zero)--Measures of Central Tendency: median, mode, mean--Frequency Distributions:--Normal Distribution:Correlations (do NOT imply cause and effect)-- Standard or z score: standardized score that indicates how many standard deviations a data point is from the mean.-- Percentile Score: indicates the percentage of scores at or below a particular score-- Correlation Coefficient (r): measures the degree of association between two sets of data. range between -1 and + 1 where -1 = indirect relationship; +1= direct relationship; 0 = no relationship--Scatterplots:Inferential Statistics: used to interpret data & draw conclusions-- Statistical significance(p): measure of the likelihood that the difference between two groups results from a real difference rather than just from chance where p < 0.05Neuroscience and BehaviorBrain: housed in skull, protective covering – meninges, base connected to spinal cord, composed of interneuronsSpinal cord: starts at base of skull, protected by meninges & bony vertebrae of spinal column, composed of interneurons and glial cellsGlial cells: surround interneurons and hold them in place, supply nutrients and oxygen, form insulating sheaths that speed conduction, destroy and remove dead neurons4587240514477000Structure of a neuron: impulses electrochemical in nature--travel in one direction, from dendrites to terminal branches--myelin sheath & nodes of Ranvier speed salutatory conduction of impulse down the axon Conduction of an Impulse: --Resting Potential: the fluid interior of a resting neuron has an excess of negatively charged ions while the fluid on the outside of the axon has an excess of positively charged ions.--Action Potential: a neural impulse (brief electrical charge that moves down the axon as a result of an exchange of ions)--Threshold: the level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential 462534047561500--Depolarization: More sodium gates open and sodium ions move into the interior of the axon. This part of the axon now has a greater positive charge inside the axon relative to the outside. This causes the next sodium gate to open, moving the impulse rapidly down the axon--Repolarization: As the action potential moves swiftly down the axon, the potassium channels of the first section open, allowing K+ ions to move out of the cell. This causes a change in electrical charge back to the resting potential --Refractory Period: time it takes for a neuron to regain resting potential and have the ability to fire again --All-or-none response: either the neuron reaches threshold & fires or it does not --Intensity of a stimulus : detected by MORE neurons firing at once and firing MORE OFTEN4076700-920750Terminal Buttons & Neurotransmitters --At the end of terminal branches are terminal buttons, which contain vesicles that manufacture neurotransmitters that carry the impulse across the synapse, binding to receptor sites on the dendrites of the adjacent neuron, influencing whether this next neuron will fire or not. --Reuptake: sending neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitter molecules left in the synaptic gap. --see handout for summary of common neurotransmitters and functionsNeurotransmitters & Drugs --Antagonists: inhibit or block the receptor sites preventing the neurotransmitters from binding to the receptor sites. 431292027305000 --Agonists: mimic neurotransmitters, binding to its receptor sites producing similar effects of the neurotransmitter.Reflex Arc: sensory (afferent) neurons received the stimulus from your sensory receptors to the spinal cord which immediately responds with an inborn protective response to the motor (efferent) neurons to react. --At the same time, the sensory receptors send the stimulus to the brain for further interpretation and response.Neuron Networks: The brain is made up of clusters of neurons that connect with other neural networks to perform various tasksEndocrine System: A second communication system made up of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream--see summary chart handout of hormones and their functionsTriune Brain: One model of evolution with respect to the brain; 3 major divisions with overlapping layers; the most resent neural systems nearest the front and the top --The reptilian brain: maintains homeostasis and instinctive behaviors, roughly corresponds to the brainstem (hindbrain).--The old mammalian brain: corresponds to the limbic system, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, septum, hippocampus, amygdala, and the cingulate cortex-- The new mammalian brain or neocortex (cerebral cortex): accounts for about 80% of the brain volume and associated with high functions of judgment, abstract thought, decision making, language and computing, foresight, insight, hindsight, sensation and perception.Brainstem: medulla oblongata, pons, reticular formation (see brain function handout) --oldest part of the brain, begins where the spinal cord enters the base of the skull-- Responsible for automatic survival functions (smooth involuntary muscle action such as heart rate, pulse, digestion, diaphragm). --crossover point where most nerves to/from brain connect with the opposite side of the body Thalamus: receives messages from all the senses except for smell, routes them to the brain’s regions that deal with seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching. Also receives some of the cortex’s interpretations or replies and directs these messages to the cerebellum and medulla.Cerebellum: Extends from the rear of the brainstem, ball-shaped, and wrinkled, coordinates voluntary movement and balance, storage of implicit memories, may also help us to judge time, modulate our emotions, and discriminate sounds and texture.Limbic System: made up of the: --Hippocampus: processing & storage of long-term memory --Amygdala: 2 lima bean shaped clusters that influence fear & aggression as well as other emotions4541520-13779500--Hypothalamus: thirst, hunger, sex drive, temperature, pleasure center, inked to pleasurable awards. Also the only part of the brain that secretes hormones which influence the pituitary gland and its secretions.469392011811000Cerebral Hemispheres:--Cerebral Cortex: protective covering the cerebrum-- Frontal Lobes: lie just behind the forehead, involved in speaking, muscle movements, making plans, and judgments.--Parietal Lobes: lie at the top of the head behind the frontal lobes; involved with sensory input for touch and body position--Occipital Lobes: lie to the back of the head; includes visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field--Temporal Lobes: lie roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear.4914900349250--Motor Cortex: the area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movementContralateral function: when tissue of the motor cortex is stimulated on the left hemisphere, the right body part responds (same for the right motor cortex)In the motor cortex, the brain devotes more tissue area to sensitive body parts and to areas requiring precise control (also true for the sensory cortex) --Sensory Cortex: the area in the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. --Visual Cortex: receives visual input from the retina. --Auditory Cortex: receives input from the ear on the opposite side of the brain.Association Areas : involved in higher metal functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking. Found in all four lobes:-- frontal lobes: play and executive role in judgment, planning, & processing of new memories.--parietal lobes: mathematical and spatial reasoning.--temporal lobes: A small area on the underside is involved in the recognition of faces.Left hemisphere: critical for speaking, writing, arithmetic reasoning, and understanding.480060024765000--Broca’s Area: controls language expression, located in the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere. Directs the muscle movements involved in speech--Wernicke’s Area: controls language reception, usually located in the left temporal lobe. Involved in language comprehension and expression --Angular Gyrus: near Wernicke’s area, receives information from the visual cortex and recodes it into an auditory form soWernicke’s area can decipher its meaning.--Aphasia: impairment of language, usually in the left hemisphere.Damage to the Broca’s area disrupts the ability to speak (but not necessarily singing)Damage to the Wernicke’s area impairs understanding of language. Corpus Callosum: a large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres that carries messages between them.--Split Brain: a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the corpus callosum and other connecting fibers between them (usually done with severe epileptics--Information from the left half of your field of vision goes to your right hemisphere and information from the right half of your field of vision goes to your left hemisphere. The data received by either hemisphere is quickly transmitted to the other side via the corpus callosum.--In a split brain patient (severed corpus callosum, this information sharing does not take place.--Hemispheric Specialization: also known as lateralization. --Split brain research confirms that the left hemisphere is more verbal and the right hemisphere excels in visual perceptions and the recognition of emotion. Nature, Nurture, and GeneticsHeredity:--DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): contains the genetic code in the sequence of its nitrogenous bases for the synthesis of proteins. --Genes: composed of DNA and carry the genetic code for a specific trait or characteristic--Chromosomes: threadlike structures made up of genes and proteins --Genome: the complete genetic instructions of an organism, consists of all the genes and their genetic material found on the organism’s chromosomes.--Trait: a genetically determined characteristic; controlled by a pair of genes (one from mom and one from dad) --Gene Complexes: a group of genes which are responsible for the expression of a given trait.--Heritability: the proportion of variation among s given group of individuals in a trait that is attributable to genetic factors.--Human Sex Chromosomes: Male: XY – Female XX--Gametes: sperm and egg each contain 23 chromosomes.--Zygote: when a sperm fertilizes and egg, restoring the human chromosome number to 46.--In the mother’s womb, the male fetus is exposed to testosterone which leads to the development of male genitalia. If low levels of testosterone are released in the uterus, the result is a female.--MZ twins = monozygotic (identical ) twins, 1 egg, 1 sperm --DZ twins = dizygotic (fraternal) twins, 2 eggs, 2 sperm Adoption studies: Adoptees' traits bear more similarities to their biological parents than to their care-giving adoptive parents. --However, research does indicate that adoptive parents do influence attitudes, values, faith, manners, & politics. In a changing environment, sexual reproduction and mutations are the two sources of variations that can lead to genetic changes and alterations in inherited traits--Males pass their genes to future generations by mating with multiple youthful and fertile appearing females, where females look for maturity, dominance, affluence, and boldness in male mates.Research Findings: --young rats living in enriched environments develop a thicker and heavier brain cortex than those in impoverished environments.--home influences account for less than 10 percent of siblings’ personality differencesCulture: the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. --Individualistic Culture: nurtures an individual’s personal identity --Collectivist Culture: the individual identity is the same as the group identityGender roles: our expectations of the way men and women should behaveGender Identity: our sense of being male or female. --Social learning theory: assumes that children learn gender-linked behaviors by observing and imitating significant others and by being rewarded and punished. --Gender schema theory: assumes that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male or female and adjust their behavior accordingly.DevelopmentLongitudinal Studies vs. Cross-Sectional Studies: assess the of developmental changes with respect to a particular factors by evaluating different age groups of people at the same time. --Cohort: group of people in one age group--Cohort effect: can render a cross-sectional study invalid if one age group is significantly different in their experiences from other age groups. Cohort-Sequence Studies: used to minimize the major drawbacks of longitudinal & cross-sectional studies; groups are assessed at least two times over a span of months or years (instead of just once).Biographic studies: case studies that investigate development in one person at a time.Prenatal Development--Embryo: from two weeks after fertilization through the second month.--Placenta: made of both maternal and fetal tissue; transfer of nutrients, oxygen to the fetus, carbon dioxide, urea, and other wastes from the fetus to the mother for removal.--Fetus: from 9 weeks to birth--Congenital: defects are not due to genetics; something does not develop correctly in utero ex. Cerebral palsy--Teratogens: chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo/fetus during development and cause harm such as alcohol, drugs, tobacco ingredients, mercury, lead, and other poisons, bacteria and viruses. --Most birth defects develop during the embryonic period and are usually more severe than problems that develop later.--The critical period for development:First trimester: eyes, ears, arms, legs, and the heart 1st & 2nd trimesters reproductive systemAll 3 trimesters for the nervous system --Maternal smoking exposes the fetus to nicotine & lowered oxygen levels; can lead to low birth weight, small head size, underdeveloped lungs, premature delivery, & stillbirth.--Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): represents a cluster of abnormalities that occur in infants of mothers who drink alcohol during pregnancy; developmental issues include low intelligence, small head size with flat faces, misshapen eyes, flat noses, and thin upper lips. Severe mental retardation generally results from alcohol exposure during the first trimester. --Heroin and cocaine maternal abusers most often give birth to infants addicted to these drugs. Such babies often suffer from withdrawal symptoms and may be distractible and unable to concentrate as the mature.Neonates (newborns) & Toddlers--Rooting Reflex: when touched on the cheek, turn toward the touch, open mouth in search for the nipple. --Sucking: automatic response of drawing in anything at the mouth--Swallowing: contraction of throat muscles that enables food to pass to the esophagus without choking.--Grasping Reflex: when infants close their fingers tightly around an object put into their hands.--Moro (startle) Reflex: loud noises cause infants to arch their backs, fling limbs out & quickly retract them --As an infant matures, developing voluntary control over behaviors, many of these reflexes disappear. --Neonates are also born preferring sights and sounds that facilitate social responsiveness. --Newborns respond to the human face, voice, & touch & show a preference for the mother’s voice & odor.--Vision is best for objects about the distance of a caretaker’s face; can track objects with their eyes a few days after birth.--Habituation studies: used to determine if infants can perceive differences in stimuli; found infants stared longer at hybrid images of dogs/cats suggesting that like adults, infants first focus on the face, not the body.--Brain & Motor Development --At birth the neural networks have a wild growth spurt. From the ages 3-6, the brain’s neural network has most rapid growth spurt grown most rapidly; rapid development of the neural networks in the cerebellum creates an infant’s readiness to walk. --Genes play a major role in motor development in the first year of life.--Babies generally roll over before they sit, unsupported and usually crawl before they walk.--“Infant Amnesia”: inability to recall events before the age of 3; results from a change in the way the brain organizes memories; childhood memories start manifesting at the age of 3 or 4.Jean Piaget – famous developmental psychologist (See next page for stages of cognitive development)--Schemas: concepts or framework that organizes and interprets information.--Object Permanence: by 8 months, babies develop the awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived--Conservation: the principle that properties such as mass, volume, & number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.--Preschoolers are egocentric & lack theory of the mind: cannot project that other people have ideas, feelings, perceptions, & thoughts of their own; do not comprehend the behaviors these things may predict. --Criticisms of Piaget: Agree with stages & milestones; fault his work for not acknowledging that children go through these stages at different rates and often more quickly/slowly than predicted.--Autism: a spectrum disorder that generally appears in the first 3 years of life & is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding others’ states of mind.Current research indicates that genetic and environmental factors are responsible for the onset of this disorder.Autistic children also have difficulty reflecting on their own mental states, and are less likely to use the personal pronouns, I or me.Asperger’s Syndrome: considered a “high functioning” form of autism characterized by full language development, normal intelligence, often with exceptional skill or talent in a specific area, with deficiencies in social and communication skills resulting in an inability to form normal peer relationships. Social Theory of Cognitive Development (Lev Vygotsky – nuturist)--Internalization: believed that development proceeds mainly from observing the interactions of others and through their own interactions with the environment. --Vygotsky asserted that mentors play a significant role in cognitive development.--Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): a range exists where the child can solve a problem alone with difficulty (upper level) and the lower level where the child solves the problem with assistance from a mentor. When the child attains the goal by solving the problem alone, this goal becomes the lower limit for the next ZPDAttachment: an emotional tie with another individual – based on body contact & familiarity --Body Contact: Harry and Margaret Harlow (1950s) Used rhesus infant monkeys to research infant attachment.When raised with two artificial mothers – a wire mother with food and a cloth mother without nourishment, the infant monkeys spent most of their time with the cloth mother, only going to the wire mother for foodFamiliarity--Critical Period: optimum period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development--Imprinting: the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period early in life, common among ducklings, goslings, and chicks. Usually the first thing after hatching a fowl sees is its mother. From then on, the infant fowl follows its mother only. Konrad Lorenz & his work with ducklings was key to understanding critical periods and imprinting.Attachment Differences: Mary Ainsworth --Secure Attachment: babies & mothers are in a “strange room” – the baby plays & explores comfortably in the mom’s absence, are distressed when she leaves and seek contact when she returns.--Insecure Attachment: babies explore less when in the mom’s presence and may cling to her, cry loudly when mom leaves, and remain upset or act indifferent when mom returns.Deprivation of Attachment: Babies reared in institutions without the stimulation & attention of a regular caregiver or locked away at home under conditions of extreme neglect or abuse are often withdrawn, frightened, and even speechless. If prolonged, childhood trauma places a child at risk for physical, psychological & social problems and may alter the brain’s production of serotonin.Children who are prevented or disrupted from forming attachment bonds by the age of 2 are at risk for attachment problems.Parenting Styles--Authoritarian parents have strict rules & use punishment for wrongdoings.--Permissive parents have few guidelines & tend to be more responsive than demanding.--Uninvolved parents make few demands, show low responsiveness, and communicate little with their children. --Authoritative parents set limits, but explain the reason for rules with their children & make exceptions when appropriate. Correlates with social competence (does not establish cause and effect)Puberty: period of sexual maturation; individual becomes capable or reproducing.--Primary Sex Characteristics: reproductive organs – testes, ovaries, and external genitalia develop rapidly at this time.--Secondary Sex Characteristics: Females: estrogen influences development wider hips, secondary hair, breasts**Menarche: the first menstrual periodMales: testosterone influences the deepening voice, broader shoulders, secondary hair**Spermarche: the first ejaculation (usually occurs as a nocturnal emission).--The frontal lobe matures & there is selective pruning of unused neurons and their connections.--Until the frontal lobe is fully developed, adolescents typified rash and impulsive decisions are generally under the control of the amygdala.--During the early years, adolescents are self-focused and believe their private experiences are unique.--Most adolescents achieve Piaget’s formal operational stage of thinking and start using abstract logic. Morality--Lawrence Kohlberg:Preconventional Morality: rules are obeyed to avoid punishment & for personal gainConventional Morality: good girl/good boy orientation where rules are obeyed for approval, later obeyed to maintain the social orderPostconventional Morality: rules are obeyed if they are impartial, do NOT infringe on the rights of others, sense of conscience, develop personal set of ethical principles – individual societies are more likely to demonstrate postconventional morality Carol Gilligan--Found that women rarely reach the highest stages of morality, as women are often more concerned with the ethics of caring than that of justice. Asserted that women are not morally inferior, just morally differentPsychosocial Development--Self-concept: sense of one’s identity and personal worth.Starts to emerge around 6 months15-18 months the children begin to recognize themselves in the mirrorschool age, they can describe many of their traits.8 to 10 years, their self-images are stable.--Erik Erikson – Middle into Late Adulthood --Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, & cardiac output begin to decline in the late 20s. --Menopause: ending of the menstrual cycle, usually beginning with a few years of 50.Reduction in estrogen, some women experience hot flashes, but incidence of depression no different from non-menopausal women. --Men do NOT undergo a similar drop in hormones or fertility; experience a more gradual decline in sperm count, testosterone level, speed of erection, & ejaculation.If testosterone levels plummet too fast and far, symptoms may include depression, irritability, insomnia, impotence or weakness – can be treated with testosterone replacement therapy.--After the age of 70, hearing, distance perception, , smell, muscle strength, reaction time, & stamina all decrease. --As the immune system weakens, the elderly become more susceptible to diseases such as cancer & pneumonia, but have less short term illnesses because of a build-up of antibodies. --Neural processes slow, especially for complex tasks.--Alzheimer’s disease: a progressive & irreversible disorder characterized by the gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, & finally physical functioning. Underlying the symptoms of Alzheimer’s is a loss of brain cells & deterioration of neurons that produce acetylcholine, deprived of Ach, memory & thinking suffer--Prospective memory (“remember to…) remains strong if cues are available, but without cues, time based & habitual tasks are vulnerable to memory loss--Decrease in fluid intelligence/increase in crystallized intelligence Social Clock: the cultural prescription of “the right time” to leave home, get a job, marry, & have children varies from culture to culture as well as era to era. Death & Dying: Elisabeth Kubler-Ross studies of death & dying suggest that terminally ill patients pass through 5 stages of coping: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. Other research indicates that not all patients pass through all the stages nor do they necessarily go through the stages in the order Kubler-Ross suggests.Sensation Sensation: Process by which we detect physical energy from our environment and encode it as neural signals. This involves:--Bottom-up Processing: analysis that begins with sense receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory informationAbsolute Threshold: minimum stimulation to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. Can be affected by:--Lapses in attention, slight fatigue, emotional distress & other psychological factors414528016256000Signal Detection Theory: predicts how & when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). --Assumes there is no single absolute threshold --Detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation & level of fatigueSubliminal messages: any sensory stimuli below an individual's absolute threshold for conscious awareness. --Past research evidences that an imperceptibly brief stimulus evidently triggers a weak response that can be detected by brain scanning.Priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, predisposing our perceptions, memory or responses.Difference Thresholds: The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. --We experience the difference threshold as the just noticeable difference (jnd)--Weber’s Law: the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage; the exact proportion varies, dependent on the stimulus.Since it is a rough approximation, Weber’s Law works well for non-extreme sensory stimuli. Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulationTransduction: the conversion of one form of energy to another. --Sensory Transduction: the transforming of stimulus energies such as sight, sounds, and smells into neural impulses our brains can interpret.--Light Energy: what strikes our eye is not color, but pulses of electromagnetic energy that our visual system sees as color. We see colors from the wavelengths of visible light (ROY G. BIV)--Two physical characteristics of light determine our sensory experiences:Wavelength: the distance from one peak to the next, determines the color we see & the pitches we hear**short wavelength: high frequency – we see bluish colors & high pitched sounds**long wavelength: low frequency – we see reddish hues & low pitched soundsIntensity: the amount of energy in light waves (determined by the wave’s amplitude or height) influences brightness or with sound, loudness. **large amplitude: we see bright colors & hear loud sounds ** small amplitude: we see dull colors & hear soft soundsThe Eye--Cornea: transparent, curved layer in front of the eye that bends incoming light--Aqueous humor: fluid found in front of the eyeball between the lens and the cornea; maintains correct pressure in the eye, & provides nutrients to surround tissues--Vitreous humor: The gelatinous substance that fills the chamber of the eye between the retina and the lens; helps to maintain shape of the eye 31546804953000--Iris: color muscle surrounding the pupil that regulates the size of the pupil opening. --Pupil: small adjustable opening in the iris that is smaller in bright light and larger in darkness, where light enters into the eye.--Lens: transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus incoming light rays into an image on the retina--Retina: light sensitive inner surface in the back of the eye, containing, containing rods & cones plus layers of neurons that begin the process of visual information417576020891500--Fovea: small area of the retina in the most direct line of sight where cones are concentrated for the highest visual acuity in bright light. --Optic Nerve: formed by ganglion cell axons, carries the neural impulses from the eye to thalamus to brain-- Blind Spot: where the optic nerve leaves the eye: are no receptor cells in this area, so no vision--Accommodation: process of changing the curvature of the lens to focus light rays on the retina.--Astigmatism: irregularity in the shape of the cornea and/or lens. Distorts & blurs the image at the retina.--Photoreceptors: modified neurons that convert light energy to electrochemcial impulses. Rods: detect black, white, & gray; & movement. Necessary for dim-light & peripheral vision. Distributed throughout the retina, except none are in the fovea368808027876500Cones: detect color & fine detail in daylight or bright light. Mostly concentrated at the fovea, none are in the periphery of retina--Bipolar cells: layer in front of photoreceptors, rods & cones synapse with themMany cones each have their own bipolar cell preserving the cones’ precise information, making them better able to detect fine detail. (visual acuity)Several rods are usually associated with one bipolar cell, so in dim light it takes small amounts of stimulation from several rods to enable a single bipolar cell to fire.--Ganglion cells: bipolar cells transmit impulses to a third layer of neurons in front of them. Axons from ganglion cells converge to form the optic nerve of each eye.--At the retina (entry level of light) information processed before routing it to the thalamus which is then sent to the corresponding areas of occipital lobes (visual cortex).--Optic chiasm: the optic nerve from each eye crisscross, routing information from the left half of each retina to the left side of the brain and right half of each retina to the right side of the brain. --Feature detectors: specialized neurons that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.Hubel & Wiesel (1979) discovered that most cells in the visual cortex response only to particular features. In this experiment, electrodes recorded how individual neurons in the monkey’s visual cortex responded to different visual stimuli. These cells pass information to other areas of the cerebrum where other brain cells respond only to more complex patterns. **Specific combinations of temporal lobe activity occur as people look at faces, shoes, cats, houses, & other object categories. Other high–level brain cells respond to specific visual scenes. Supercluster cells: integrate information & fire when the cues collectively indicate the direction of someone’s attention and approach.--Parallel Processing: the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously – this is the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions including vision.--Young-Helmbotz Trichromatic (three color) Theory: the retina contains three different color receptors – one sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue – which when stimulated can produce the perception of any color.Color vision is additive: so if you keep mixing colors of light in vision, we will eventually see white light. --Color Constancy: perceiving objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. --Color Blindness: people lack functioning and red/or green cones, vision either mono- or di-chromatic. Sex-linked maternal trait – so more males are colorblind than females.--Opponent Process Theory: 3 opposing retinal processes -- red-green, yellow-blue, white-black – enable color vision. Color processing occurs in two stages:The retina’s red, green, and blue cones respond in varying degrees to different color stimuli. Their signals are then processed by the nervous system’s opponent process cells, en route to the visual cortexHearing--Audition: the sense or act of hearing--The transduction of air pressure waves into neural messages the brain interprets as sound.--Decibels: measuring unit for sound energy. --The absolute threshold for hearing is arbitrarily defined as 0 decibels.391668017716500Every 10 decibels corresponds to a 10 fold increase in sound.--OUTER EAR Pinna: visible portion of the earAuditory canal: part of the outer ear that channels sound waves toward the eardrum (tympanum)Eardrum: divides outer ear from the middle ear; vibrates with sound waves that causes the tiny bones of the middle ear to vibrate. --MIDDLE EAROssicles: comprised of the anvil, hammer, and stirrup. Eardrum vibrates, causing the anvil, hammer & stirrup to vibrate; strirrup then pushes against the oval window.--INNER EAROval Window: part of the cochlea; vibrations of this membrane jostle the fluid that fills the cochlea Cochlea: a coiled, bony fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses. Basilar membrane: the membrane of the cochlea which ripples with the movement of fluid in the cochleaHair cells: line the basilar membrane, which bend from the ripples in the basilar membrane.The hair cells tranduce the mechanical energy to electrochemical energy of nerve impulses.The hair cells synapse with auditory neurons whose axons form the auditory nerve. --The auditory nerve transmits sound impulses through the medulla, pons, and thalamus to the auditory cortex of the temporal lobes. --Crossing of most auditory nerve fibers occurs in the medulla and pons so the auditory cortex receives input from both ears. However, contralateral input dominates--Loudness of sound is detected by the number of activated hair cells in the basilar membrane. --If you expose your hearing to loud music or excessively loud sounds, the hair cells’ cilia will wither or fuse, causing permanent hearing loss.--von Helmholtz’s Place Theory: links the pitch we hear to the place that is stimulated on the basilar membrane. high frequencies produce large vibrations at the beginning of the cochlea’s membrane; low frequencies near the end of the cochlea. --Frequency Theory: the rate of the impulses travelling up the auditory nerve matches a tone, enabling us to hear a pitch.the entire basilar membrane vibrates with the incoming sound wave, triggered nerve impulse to the brain at the same rate as the wave. The brain reads the pitch from the frequency of the sound waves. --Volley Principle: at high frequencies, neurons fire in rapid succession so that they maximize the sending of impulses while accommodating neuronal refractory periods. --Summary: Place theory best explains how we hear high pitches, frequency theory low pitches, and intermediate pitches are handled via a combination of both theories.--How we Hear Sound:The ear that is closer to the sound receives the sound waves first & hears the sound more intensely. The jnd of the time when the sound hits each of our ears enables our brain to compute the location of the sound.--Conduction Hearing Loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. --Sensorineural Hearing Loss (nerve deafness): hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves. Most often linked to biological changes such as heredity, aging, and prolonged exposure to ear-splitting noise or music. once neural hearing cells are destroyed, they cannot be replaced; hearing aids may amplify sound enough to stimulate neighboring hair cells that are still functioning.--Cochlea Implant: electronic device that translates sounds into electronic signals that, when wired into the cochlea’s nerves, conveys some information about sound to the brain (generally used with children) Touch --Made up of 4 distinct tactile sensations: pressure, warmth, cold, & pain. --Other tactile sensations result from a simultaneous stimulation of more than one receptor. Itching: repeated gentle stimulation of pain receptors.Burning: stimulation of warm, cold & pain receptors.A tickle results from repeated stimulation of pressure receptors.Wetness: simultaneous stimulation of adjacent cold & pressure receptors.--Transduction of mechanical energy of touch/pressure & heat energy of warm/cold occurs as result of stimulation of sensory receptors distributed all over your body, just below the surface of the skin.Neural fibers carry the impulses to the spinal cord & then to the medulla where the nerves crisscross, to the thalamus, arriving at opposite sides of the somatosensory cortex in your parietal lobes. --The amount of cortex devoted to each area of the body is related to the sensitivity of that area. --Touch is essential to normal development from birth and provides an overall sense of well-being.--Pain is the body’s alarm system alerting you to a physical problem. --Pain is often associated with substance P; relief from pain is often associated with endorphin secretions. --Gate Control Theory: a “gate” in the spinal cord either opens to permit pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers to reach the brain or closes to prevent their passage. Conditions that keep the “gate” open include anxiety, depression, & focusing on the painThe “gate” is closed by neural activity of larger nerve fibers, which conduct most other sensory signal or by information coming from the brain. Massage, electrical stimulation, acupuncture, ice, and the natural release of endorphins can influence the closing of the “gate”.Taste (chemical sense) --Four basic taste sensations on your tongue & the back & roof of your mouth: Bitter, salty, sweet, sour--Umami is a newly discovered taste receptor, best experienced as the flavor enhancer MSG (monsodium glutamate). Other taste sensations come from a mixture of these four. Tasters have an average number of taste buds; nontasters have fewer taste buds, and supertasters have the most.Supertasters are more sensitive to specific chemicals in foods & alcohol, which they find unpleasant.You can only taste molecules that dissolve in your saliva or a liquid you drink. --Babies show a preference for sweet & salty and a dislike for bitter & sour, both tastes that associated with poisonous or spoiled substances (evolutionary advantage).--Each taste receptor is sensitive to specific chemicals that initiate an action potential that travels brain stem, thalamus, to the temporal lobes, near where smell information is received.--Taste receptors reproduce themselves every week or so. As you grow older, the number of taste buds declines, decreasing taste sensitivity.--Smoking & alcohol use accelerate the decline in number of taste buds as well as sensitivity to taste.--Tongues also have receptors for touch, pain, cold, & warmth--Sensory Interaction: the principle that one sense of will influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. 387096014922500Smell plus texture plus taste equals flavorSmell (chemical sense) --Odorants are carried in the air reach tiny receptors in top of each nasal cavity via the nose & the nasal pharynx linking the nose & mouth.--Axons from these receptor molecules pass directly into the olfactory bulbs of the brain where the axons converge into the olfactory nerves, carrying smell information to the hypothalamus, structures of the limbic system associated with memory & emotion, & the primary cortex for olfaction on the underside of the frontal lobes (NOT relayed to thalamus).--Although we have a large number of receptors to detect a variety of odors, science has not yet found a distinct receptor for a specific odor.--The primary olfactory cortex is responsible for making fine distinctions among odors & using those distinctions to consciously control behavior. --Although it is often difficult for us to describe odors or name them, we have a remarkable capacity to recognize long forgotten odors & their associations with personal episodes. --Odors can also evoke unpleasant memories and/or emotions. --Anosmia: People who cannot experience smell--Interaction of Taste and Smell Sensations: Information from the taste buds travels to an area of the temporal lobe not far from where the brain received olfactory information, which interacts with taste.The brain’s circuitry with smell also connects with areas involved in memory storage, which helps explain why a smell can trigger an explosion of memories.Kinesthesis: the system for sensing the position & movement of individual body parts. --The sensory receptors for kinesthesis are nerve endings in the muscles, tendons, & joints.--Vestibluar Sense: the sense of body movement & position, including the sense of balance. In the inner ear, there are semicircular canals & vestibular sacs which connect these canals with the cochlea.The canals contain fluid that moves when your head rotates or tilts. This stimulates the hair cells in the cochlea’s basilar membrane, which send information to the cerebellum, allowing the body to maintain position & balance.PerceptionPerception: Process of selecting, organizing & interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects & events. This involves:--Top-down Processing: Information processing guided by our higher-level mental processes as we construct perceptions drawing on our experience & expectations.Selective Attention:--Cocktail Party Effect: the ability to tend to one voice among many.--Inattentional Blindness: failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere--Change Blindness: the failure of an observer to notice large changes in a visual display.--Change Deafness: inability to detect the changes between two voices when allocating one’s attention to a specific task. --Choice Blindness: failure to detect conspicuous mismatches between intended (and expected) choice and the actual outcome.Perceptual Organization--Visual Capture: the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses--Gestalt: (German) when the mind organizes sensations into perceptions, it perceives the sensations as a meaningful WHOLE (“the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”)--Figure-Ground: the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)--Grouping: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.--Proximity: we see nearby figures together --Similarity: we group together figures that are similar to each other --Continuity: We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones. --Connectedness: because they are uniform and linked, we see nearby figures together. --Closure: We fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object. --Depth Perception: the ability to see objects in three-dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two dimensions; allows us to judge distance.Visual Cliff: a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.Binocular Cues: depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes to judge the distance of nearby objects.--Retinal Disparity: since the eyes are about 2 ? inches apart, our retinas receive slightly different images of the world. By comparing the images from both eyes, the brain computes distance. The greater the disparity (distance) between two images, the closer the object.--Convergence: a neuromuscular cue caused by the eyes’ greater inward turn when they view a near object. The greater the inward strain, the closer the object.Monocular Cues: Depth cues that are available to each eye separately. --Relative Size: if we assume that two objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away. --Interposition: If one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer. --Relative Clarity: Because light from distant objects passes through more atmosphere, we perceive hazy objects as father away than sharp clear objects. --Texture Gradient: a gradual change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct signals increasing distance. Objects farther away appear smaller and more densely packed --Relative Motion (motion parallax): when you are moving. Objects closer than a fixed point appear to move backward. The nearer the object is, the faster it moves. Objects beyond the fixation point appear to move with you. --Linear Perspective: the more two parallel lines converge, the farther away they are. --Relative Height: We perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away. --Light and Shadow: nearby objects reflect more light than faraway objects. Shading also produces a sense of depth consistent with the assumed light source.Motion & Perception As objects move across or toward our retinas, our basic assumption is that shrinking objects are retreating & enlarging objects are approaching. --Stroboscopic Movement: our brains perceive continuous movement in a rapid series of slightly varying images. --Phi Phenomenon: an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession, as seen in a marquee sign or holiday lights.Perceptual Constancy: necessary in vision to recognize an object, regardless of its changing angle, distance or illumination. Shape Consistency: our ability to perceive familiar objects as unchanging in shape despite the changing images cast on our retinas. 487997517970500Size Consistency: our ability to perceive familiar objects as unchanging in size regardless of the changing images cast on our retinas.Ponzo Illusion: people judge the size of an object based on the background. In the Ponzo illusion, two identically-sized lines appear to be different sizes when placed over parallel lines that seem to converge as they recede into the distance. 563880444500Muller-Lyer Illusion: an optical illusion in which a line with inward pointing arrowheads is seen as longer than an equal line with outward pointing arrowheads. --Richard Gregory (1968) suggested that the corners of our rectangular world teach us to interpret outward or inward pointing arrowheads at the end of lines as a cue to the line’s distance from us.26250906096000Another example of size/distance relationships: Shrinking/Growing Girls --Although the room is a trapezoidal shape, the brain, receives sensations from one eye & assumes that the room is normal, suggesting the girls are the same distance from the viewerLightness or Brightness Constancy: the ability to perceive an object as having constant lightness even when the light cast on it (illumination) changes. --depends on Relative Luminance: the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings. Color Constancy: the perception that the color of an object stays the same even when the illumination changes.Are all Aspects of Vision Innate? NO! --Patients who born blind but regained sight after cataract surgery, were able to distinguish figure-ground and to perceive colors but lacked the experience to recognize shapes, forms, & complete faces. --Research with infant kittens & monkeys reared with severely restricted visual input evidenced similar abilities to see color & brightness but remained functionally blind to shape when their vision was restored suggesting that there is a critical period for some aspects of sensory & perceptual development. --Without the stimulation provided by early visual experiences, the brain’s neural organization does not develop normally. Perceptual Adaptation: in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. --Distortion Goggles: glasses that shift the apparent location of objects 40? to the left. When wearing these glasses, there is an initial disorientation, but people, with practice, can move with ease.Perceptual Set: a mental predisposition to perceive one thing & not the other. Because our schemas prime us to organize & interpret ambiguous stimuli in certain ways, our perceptions reflect our version of reality.Context Effects: A given stimulus may trigger radically difference perceptions, partly due to different schema, but also because of immediate context. Context creates immediate expectations that guide our perceptions.Paranormal Phenomena--Claims of paranormal phenomena (PSI) include:Astrological predictions, Out of body experiences, Communication with the dead --Psychokinesis: mind over matter (moving of stationary objects) --Extrasensory Perception (ESP): the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Three testable forms of ESP include:Telepathy: mind to mind communication Clairvoyance: perceiving remote eventsPrecognition: perceiving future eventsStates of ConsciousnessConscious processing: serial processing that is relatively slow, but allows us to perform voluntary acts solve novel problems, and communicate with others.Unconscious processing: parallel processing that enables us to perform familiar tasks automatically. Levels of Consciousness:--Consciousness: our awareness of ourselves and the environment; enables you to analyze, compare, interpret experiences, integrate what you already know, what you perceive in the present, & what you anticipate. --Preconscious: Level of consciousness that is outside of awareness but contains feeling & memories that can easily be brought into conscious awareness. --Nonconscious: level that is devoted completely to processes inacceptable to conscious awareness, such a blood flow, filtering of blood by the kidneys, secretion of hormones, lower processing of sensations --Unconscious (subconscious): level that includes unacceptable feelings, wishes, & thoughts not directly available to conscious awareness. It operates whenever you feel or act without being aware of what is influencing you.Biological Rhythm: periodic physiological fluctuations that are controlled by internal “biological clocks”.--Circadian Rhythm: regular body rhythms that naturally run on a 25 hour cycle, but with light during the day & dark at night , it typically recurs on a 24 hr/day cycle. Controlled by the hypothalamus, our biological clocks regulate body temperature, pulse rate, blood pressure, blood sugar levels, hormonal levels, & activity levels during each day.How we Wake Up and Sleep --Light striking the retina causes the suprchiasmatic nucleus (a tiny neural center in the hypothalamus) to alter the production of biologically active substances such as melatonin production by the pineal gland--The longer you stay awake, the more the brain produces& accumulates adenosine, which inhibits certain neurons, making you sleepy.--During sleep, adenosine stores decline--Caffeine inhibits the activity of adenosine, so you stay awake.--Time changes, long flights, shifts in sleep schedules, & exposure to bright light can all reset our biological clocks.Sleep: periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness.--Sleep activity is measured by brain wave activity, eye movements, & muscle tension by electrodes that pick up weak electrical signals from the brain, eye, and facial muscles.--Alpha Waves: brain waves that occur when you are relaxed AND awake4236720-3873500STAGE 1 Sleep: --Brief stage of sleep in which you may experience fantastic images resembling hallucinations (false sensory experiences)--May experience a sensation of falling (your body may suddenly jerk)or a sensation of floating weightlessly.--These hypnagogic sensations may later be incorporated into memories. Some people may associate these memories as being abducted by aliens.Stage 2 Sleep: --Lasts about 20 min/cycle--You are clearly asleep but can easily awakened--Characterized by the periodic burst of sleep spindles – bursts of rhythmic brainwave activity. --Sleeptalking can occur during this or any other stage of sleep.Stages 3 & 4 Sleep:--Stage 3 lasts for a few min/cycle--Delta Waves: large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep – start in stage 3 & increase in stage 4--Both stage 3 & 4 last about 30 min/cycleAt the end of stage 4, children may often wet the bed or have episodes of sleepwalking (somnambulism). 407670018859500--After an hour of sleep we reverse our sleep pattern, moving to stage 3, then 2, and for about 10 minutes, you experience Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep.--In REM sleep, heart rate increases, breathing becomes more rapid & irregular, & your eyes dart around beneath closed eye lids every ? minute or so, genitals become aroused--Paradoxical Sleep: The brainstem blocks activity from the cortex so the muscles are so relaxed that you are essentially paralyzed. In essence, the body is internally aroused and externally calm. --Dreams begin in REM sleep; these dreams are often emotional, story-like, & hallucinatory.--Nightmares: dreams that occur during REM sleep; result in feelings of terror, fear, distress and/or extreme anxiety; tends to occur in the latter part of the night and often awakens the sleeper, who is likely to recall the content of the dream.Sleep Deprivation -- Sleep deprivation puts people at risk for: fatigue, decreased immune system response, impaired concentration, creativity, & communication, irritability, slowed performance (greater risk of accidents) --Chronic sleep deprivation can alter metabolic & hormonal functioning creating conditions that may contribute to obesity, hypertension, & memory impairment. REM Rebound: the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM deprivation (created by repeated awakening during REM sleep) generally accompanied with nightmares.Why do we Sleep?--In human evolution, sleep may have played a protective role by keeping people safe during potentially dangerous periods (night).--Sleep gives the brain time to restore & repair damaged neurons; restore & rebuild memories of the day’s experiences and promotes insightful problem-solving the next day.--Sleep encourages growth – during Stage 4 of the sleep cycle, the pituitary gland secretes growth hormone (GH).Insomnia: persistent problems in falling and/or staying asleep. --Sleeping pills & alcohol can aggravate insomnia because they reduce REM sleep & leave a person feeling lousy the next day; --People may need increasing doses to fall asleep; discontinuation of sleeping pills can worsen insomniaNarcolepsy: characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks, where the person may lapse directly into REM sleep often during inopportune times. Sleep Apnea: characterized by the temporary cessation of breathing during sleep & repeated momentary awakenings. Sufferers often display loud snoring; may complain of being irritable & sleepy but are unaware of their condition.Night Terrors: characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified during stage 4 within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep & usually are not remembered the next morning.Why do we Dream? --Information Processing: we dream to help sift, sort, and fix the day’s experiences in our memory. Research confirms that REM sleep facilitates memory. Criticism: sometimes we dream of things we have not experienced. --Physiological Function: REM induces regular brain stimulation that helps develop & preserve neural pathways in the brain. Criticism: Does not explain why we can experience meaningful dreams--Activation-Synthesis Theory: During a dream, the pons generates bursts of action potentials to the frontal lobe (activation). The frontal lobe then tries to make sense of the stimulation by creating a storyline (synthesis). Criticism: The brain is weaving the stories, which still tells us about the dreamer. --Cognitive Theory: Dreams content reflects dreamers’ cognitive development Criticism: Does notAddress the neuroscience of dreamsHypnosis: a social interaction in which the hypnotist suggests to the subject that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur. -- Research indicates that the strength, stamina, learning, and perceptual abilities of hypnotized people may be matched by those of motivated unhypnotized people. --Power of hypnosis resides in the suggestibility of the subject.` --Hypnosis does NOT enhance recall of forgotten events and may evoke false memories. --Post hypnotic suggestions have helped people harness their own healing powers in the reduction of headaches and can contribute to significant pain relief. --Hypnosis has NOT been effective in treating addictions. --Those who reject the notion that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness suggest that hypnosis is a by-product of normal social and cognitive processes where the hypnotized person is unknowingly acting out the role of the “good subject”.Meditation: a series of techniques used to focus concentration away from thoughts & feelings in order to create calmness, tranquility, inner peace, leading to a sense of well-being. --EEGs indicate shows that meditators have alpha brain waves (relaxed wakefulness). --Physiological changes include decreases blood pressure, lowered heart & breathing rates, warming of hands, suggesting activation of the parasympathetic nervous system Psychoactive Drugs: chemical substances that alter perceptions and moods. --Addiction: compulsive drug craving and use. --Tolerance: the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take large doses of the drug in order to experience the drug’s effect.Withdrawal: the discomfort and stress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug. ----Withdrawal symptoms include intense craving, for the drug & effects usually opposite to those the drug usually induces. Physical Dependence: a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.Psychological Dependence: A psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions.Classification of Drugs1. Depressants: alcohol, barbiturates, & opiates that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. a. Alcohol: --Increases neuroinhibitor GABA, decreases transmission of ACh, & increases the production of beta- endorphins. b. Barbiturates: --Sedatives: taken to induce sleep or prevent seizures. Include Seconal and phenobarbital (Luminal). --Tranquilizers: relieve anxiety, induce sleep & prevent seizures. Include Valium, Xanax, Rohypnol (“roofies” dubbed the date –rape drug), & Quaaludes. Mimic the effects of alcohol, also depressing nervous system activity; larger doses can lead to impaired memory and judgment. In combination with alcohol, the results can be lethal. 2. Narcotics: analgesics (pain reducers) which work by depressing the central nervous system; have chemical properties similar to the endorphins the brain produces. --Include opiates, & synthetic opiates: codeine, heroinm, morphine, opium, Percodan, Dilaudid, methadone, and Demerol all which are highly addictive. --When repeatedly flooded with artificial opiate, the brain stops producing endorphins. When the drug is withdrawn, the brain lacks the normal levels of endorphins; person goes through withdrawal. 3. Stimulants: drugs such as caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, cocaine, & ecstasy excite neural activity & speed up body functions. --Often used to lose weight, stay awake, boost mood or athletic performance. --All strong stimulants dilate pupils, increase heart & breathing rates, diminish appetite: boosts to energy & self-confidence --Can be addictive & may induce a crash into fatigue, headaches irritability, & depression. --With continued used, methamphetamine appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels, leaving with user with permanently depressed functioning. a. Cocaine: The rush of cocaine depletes the brain’s supply of dopamine, serotonin, & norepinephrine, causing an agitated crash when the drug wears off. --Cocaine that is sniffed, smoked, swallowed, and injected is highly addictive & its risks include cardiovascular stress, neurological & behavioral problems, depression, anxiety, & insomnia. b. Ecstacy (MDMA) - both a stimulant & mild hallucinogen --derivative of amphetamine, it stimulates the release of dopamine. --Main effect is to release stored serotonin & prevent re-uptake: produces euphoric high & feelings of intimacy. --Repeated use may supress the immune system, distrup the circadian clock, destroy serotonin producing neurons, & permanently destroy mood & memory. --Combined with physical activity, Ecstasy can cause dehydration, leading to potentially fatal overheating. 4. Hallucinogens: psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions & evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. --Examples include: LSD, PCP, marijuana (THC), psilocybin from mushrooms, & mescaline (Peyote). a. LSD: Chemically similar to one type of serotonin; the user’s mood & expectations influence the effects of LSD, but common components of LSD “trips” vary from euphoria to panic. b. Marijuana: leaves & flowers of the hemp plant; Active psychoactive ingredient is THC, which triggers a variety of effects including mild hallucinations, disinhibition, euphoria, feeling of relaxation, pain relief, & may amplify sensitivity to taste, colors, sounds, & smells. --May also amplify anxiety, depression, impair motor coordination & reaction time, disrupt memory formation, & damage lung tissue.Near Death Experiences: altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death. --Often involve out-of –body sensations & seeing or travelling toward a bright light.--Dualists interpret these experiences as evidence of immortality.--Monists point out that such experiences often parallel reports of hallucinations and may be the product of the brain under stress.LearningLearning: A relatively permanent change of an organism’s behavior due to experience. Associative Learning: learning that certain events occur together.--Classical conditioning: we learn to associate two stimuli and to anticipate events (See Recap Handout on Classical and Operant Conditioning)--Coined by John B. Watson. Also supported by Ivan Pavlov.--Ivan Pavlov: Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning with Dogs --Contiguity Model: believed in a temporal association between two events that occur closely together in 40309802114550 time. The more closely in time two events occurred, the more likely they were to become associated.--UCS (unconditioned stimulus): a stimulus that naturally & unconditionally triggers a response. (food) --UCR (unconditioned response): an unlearned naturally occurring response to the US) (salivation) --NS (Neutral Stimulus): does not elicit a UCR from the subject (the tone) -- CS (Conditioned stimulus): originally the NS, but after associating the NS with the US, it becomes a trigger for the CR (conditioned response). (the tone) --CR (Conditioned response): a learned response to the CS after conditioning has occurred. (salivation) 04318000--Acquisition: in classical conditioning, when NS is paired and elicits a CR --Extinction: the diminishing of a conditioned response (CR). --Spontaneous Recovery: occurs after extinction without training, the CS (NS) again elicits the CR for a short time. --Generalization: stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR without training. --Discrimination: the ability to tell the difference between stimuli so that only the CS elicits the CR.--Higher Order Conditioning: A well learned CS is paired with another NS to produce a conditioned response (CR) to the new NS.--Delayed Conditioning: NS is presented just before the UCS, with a brief overlap between the twoEx - a bell begins to ring and continues to ring until food is presented; generally produces the strongest conditioning--Trace Conditioning: when the NS is presented & then disappears just before the UCS appears. ex - a bell begins ringing and ends just before the food is presented; produces moderately strong conditioningSimultaneous Conditioning: occurs when the US and NS are paired together at the same time.ex - the bell begins to ring at the same time the food is presented. Both begin, continue, and end at the same time; produces weak conditioning--Backward Conditioning: the US comes before the NS. ex - the food is presented, then the bell rings.`Produces no conditioning except in rare cases--Aversive Conditioning (counterconditioning): learning that involves an unpleasant or harmful unconditioned stimulusJohn B. Watson & Rosalie Raynor: the case of Little AlbertConditioned 9 month old Little Albert to fear a rat. His fear generalized to other animals as well.Although unethical, this study demonstrated bow phobias or other human emotions might develop through classical conditioning--Conditioned Taste Aversion: an intense dislike & avoidance of a food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning. --Garcia Effect: when rats were exposed to a tastes (NS) and then exposed them to radiation or drugs (UCS) that led to nausea and vomiting (CR). The rats developed aversions for those tastes, even if they did not get sick for hours after the initial exposure--Contingency Model (Robert Rescorla) challenges Pavolv’s contiguity model states that the CS tells the organism that the US will follow. --Blocking Effect: another challenge to Pavlov’s model.rats that were classically conditioned to fear (CR) the sound of a tone (CS) using electric shock (UCS) could not be conditioned to also fear a light alone (after paired with the tone). Since they already associated the tone with the impending electric shock, the light alone offered no new information, so the conditioning effect of the light was blocked.--Instrumental Learning (EL Thorndike): a form of associative learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequences.E.L. Thorndike: research with hungry cats using fish as a reward to entice cats to find their way out of a puzzle box. The cats’ behavior tended to improve with successive trials, illustrating Thorndike’s Law of Effect that rewarded behavior is likely to recur.--BF Skinner: called instrumental behavior OPERANT CONDITIONING because subjects operate in their own environments in order to produce desired outcomes. Operant Conditioning: learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished if followed by a punisher. 451104035560000Operant Chamber (Skinner Box): contained a bar or key that an animal could manipulate to obtain food or water reinforcer with attached devices in record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Developed four different training procedures working with rats, pigeons and other animals.Reinforcer: any event that strengthens the behavior that follows.Positive Reinforcement (reward training): increasing behaviors by presenting positive rewards such as food.Premack Principle: a more probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a less probable one.Negative Reinforcement: increases behaviors by stopping or reducing the aversive stimulusNegative Reinforcer: any stimulus that, when REMOVED after a response, strengthens the response.**Avoidance behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus before it begins**Escape behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus after it has already started. **Learned Helplessness: feelings of futility & passive resignation that result from the inability to avoid repeated aversive events. Even if it becomes possible to avoid or escape the aversive stimuli, it is unlikely that the learner will respond.Punishment: a learner’s response is followed by an aversive consequence which is unwanted, so the learner stops exhibiting the behavior. **Punishment should be immediate so that the consequence is associated with the misbehavior, strong enough to stop the undesirable behavior, and consistent. **Punishment should not be overused; does NOT teach the learner what should be done; suppresses rather than extinguishes behavior; may evoke hostility or passivity.Omission Training: A response is followed by taking away something of value from the learner By changing his/her behavior, the learner can get back the positive reinforcer. ex: Time-outPrimary Reinforcer: something that is biologically important, so it is rewarding, such as food & drink. Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcer: something neutral that when associated with a primary reinforcer, becomes rewarding such as gold stars, money, & tokens.Generalized Reinforcer: a secondary reinforcer that can be associated with a number of different primary reinforcers, such as money, which can buy food. Token Economy: operant training system used extensively in institutions (mental hospitals, jails) where tokens (secondary reinforcers) are used to increase a list of acceptable behaviors. Learner accumulates tokens & then exchanges them for privileges.Shaping: procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer & closer approximations of the desired behavior.Chaining: used to establish a specific sequence of behaviors by initially positively reinforcing each behavior in a desired sequence & then later rewarding only the completed sequence. Often used to teach animals a complex series of behaviorsOperant Conditioning – Reinforcement Schedules--Continuous Reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.451104023812500Problem: not reinforcing the behavior even once or twice could result in the extinction of the behavior. --Partial Reinforcement (intermittent schedule): reinforcing the behavior only some of the time.Results in slower acquisition of the behavior but greater resistance to extinction.Fixed Ratio schedule: reinforces only after a fixed number of responses. The learner will pause briefly after a reinforces & then will return to a high rate of responding.--Variable Ratio Schedule: reinforces a behavior after an unpredictable number of responses. Ex. Slot machines --Fixed Interval Schedule: reinforces behaviors only after a specified time has elapsed. Results in lots of behavior as the time for reinforcement approaches, but little behavior until the next time for reinforcement approaches. Ex. Cramming for an exam. --Variable Interval: reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals Ex. Studying every night because the teacher gives pop quizzes.Superstitious Behavior--Skinner gave pigeons when they performed some idiosyncratic behavior; reinforcing the pigeons to repeat this individually characteristic behavior often to get more food. would tend to repeat the behavior to get more food, resulting in superstitious behavior. There is a correlation between the idiosyncratic behavior and the food, but there is NO causal relationship between the two. Humans – lucky numbers or lucky jeans, or even lucky charms.Latent Learning: learning without rewardsMaze experiment with rats: **The first group of rats were given a reward each time they navigated a maze correctly. This trial was repeated over 10 days. **The second group were not given a reward for going through the maze – they made significantly more errors than the rats in the rewarded group. **On the 11th day both groups were rewarded for completing the maze correctly.**On the 12th day the second group navigated the maze as well as the first group demonstrating latent learning. **It was hypothesized that the rats had made a mental picture of the maze during the previous unrewarded trials – when they were rewarded, they were motivated to improve. Instinctive Drift: a conditioned response that drifts back toward the natural or instinctive behavior of the organism. For example, wild animal trainers must be vigilant after training animals because the animals may revert to dangerous behaviors.Observational Learning: learning by observation, experience, and examples. --Modeling: the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. --Mirror Neurons: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or observing another doing so; transform the sight of someone else’s actions into the motor program you would use to do the same thing; may enable imitation, language training, & empathyAlbert Bandura: behaviorism pioneer in research on observational learning--Social Learning Theory: proposed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. people can learn through observation. internal mental states are an essential part of this process. just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in change in behavior.--Observational learning requires attention, retention (the ability to store information) & reproduction ((perform the observed behavior) --Asserted that Intrinsic Motivation was another important factor to learning.--Motivation: must be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled--Reinforcers play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing these reinforcers with individuals exhibiting similar behavior. Ex: if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.--Prosocial Modeling: positive, constructive, helpful behavior.Children tend to imitate what a model does & says, whether the behavior is prosocial or antisocial. If the model’s actions are inconsistent, they may model the hypocracy they see.--Bandura (BoBo doll experiment) demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed.It was also found that boys engaged in twice as many acts of aggression to the BoBo doll than girls & that boys were more prone to imitate physical acts of violence where girls tended to imitate verbal aggression.Wolfgang Kohler --Insight: the sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem. --demonstrated that animals can arrive at a solution through insight rather than trial and error. He placed chimps (Chica, Grande, Konsul, and Sultan) in an enclosed area and presenting them with bananas suspended from the roof. The chimps first tried to knock them down by using a stick. Then, the chimps learned to stack boxes on top of one to reach the bananas.\Kohler also placed bananas outside Sultan's cage and two bamboo sticks inside his cage. Neither stick was long enough to reach the bananas. Sultan put the two sticks together and created a stick long enough to reach the bananas outside his cage.Cognition, Thinking, and Language Memory: the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of informationInformation Processing model (comparing the mind to that of a computer)--Encoding: getting information into the memory system--Storage: the retention of information over time--Retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory storageLevels of processing model (semantic network theory) (Craik & Lockhart) --the ability to form memories depends upon the depth of the processing.Shallow Processing: encoding that emphasizes the structure of incoming information such as the typeface of work or how a letter looks.--Semantic Encoding: Encoding the meaning of a word & relating it to similar words with similar meaning. --Deep Processing: involves elaboration rehearsal where we attach meaning to information & create associations between new memory and existing ones (elaboration) leading to better recall. Self-referent encoding: relating new information to ourselves – one of the best ways to facilitate later recall.Three Stage Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin): we form memories in three stages41224201587500--Sensory Memory: Information is first held in our sensory memory just long enough to be perceived. Iconic (visual) Memory: represents visual stimulus which lasts for less than 1 second.Echoic (auditory) Memory: lasts for about 4 secondsSelective Attention--Encoding can be processed in two ways:Automatic Processing: unconscious encoding of information about space, time, & frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking Effortful Processing: encoding that requires our focused attend and conscious effort--Short Term Memory (STM): Capacity of STM is approximately 7 bits (plus or minus 2) bits of information at one time. (ex: the seven digits of a telephone #) for about 30 seconds unless it is processed furtherIf we rehearse the new information, we can hold it longer in STMChunking: we can increase STM by grouping information into meaningful units. Working Memory is often used as a synonym for STM; newer research suggests that working memory is 3048017907000conscious, active processing of incoming auditory & visual-spatial information, & of information retrieved from long-term memory. Ex: actively associating new & old information to solve problems. Working Memory Model (Alan Baddley): **Phonological Loop: briefly stores information about language sounds with an acoustic code from sensory memory & a rehearsal function that lets us repeat the words in the loop. **Visuospatial Working Memory: briefly stores visual & spatial information from sensory memory including imagery (metal pictures) **Central Executive: actively integrates information from the phonological loop, the visuospatial loop, and long-term memory as we solve problems, associate old & new information, and perform other cognitive tasks.--Long-Term Memory (LTM): relatively permanent storage with unlimited capacity into which information from STM may pass. Divided into:387096020637500Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory): memory of facts & experiences that we consciously know & verbalize (declare)Semantic Memory: facts & general knowledgeEpisodic Memory: personally experienced eventsImplicit Memory (Nondeclarative Memory): retention independent of conscious memoryProcedual Memory: memory of motor & cognitive skillsClassical & Operant Conditioning Effects such as automatic association between stimuli.Memory Organization--Hierarches: systems in which concepts are arranged from general to more specific (ex: animal kingdom)Concepts: mental representations of related things; can represent physical objects, events, organisms, attributes, or even abstractions (birds) Prototypes: most typical examples for a concept (robin) Superordinate concepts: include clusters of basic concepts; instances of basic concepts (vertebrates)--Semantic Networks: more irregular and distorted systems than hierarchies, having multiple links from one concept to others.We use mental maps that organize and connect concepts so that we can process complex experiences Ex: concept of a bird can be linked to flying, feathers, other birds, animals wings which then, in turn, can be linked to other concepts--Artificial Intelligence (AI): Neural network computer models are based on neuron-like systems, which are biological rather than artificially contrived computer codes. These networks can learn, adapt to new situations, and deal with imprecise & incomplete information. Biology of Long Term (LT) Memory--Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.Involves the increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapse within neural networks of long-term memories. Sending neurons in such pathways release neurotransmitters faster and receiving neurons may increase their number of receptor molecules. May be the neural basis for learning and memory--Flashbulb Memory: a vivid memory of an emotionally rousing event; associated with an increase in adrenal hormones, triggering the release of energy for neural processes & activation of the amygdala & hippocampus.--Thalamus: role in the encoding of sensory memory into short term memory. --Short-term memory seems to be located primarily in the prefrontal cortex and temporal lobes--The hippocampus, prefrontal lobes, & temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex and other regions of the limbic system are involved in the processing of EXPLICIT memories for long-term storage. --Studies using MRI indicate that the hippocampus and left frontal lobe are active in encoding new information into memory. The right frontal lobe is more active when we retrieve memories. --Damage to the hippocampus may destroy the ability to consciously recall memories without harming skills or classically conditioned responses.--Cerebellum: plays a key role in the forming & storing of implicit memories. People with damage to the cerebellum cannot develop certain conditioned reflexes --Anterograde Amnesia: destruction of the hippocampus results in the inability to put new information into explicit memory. No new semantic memories are stored.--Retrograde Amnesia: memory loss for a segment of the past, usually around the time of the accident (such as a blow to the head). May result from a disruption in the process of long-term potentiation--Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier--Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned--Reconstruction: when information we try to remember has missing pieces, retrieval of such memories can be distorted by adding, dropping or changing details to fit a schemaHerman Ebbinghouse: first to experimentally investigate the properties of human memory. --research: assumed the process of memory involved the formation of new associations that would be strengthened through repetition. To observe this process, he devised a set of items to be committed to memory that would have no previous associations, the so-called nonsense syllables.He proceeded to memorize these lists through systematic repetition & found a positive correlation between repetition and ability to recall the list items.--Ebbinghouse was credited with the creation of the first learning curve. Found that forgetting turned out to occur most rapidly soon after the end of practice, and then slowed. This represented the first forgetting curve. --Overlearning Effect: found that if one continued to practice a list after memorizing it well, the information was more resistant to forgetting. --Saving Method: Amount of repetitions required to relearn a list compared to the number of repetitions it took to learn the list originally. Ebbinghouse used this method to measure retention of informationRetreival--Serial Position Effect: when trying to retrieve a long list of words, we recall the last word and the first words best, forgetting the words in the middle.--Primacy Effect: recall of the first items, thought to be a result of greater rehearsal--Recency Effect: better recall of the last items of the list; immediate after learning, these last words may still be in working memoryRetrieval Cues: reminders associated with information we are trying to get out of memory aid in our remembering. --Priming: activating specific associations in memory either consciously or consciously--Distributed Practice: spreading out the memorization of information or the learning of skills over several sessions facilitates memory better than Massed Practice (cramming of information in one session)--Mnemonic Devices: memory tricks or strategies to make information easier to remember (ex: ROY G. BIV)Peg Word System: uses the association of terms to be remembered with a memorized scheme. First you learn the rhyme or scheme, then you associate the peg words with the remembered items.--Context-Dependent Memory: the physical setting in which a person learns information is encoded along with the information and becomes part of the memory trace. --Mood Congruence (mood-dependent memory): tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good/bad mood. State-Dependent Memory Effect: tendency to recall information better when in the same internal states as when the information was encodedForgetting--May result from the failure to:Encode information (lack of attention to certain stimuliDecay of stored memories: gradual fading of the physical memory trace because we may have never used that information and the neuronal connections are no longer thereInability to access information from LTM.Relearning: measure of retention of memory that assesses the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again.--If the relearning takes as much time as the initial learning, the memory of the information has decayed.Cues and Interference--Tip-of –the-Tongue Phenomenon: a often temporary inability to access information accompanied by a feeling that the information is in LTM.--Interference: learning some items prevents us from retrieving others, particularly when the items are similar.Proactive Interference: the process by which old memories prevent the retrieval of newer memories (forward acting)Retroactive Interference: the process by which new memories prevent the retrieval of older memories. (backward acting)--Repression (Freud): the tendency to forget unpleasant or traumatic memories hidden in our unconscious Elizabeth Loftus: one of the strongest opponents of repressed memoriesConfabulation: Memories of traumatic events suddenly recalled during therapy may result the active reconstruction of memory where gaps are filled in by combining and substituting memories from events other than the one we are trying to remember. --Misinformation Effect: Occurs when we incorporate misleading information into our memory of an event.--Misattribution Error (Source Amnesia): attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. ThinkingCognition: mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating.Metacognition: thinking about how you thinkProblem Solving: generally involves identifying a problem, generating problem solving strategies, trying a strategy, and evaluating the results.--Algorithm: a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem --Heuristics: a problem-solving strategy that uses a mental shortcut to quickly simplify & solve a problem A speedier method, but more error prone using an algorithm.--Insight: sudden, often novel realization of the solution to a problem. --Trial and Error: trying possible solutions and discarding those that fail to solve the problem. Works best when choices are limited.--Inductive Reasoning: reasoning from the specific to the general, forming concepts about all members of a category based on some members; Can be flawed if members chosen are not representative of the group--Deductive Reasoning: reasoning from the general to the specific. Obstacles to Problem Solving--Fixation: inability to see a problem from a new perspective.--Mental Set: a type of fixation that involves the tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. --Functional Fixedness: the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions--Availability Heuristic: estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. If instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common.--Representative Heuristic: judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or match particular prototypes. This can lead to ignoring of relevant information.Framing: Refers to the way a problem is posed. How an issue is framed can significantly affect perceptions, judgments and decisions. Anchoring Effect: the tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point, pulling our bias toward that point. Language: Spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.Phonemes: basic sound units of language: have no meaning: 100 different phonemes worldwide; English uses about 45.Morphemes: smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, and suffixes. --Most morphemes are a combination of phonemesGrammar: a system of rules that enables us to communicate wit hand understand others.Semantics: the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences, in a given language. Also means the study of languageSyntax: the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.Language Acquisition--Babbling Stage: beginning at about 4 months of age, where the infant spontaneously utters various phonemes, which are not limited to the phonemes heard by the infant.At around 10 months of age, the phonemes a baby uses narrows to those of the language(s) spoken around the infant. --Holophase (one word): from about age 1 to 2 where the toddler uses mostly one word to convey meaning.By age 2, toddlers begin speaking in two word sentences, Telegraphic Speech: characterized by the use of a verb and a noun such as “eat cookie”Between the ages of 2 and 3, language expands exponentially.By the age of 3, children begin to follow rules of grammar without any instruction.--Overgeneralization (overregularization): “I goed to the store” – the child uses the general rule that we form past tense by adding –ed to a word, however, they use the grammar rules without making appropriate exceptions. Noam Chomsky (naturist) – often described as the father of modern linguistics--Believes that our brains prewired for a universal grammar of nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, negations, and questions. --Language Acquisition Device (LAD): innate acquisition of language though the use of a hypothetical ‘language device’ in which grammar switches are turned on as children are exposed to their language. --Believes that overgeneralization is evidence that children generate all sorts of sentences they have never heard and could not be imitating others. Critical period for language development : if children are not exposed to language development before adolescence, they will unable to acquire language.B.F. Skinner (nurture – behaviorist):--Believed that children learn language by association, reinforcement, and imitation.--Asserted that babies imitate phonemes around them and get reinforcement for using these sounds.--A baby’s first meaningful words are a result of shaping that is done by parents during the 1st year of life. Social Interactionists: agree that language acquisition is a combination of nurture and nature; children are biologically prepared but assert that the environment can either activate this potential or constrain it. Benjamin Whorf (1956) --Linguistic Determinism hypothesis: language determines the way we think.--Different languages impose different constraints on reality--Today, more accurate to say, language influences thought where words convey ideasResearch on bilingual people demonstrate that different languages embody different ways of thinking.Intelligence Psychometrics: the measurement of mental traits, abilities, & processes. Psychometricians: involved in test development in order to measure some CONSTRUCT or behavior that distinguishes people from one another. Constructs: ideas that help summarize a group of related phenomena or objects. Constructs are useful for understanding, describing & predicting behavior. Standardization: two part test development procedure: --establishes test norms from the test results of a large representative sample --ensures that the test is both administered & scored uniformly for all test takers Norms: scores established from the test results of the representative sample and used as a standard to compare scores of other test takers. Psychological tests measure abilities, interests, creativity, personality, & intelligence.Reliability: consistency of test results over time (repeatability) as long as all other variables remain the same. --Test-retest method: the same exam is administered to the same group on two different occasions & the scores are compared. Problem: familiarity when taking the test for the second time may skew results. --Spilt-half method: the score from the first half of the test is compared to the score on the last half of the test to see if they are consistent.--Alternate form method (equivalent form method: two different versions of a test on the same material are given to the same test takers, and the scores are correlated. Interrater Reliability: the extent to which two or more scorers evaluate responses in the same way. Validity: the test accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.--Face Validity: measure of the extent to which the content of the test measures all the knowledge and/or skills that are supposed to be included within the domain of that test, according to the test takers.--Content Validity: a measure of the extent to which the content of the test measures all of the knowledge &/or skills to be included within the domain being used, according to expert judges. --Criterion Related Validity: a measure of the extent to which a test’s results correlate with other accepted measures of what is being tested. --Predictive Validity: a measure of the extent to which the test accurately forecasts a specific future result. --Construct Validity: the extent to which the test actually measures the hypothetical construct or behavior it is designed to test. Often considered the true measure of validity.Performance Tests--Self-report tests: require the test taker to describe his/her feelings, attitudes, beliefs, values, opinions, physical &/or mental state on surveys, questionnaires, or polls. Includes the MMPI-2 (personality test) --Performance Tests in which there is a correct answer can be divided into:Speed Tests: generally include a large number of relatively easy items administered with strict time constraints under which most test takers find it impossible to complete. Power Tests: provide the test taker with enough time to compete items of varying difficulty. Differences in scores among test takers reflect knowledge & perhaps good guessing.--Observational Tests: The test-taker does NOT have a single well-defined task to perform. Assessed on typical behavior or performance in a specific context. --Aptitude Tests: type of ability test that predicts a person’s future performance or to assess the person’s capacity to learn--Achievement Tests: type of ability test that assesses what a person has already learned --Interest Tests: use a person’s descriptions of his/her own interests to predict vocational adjustment and Satisfaction; Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory: most widely used vocational interest test --Group Tests: test many people at once; the test taker works alone. These tests are cheaper to administer & more objective in scoring. Examples include SAT, ACT, AP exams --Individualized Tests: interaction of one examiner with one test takers. Such tests are expensive & involve subjective grading. Ex: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III & Standford-Binet Intelligence Scales --Culture-relevant tests: test skills and knowledge related to cultural experiences of the test takers.Intelligence: global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his/her environment” (David Wechsler)--IQ tests are an example of reification (construct is treated as though it was a concrete tangible object). Measurement of Psychophysical Performance (Francis Galton): measured psychomotor tasks to gauge intelligence; people with excellent physical abilities are better adapted for survival and therefore highly intelligent.James McKeen Cattell brought Galton’s studies to the US, measuring strength, reaction time, sensitivity to pain, & weight discrimination – collectively called “mental test” --Correlated poorly with reasoning ability, but brought attention to the systematic study of measuring cognitive & behavioral differences.Measurement of Judgment (Alfred Binet)--Collaborated with Theodore Simon to create the Binet-Simon Scale which was meant to only be used for class placement. --mental age (MA): measure of a child's mental development in terms of the number of years from birth it takes an average child to reach the same level --Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s scale for the US, calling it the Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale -- Intellgence Quotient: MA/CA X 100 (ratio of mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA)--The Wechsler Intelligence Scales (David Wechsler): Aged based Intelligence Scales including: WPPSI (Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence)WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children 6-16)WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale for older adolescents and adults)10668061404500WAIS-III (latest version) has a verbal scale with items on comprehension, vocabulary, information, similarities, arithmetic, and digit span and a performance scale with items dealing with object assembly, block design, picture completion, picture arrangements, & digit symbols. Scores are based on deviation IQ (how spread out the scores were from the mean of 100).68% of the population has an IQ between 85 and 115 (considered low normal to high normal in intelligence)Test takers who fall 2 SD (standard deviation) below the mean are considered borderline for mental retardation (70); those who score 2 SD above the mean (130) are sometimes considered mentally gifted. Those with scores 3 SD above the mean (145) are sometimes considered to be geniuses.--These scales are judged to be more helpful to determine extremes of intelligence than the Standford-Binet Scale.Cognitively Disabled --IQ score at or below 70 and show difficulty adapting to everyday life --Mildly cognitively disabled individuals score between 50 to 70 on IQ tests and are usually capable of taking care of themselves, their homes, achieve a 6th grade education, hold a job, get married and have children. Such children are often mainstreamed into regular education classes --Moderately cognitively impaired individuals score between 35-49 on IQ exams, may achieve a 2nd grade level, given training in skills such as eating, toileting, hygience, dressing, and grooming in order to care for themselves, and given life skills training so they can hold down menial jobs and live in group homes.--Severely cognitively challenged individuals have scores or 20-34 on IQ tests, have a limited vocabulary, and learn limited self-care skills. They are usually unable to care for themselves and do not develop enduring friendships. --Profoundly mentally challenged individuals with IQ scores below 20 need custodial care.Factor Analysis (Charles Spearman) --tested a large number of people on a number of different mental tasks and used the statistical procedure of factor analysis to determine closely related clusters of factors among the groups of items by identifying variables with high degrees of correlation.--Single Factor Intelligence Theory: Determined that one factor g, underlies all intelligence: also identified the s factor that was important for special abilities.Louis Thurstone: disputed Spearman; used factor analysis to identify 7 distinct factors of intelligence:inductive reasoning, word fluency, perceptual speed, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, numerical ability, & associative memory. John Horn & Raymond Cattell: determined that Spearman’s g should be subdivided into two factors of intelligence – fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligenceHoward Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligences --Believe in the existence of 8 intelligencesThree are measured on traditional intelligence tests: logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic & spatialFive are not: musical, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic, intrapersonal, & interpersonal. According to Gardner, these abilities also represent ways people process information differently.Gardner’s theory has led to changes in how some schools classify gifted and talented children for special programsEmotional Intelligence (EQ) (Salovey & Mayer): The ability to perceive, express, understand, & regulate emotions. --Combines Gardner’s interpersonal & intrapersonal intelligences --MEIS Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg) -- Three distinct intelligences that include:Analytical Thinking: compare, contrast, analyze, & figure out cause and effect relationshipsCreative Intelligence: evidenced by adaptive reactions to novel situations, showing insight, and being able to see multiple ways to solve a problem.Practical Intelligence: includes “street smarts” such as being able to read people, being able to get to a distant location or organizing an event. (also known as emotional or interpersonal intelligence) Disorders that affect Intelligence--Down’s Syndrome: extra 21st chromosome causing cognitive impairment (nature)--FAS (Fetal Alcohol Syndrome): cognitively disabled as a result to prenatal exposure to alcohol (primarily environmental)--PKU (Phenylketonuria): cognitive disability due to both nature and nurtureCultural-Familial Retardation: About 75% of all cases of cognitive impairment result from sociocultural deprivation in an impoverished environmentThe Flynn Effect: steady increase in performance on IQ tests over the last 80 years, possibly resulting from better nutrition, educational opportunities, and health care (favors nurture) Heritability: for intelligence for individuals ranges from 50-75%. (proportion of variation among individuals in a population that results from genetic causes).Reaction Range Model: genetic makeup determines the upper limit for an individual’s IQ; the lower limit results from an impoverished environment.Stereotype Threat: part of the difference in IQ scores may be attributed to the anxiety that influences members of a group concerned that their performance on a test will confirm a negative stereotype.Motivation and Work Instinct Theory: we are motivated by instincts that propel our behaviorDrive Reduction Theory: psychological needs create aroused states that PUSH us to reduce those needs by satisfying them.Incentive Theory: secondary motives or external stimuli PULL us toward a goal. Arousal Theory: We each have an optimum level of arousal necessary to perform tasks which varies with the person and the activity. -- Yerkes-Dodson Law: arousal will increase performances up to a point; further increases will impair performance; inverted U functionAbraham Maslow: Humanist, Hierarchy of Needs (from physiological safety love, belonging esteem self-actualization) each level must be satisfied before moving onto the next Alfred Kinsey: pioneered research on sexual motivation. Wrote the well-known book – Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (followed by one on the human female)Masters and Johnson: Sexual Response Cycle - --Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution followed by a Refractory Period (time after orgasm in which another orgasm cannot be achieved. Generally, refractory time for females is less than it is for males. EmotionJames-Lange Theory of Emotion: emotion producing event physiological arousal interpretation experience emotionCanon-Bard Theory of Emotion: emotion producing event simultaneously triggers physiological arousal and the subjective experience of emotion Schachter & Singer 2 Factor Theory of Emotion: emotion producing event leads to physiological arousal which we cognitive appraise and explain our arousal, which leads to our labelling the emotion we are experiencing. Lazarus Cognitive Appraisal Theory: emotion producing event leads to thinking about the event or situation and then you experience the physiological arousal and emotion. Opponent Process Theory: When we experience an emotion, an opposing emotion will counter the first emotion, lessening the experience of the first emotion.The Facial Feedback Hypothesis: expressions amplify our emotions by activating muscles associated with specific states and the body responds as though we are experiencing those states. The Behavioral Feedback Hypothesis: if we move our body as if we were experiencing some emotion, we are likely to feel that emotion to some degree.Positive Psychology, Martin Seligman: Scientific study of optimum human functioning. Focuses on three specific areas (pillars): --positive emotions--positive character--positive groups, communities, and cultures Stress & HealthOur body responds to stress with a Two Track System:--Sympathetic Nervous System: prompts the release of the epinephrine and norepinephrine from the inner part of the adrenal glands --Cerebral Cortex: via the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, the outer part of the adrenal glands secrets glucocorticoid stress hormones --Both systems stimulate the body’s flight or fight response (increasing heart rate, respiration, diverts blood form digestion to skeletal muscles, dulls pain, and releases glucose from the liver)Hans Selye General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): 3 phases -- --Alarm (reaction): increase in sympathetic nervous system activity, you are ready to fight the enemy or run away.--Resistance: temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high, while epinephrine, norepinephrine, and corticosteroid levels increase. If crisis is not resolved at this phase, our resources become depleted--Exhaustion: immune system is compromised, more vulnerable to diseases, and in extreme cases, collapse and death. Personality Psychoanalytic Perspective:Sigmund Freud – father of psychoanalysis (techniques used to treat psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions and motives), first book – The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) -- Free Association: method used to explore the unconscious. The person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing--Conscious: Includes everything that we are aware of at a given moment.--Preconscious: contains thoughts, memories, feelings, and images that we can easily recall.--Unconscious: reservoir filled most unacceptable thoughts, wishes, impulses, memories, and feelings.-- Personality is made up of three interacting systemsId: Operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification (reduces tension)Ego: partly conscious and unconscious, mediates among the id, superego and reality. Operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.Superego: composed of the conscious and the ego-ideal. Represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgments and future aspirations.Psychosocial Development Stage & AgeCharacteristicsConflictsOral (0-2 years)Gratification through oral activities such as thumb sucking, feeding, babblingSeparation anxiety from weaning from bottle/breastfeeding lead to oral-dependent personality (overeating, passivity, gullibility or oral-aggressive personality (sarcasm & argumentative) Anal (2-3 years)Child learns to respond to some of the demands of society (bladder/bowel control) Very strict & inflexible methods of toilet training may cause the child to hold back feces & become constipated. This can lead to:Anal Retentive Personality: marked by compulsive cleanliness, orderliness, stinginess, and stubbornness.Toilet training causes the child to become angry and expel feces at inappropriate times, leading to:Anal-Expulsive Personality: marked by disorderliness, messiness & temper tantrumsPhallic (3-7 years)Child learns to realize the difference between males/females; becomes aware of sexuality Conflict between child’s sexual desire for parent of the opposite sex and fear of punishment from the same sex parent. Known as the Oedipus Conflict in boys and the Electra Complex in girls. Resolution of conflict results in identification with the same sex parentIn boys, repression of sexual desire for mother occurs due to fear of castration anxiety from the dominant rival (Dad), leading to male children identifying with their fathers. Girls hold their mothers responsible for their castrated condition and experience penis envy, the desire for a penis that she wants to share with her father. If the Electra Complex is resolved, then the girl with identify with her mother to prevent the loss of her mother’s love. Latency (7-11 years)Child continues to develop, sexual urges are relatively quiet. sexual feelings are repressed and sublimated, sexual energy is transformed into developing social relationships and learning new tasks.If child does not meet own expectations or those of others, child can develop into an adult with feelings of inferiority.Genital (11 years –adult) Child loses old dependencies. Learns to deal with the opposite sex adolescents develop warm feelings for others and sexual attraction. Group activities, vocational planning, and intimate relationships develop. Particularly difficult time for teens with fixations in the phallic stage.Carl Jung (Colleague of Freud) developed the Analytic Theory of PersonalityBelieved that people have both a conscious & unconscious awareness that melds together through individuation to become an unified whole Collective Conscious: shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our ancestors.Inherited memories are archetypes of common themes found in all cultures, religions, and literature, both ancient and contemporary. Alfred Adler: Emphasized social interest as a primary determinate of behavior with consciousness at the center of personality.Inferiority Complex: believed that each person suffers from a sense of inferiority. Striving for Superiority: from childhood, people work toward overcoming their inferiority. This and drive is the motivating force behind human behaviors, emotions, and thoughts. Karen Horney Rejected the concept of penis envy Womb Envy: males suffer from feelings of inferiority because they are unable to give birth Childhood anxiety: help children in forming their personalities Children feel helpless and threatened; learn to cope by showing affection or hostility toward others or by withdrawing from relationships. TAT (Thematic Apperception Test): projective test with cards depicting people in ambiguous situations. Test takers asked to make up stories about situations to reveal participants’ inner selves. Rorschach Inkblot Test: assumes that what we see in its 10 inkblots reflects our inner feelings and conflicts. Behavioral Perspective:B.F. Skinner : Operant ConditioningBelieved that BEHAVIOR is PERSONALITY; the environment shapes who we areCriticized for not accounting for emotions or thinking processesHumanistic Perspective:Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of NeedsCarl Rogers: Self-Concept: central feature of personality which encompasses all of our thoughts and feelings To be fully functioning (self-actualized), we must learn to accept ourselves, and unite our real and ideal selvesTrait Perspective:Trait: A relatively permanent characteristic pattern of behavior or conscious motive that can be assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports used to predict our behaviors. Type A personality : intense, competitive, motivated; Type B: laidback Gordon Allport : Trait Theory (our unique pattern of traits determines our behavior) Cardinal Trait: a defining characteristic that in a small number of people, shapes and defines them; rare & tend to develop later in life. Central Traits: general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality.Secondary Traits: characteristics that apparent in only certain situations. Raymond Cattell: 16 personality factor model studied surface traits (visible parts of personality)Took the thousands of traits described by Allport and condensed them down to 16 source traits underlying personality, using factor analysis. Hans Eysensk : Three Factor Model of Personality Attempted to reduce description of our personalities to three major genetically influenced dimensionsDescribed personality in three dimensions: extroversion to introversion; stable to unstable; psychotic to high impulse control Five Factory Theory: The Big Five Personality Traits (Costa & McCrae) Includes the traits of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN).In adulthood, these traits are quite stable, about 50% inheritableMinnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI & MMPI2)10 clinical scales, originally designed to identify emotional disordersPatterns of responses among the 1o scales reveal personality dimensionsSocial-Cognitive PerspectiveCognitive Part: what we think out our situation affects our behavior. Social Part: we learn many of our behaviors through conditioning or by observing others and modeling our behaviors after themGeorge Kelly: Personal-Construct Theory Personal Constructs: bipolar categories that we use as labels to categorize & interpret the worldPeople with too few constructs tend to stereotype others; people with too many constructs have difficulty predicting the behavior of othersAlfred Bandura: Social Cognitive TheoryReciprocal Determinism: the interacting influences between personality & environmental factors; we choose our environments which in turn shape who we areJulian Rotter: Social Learning TheoryLocus of Control: control our own fates (internal) vs chance or outside forces determine our fates (external )Our perspective of control impacts our personality; influences how we think about ourselves & the actions we take. Martin Seligman: Learned HelplessnessA dog strapped into a hammock was given mild, repeated electric shocks with no chance to avoid them. Later, when placed into another situation where they could avoid punishment by jumping the hurdle, the dog cowered without hope.The dog formed the expectation that it could not control their environmentAbnormal Behavior Medical Model: abnormal behavior is a disease that manifests as mental illnessThe American Psychiatric Association used the medical model for the Diagnostic & Statistical Manual (DSM-IV) which classifies psychological disorders by their symptoms. Anxiety DisordersPanic Disorder: intense anxiety along with severe chest pain, tightness of muscles, choking, sweating--associated with low levels of serotonin, treated with antidepressants Generalized Anxiety Disorder: similar to panic disorder with symptoms occurring for at least 6 months, includes chronic anxiety that is not associated with any specific situation or object --associated with decreased GABA, treated with benzodiazepines (valium, xanex)Phobias: irrational fear responses to specific stimuli Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): compound disorder of thought & behavior-- Obsessions: persistent, intrusive, & unwanted thoughts that an individual cannot get out of his/her head. -- compulsions: ritualistic behaviors performed repeatedly, which the person does to reduce the tension created by the obsession. Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome (PTSD): a result of some traumatic experience (natural disaster, war, violent crime) suffered by the victim. -- Victims relive such experiences through nightmares of flashbacks, may have reduced involvement with the outside world, have hyper-alertness, & difficulty concentratingPsych Perspectives & Anxiety-- Behavioral Perspective: anxiety responses are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.--Cognitive Perspective: anxiety disorders are the result of misinterpretations of harmless situations as threatening, focusing excessive attention on perceived threats, & selectively recalling threatening information.--Biological Perspective: partly due to neurotransmitter imbalances.--Evolutionary Perspective: anxiety was important to natural selection for enhanced vigilance that operates ineffectively in the absence of real threats.Somatoform Disorders: manifested psychologically with physical symptoms with no physical damage to body.Somatization Disorder: characterized by recurrent complaints about usually vague and unverifiable medical conditions that do not seem to arise from any physical cause. Patient has complained, taken medicine, gone to the doctor/made lifestyle changes Conversion Disorder (hysteria): characterized by a loss of a bodily function with no apparent medical causeHypochondriasis: person unrealistically interprets physical signs (pain, bumps, irritations) as indications of serious diseasePsych Perspectives & Somatoform DisordersPsychoanalytic Perspective: due to bottled up emotional energy that is transformed into physical symptomsBehavior Perspective: operant responses are learned & maintained b/c they result in rewards.Cognitive Behaviorists: enable those with such disorders to avoid unpleasant or threatening situations, provide explanations or justifications for failure, attract concern, sympathy or care.Social Cognitive Perspective: such individuals focus too much attention on their internal physiological experiences, forming alarming conclusions about minor complaints. Dissociative Disorders: sudden amnesia or change in identity Dissociative Amnesia: loss of memory for a traumatic event or time that is too painful to remember Dissociative Fugue: memory loss of anything that has to do with personal memory. The person may leave home & establish a new identity. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): formerly known as Multiple Personality Disorder--very uncommon; 2 or more distinct personalities are present in the same person; person suffers amnesia when alternate personality comes out--may be caused by severe repression, physical or sexual abuse at a very young age--among professionals there is skepticism about such diagnoses of DID Mood Disorder: primary disturbance in affect or mood that colors the person’s entire emotional state, disrupting ability to function in daily livingMajor Depression Disorder: intense depressed mood, reduced interest in activities, loss of energy, & problems making decisions, reduced motivation, negative attitudes, inappropriate guilt, low self-esteem, changes in sleeping patternsSeasonal Affective Disorder: depression that recurs during the winter months in northern latitudes due to shorter periods of sunlightBipolar Disorder: mood swings alternate between major depression & mania--manic stage: little sleep, inflated ego, excessive talking, impulsivity--often treated with Lithium carbonate Cognitive Triad Theory (Aaron Beck): depressed people have a negative view of themselves, their circumstances, & future possibilities & that they generalize from negative events. Schizophrenia: characterized by psychosis (lack of touch with reality) evidenced by highly disorder thought processes Positive Symptoms (behavioral excess): delusions & hallucinations (false sensory experiences)Negative Symptoms: flat affect (lack of emotions) social withdrawal, apathy, inattention, lack of communicationDisorganized Schizophrenia: characterized by incoherent speech, inappropriate mood, delusions & hallucinations, bizarre behavior inappropriate to the situation Paranoid Schizophrenia: characterized by delusions of grandeur, persecution & reference (selected for special attention). Can become dangerous to themselves & others as protect themselves from imagined enemies. Catatonic Schizophrenia: disordered movement patterns, sometimes immobile stupor, or frenzied excited behaviorUndifferentiated (simple) Schizophrenia: characterized by disturbances of thought, behavior or emotion that do not neatly fit into any other schizophrenic categories. Personality Disorders: people have longstanding maladaptive thought & behavior patterns that are difficult for others to cope with, may be harmful, and/or illegalOdd/Eccentric:--Paranoid: unwarranted suspiciousness & mistrust; overly sensitive, often envious (more common in males) --Schizoid: poor capacity for forming social relationships, shy, withdrawn behavior, considered “cold” (more common in males)--Schizotypical: odd thinking, often suspicious & hostileDramatic/Emotionally Problematic:-- Histrionic: Excessively dramatic, seeks attention, tends to overreact; egocentric (more common in females)--Narcissistic: unrealistically self-important, manipulative, lacking empathy, expects special treatment, can’t take criticism (more common in males)-- Borderline: emotionally unstable, impulsive, unpredictable, irritable, prone to boredom (more common in females) --Antisocial: (sociopaths or psychopaths) violate other people’s rights without guilt/remorse, manipulative, exploitive, self-indulgent, irresponsible, can be charming, often commit large number of violent crimes. (more common in males).Chronic Fearful/Avoidant-- Avoidant: Excessive sensitive to potential rejection, humiliation, desires acceptance but is socially withdrawn--Dependent: extreme lack of self-confidence; subordinates own needs; allows others to make decisions (more common in females). --Obsessive-Compulsive: preoccupied with rules, schedules, details; very conventional, serious, emotionally insensitiveDevelopmental Disorders:Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): unable to focus attention, easily distracted, often act impulsive, quickly changing activities which often results in failure to complete tasks. Autism: lack of responsiveness to other people, impairment in verbal & nonverbal communication, very limited activities & interests, may display repetitive behaviors.Eating Disorders--Anorexia Nervosa--Bulimia NervosaAbnormal TherapiesInsight Therapies: effective treatment for eating disorders, depression, & marital problemsPsychoanalytic: abnormal behavior result of unconscious conflicts from early childhood trauma experienced during the psychosexual stages of development.--Patient must discover the roots of problems by bringing the conflict into the conscious mind--Free association, dream interpretation (manifest content, latent content) --resistance, transference, catharsis Psychodynamic Psychotherapy: anxieties are rooted in past experiences, but not necessarily from infancy or early childhood.Interpersonal Psychotherapy: help people gain insight into the causes of their problems, focused on current relations to relieve present symptoms. Humanistic Therapies: problems arise because the person’s ability to grow emotionally has been stifled by external psychosocial constraints--Client-Centered Therapy: Unconditional Positive Regard: goal is to provide an atmosphere of acceptance, empathy, & sharing, permitting the client’s inner qualities to surface, leading the patient to self-actualization.--Person Centered Psychotherapy (Carl Rogers): Emphasizes developing positive self-concept through the therapist’s unconditional positive regard, active listening, sensitivity & genuineness.Behavioral Therapies: effective in treating anxiety disorders, alcohol & drug addictions, bed-wetting, sexual dysfunctions & autism.B.F. Skinner: abnormal behavior results from maladaptive behavior learned through faulty awards & punishments. Goal: to extinguish unwanted behavior & replace it with more adaptive behavior.Classical Conditioning Therapy--Systemic Desensitization: With therapist, create an anxiety hierarchy from least to most feared stimulus. --Flooding: client directly confronts the anxiety provoking stimulus, extinction is achieved.--Aversive Conditioning: Trains the client to associate physical or psychological discomfort with behaviors, thoughts, or situations he/she want to stop or avoid Often used with the drug Ex: Antibuse (US) with alcohol (CS), which in combination causes extreme nausea (CR).Operant Conditioning Therapies --Behavior Modification: the client choses a goal, & with each step toward that goal, he/she receives a small reward until the goal is reached. --Token Economies --Biofeedback: involves giving the person immediate information about the degree to which he/she is able to change anxiety-related physiological responses. Criticism: Psychoanalysts believe that since Behaviorists are curing the symptoms, not the problem, so the problem will eventually resurface in in another formCognitive-Behavior Therapies: Helpful in treating depression, eating disorders, chronic pain, marital issues, & anxiety disorders. Abnormal behaviors result from faulty thought patterns. Therapy’s goal is to change the patient’s way he/she thinks & behaves.Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)/Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) (Albert Ellis) --Based on the premise that psychological problems result from self-defeating thoughts. --ABCs of therapy: Actions, Beliefs about those actions, & Consequences of those actions. Cognitive Triad Therapy (Aaron Beck) --Cognitive Triad: looks at what a person thinks about his/her self, world, & future. --Depressed people tend to have negative perceptions in all three areas. Martin Seligman: depressed people think they caused the negative events, the negative events color everything they do, & the negative events will last forever. --Goal is to turn irrational negative beliefs into more positive & realistic views by reattributing blame to situational factors & discussing alternative solutions to problems.Biological/Medical TherapiesAbnormal behavior results from neurochemical imbalances, abnormalities in brain structures, and/or genetic predispositions. Psychopharmacology: the use of psychotropic drugs to treat mental disorders --Tranquilizers (anxiolytics, anti-anxiety drugs) Effective for treating anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, & PTSDBenzodiazapines: Valium, Librium, Xanax & BuSpar increase availability of GABA to the limbic system & reticular activating system where arousal is too high, reducing anxiety.Helpful in the treatment of PTSD, panic disorder, agoraphobia, & generalized anxiety disorder.--Antidepressants: elevate mood by making serotonin, norepinephrine, &/or dopamine more available at the synapse to stimulate postsynaptic neurons. Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs): inhibit the effects of chemicals that break down norepinephrine & serotoninTricyclics: inhibit the reuptake of serotonin & norepinephrineSelective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): only inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, Include Paxil, Prozac, zoloft, Celexa, Lexpro.Atypical Antidepressants (non-SSRIs): some may inhibit reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, or a combo of two. Include Wellburtin & Effexor XR.Stimulants (psychoactive drugs) such as Ritalin & Dexadrine. Used to treat narcolepsy & ADHD--Activate motivational centers & reduce activity in inhibitory centers of the CNS by increasing activity of serotonin, dopamine, & norepinephrine.Antipsychotics (neuroleptics), include Thorazine, Haldol, & Clozaril. --powerful meds that lessen agitated behavior, reduce tension, decrease hallucinations & delusions, improve social sleep behavior, especially in schizophrenic patients.--Excess dopamine is thought to underlie schizophrenic symptoms. --Side effects include tardive dyskinesia – problems with walking, drooling, & involuntary muscle spasms due to blocking of dopaminePsychosurgery: removal of brain tissue, can be used to treat certain organic problems that lead to abnormal surgery. --Treatment of last resort b/c effects are irreversible. --Prefrontal Lobotomy: (1835-1955), cut the main neural tracts connecting lower brain regions to the frontal lobes performed on schizophrenic patients to reduce the intensity of their emotional responses. Today, psychosurgery is mostly limited to split brain surgery (transecting the corpus callosum) to stop symptoms of severe epileptics. Electroconvulsive Shock Treatment (ECT): used as the last resort to treat severely depressed patients. --Patient under sedation & given a muscle relaxant to prevent injury from convulsions as patient is given a momentary electrical shock. There may be some temporary memory loss with ECT, but no permanent brain damage.Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) -- A new painless procedure for severe depression involves repeated pulses that surge through magnetic coils positioned above the right eyebrow of the patient. May work by stimulating the depressed patient’s left frontal lobe.Social Psychology Social Cognition: the way people gather, use, and interpret information about the social aspects of the world around themAttribution Theory: how we explain someone’s behavior either by: --dispositional attributes (personality & intelligence)--situational attributes (environmental factors) Self-Serving Bias: When evaluating our own behavior, we tend to attribute our successes to dispositional attributes and our failures to situational attributes --Fundamental Attribution Error: we underestimate the impact of the situation & overestimate the power of personal disposition. --Actor-Observer Bias: tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational causes and the behavior of others to personal causes. --Just-World Phenomenon: people get what they deserve.Attitudes: feelings, based on our beliefs that predispose our reactions to objects, people and events. --Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: the tendency for people who have agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request--Reciprocity: often used by groups soliciting contributions.group member gives you a small gift (pamphlet, flower) so you listen to his/her pitch. When they follow up with a request for a donation for their worthy cause, you may feel inclined to make a donation due to the initial gift. --Low-ball technique: a person offers an initial cut-rate price but later increases the price with additional costs you assumed were included. --Door-in-the-face technique: a person makes a very large request that you are most certain to refuse, then follows this up with a smaller one. Out of guilt, you may comply with the smaller request.Cognitive Dissonance Theory: we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) resulting from conflicting beliefs, attitudes, opinions or values (cognitions) or when our behaviors do not coincide with our mental processes.Culture: the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes and traditions shared by a large group of people which are transmitted from one generation to the next. Cultural Norms: all cultural groups have rules for accepted and expected behavior. Personal Space: buffer zone we maintain around our bodies. Self-fulfilling Prophecy: tendency to allow our preconceived expectations of others influence how we treat them, bringing about the very behavior we expected to come true.Social Facilitation: a person has stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.--What you know well, you are more likely to do even better in front of an audience.Social Impairment: What you find difficult to do, you will find near impossible when being watched. SocialLoafing: the tendency of people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward an attainable goal than when they are individually accountableDeindividuation: loss of self-awareness & self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.Prison Study (Phillip Zimbardo)--tested the hypothesis that the situation often determines how you behave more strongly than who you are. --Within a day, the lines between role play and real life became disturbingly blurred. Guards harassed and dehumanized prisoners. Some guards were tyrannical and appeared to enjoy their new roles. The prisoners quickly became despondent and within a few days, many were asked to be paroled.--Within the first few days, 5 prisoners had to be released from the experiment due to emotional breakdown and stress reactions. The study was planned to lasted 2 weeks, Zimbardo stopped the study after 6 days. Conclusion: The roles people play within a given situation can shape their behavior and attitudes. Group Polarization: discussion in a group of like-minded people tends to strengthen pre-existing attitudes. Groupthink: mode of thinking that occurs when a decision-making group attempts to maintain harmony which overrides realistic appraisals of alternatives. Suppression of dissenting opinions can lead the group to make bad decisions.Minority Influence: the power of one or two dissenters are able to sway the majority--Characteristics of minority influence: committed to cause; dissenter unwaveringly holds to his/her position; self-confident about his/her stanceChameleon effect: Unconsciously mimicking others’ expressions, postures, and voice tones helps experience their feelings.Conformity: adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.--Conformity increases when: a person is made to feel incompetent or insecure; group has at least 3 members, group is unanimous in thinking; individual admires the group’s status and attractiveness; others in the group observe the person’s behavior; person’s culture strongly encourages respect for social standards--Normative Social Influence: influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain social approval or avoid disapproval --Informational Social Influence: influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality 5052060203200Solomon Ashe Conformity Study--illustrates how everyday people can be pressured into unusual behavior by the consensus of group opinion--For each participant who too part in the experimental situation several times, approximately 75% agreed with the group’s incorrect consensus at least once.--For all trials combined, participants agreed with the group on the incorrect responses about 1/3 of the time. --Conclusions: Clearly demonstrated the real power of social pressure on others to conform.--Further research on Conformity:--Social Support: (Ashe) When 1 confederate out of the 7 gave the correct answer, only 5% the participants changed their answers to agree with the rest of the group. --Attraction and Commitment to the Group: Later research found that the more attracted and committed to a group, the greater the chance a person will conform to the behavior and attitudes of the group. --Size of the Group: conformity increases with the size of the group up to 6 or 7 members. After that, conformity levels off and may even decrease. As the group becomes larger, individuals may suspect complicity of other members to affect their behavior and become resistant to the obvious pressure.Stanley Milgram, Obedience Study --Believed that humans have tendency to obey other people who are in a powerful position of authority, even if it violates their personal code of moral and ethical behavior.--Experiment involved a teacher (participant) who was instructed to teach word-pairs to the learner. When the learner made a mistake, the teacher was instructed (by the experimenter) to punish the learner with an electric shock, 15 volts higher for each mistake.The learner never received the shocks, but a pre-taped audio was triggered when a shock-switch was pressed that indicated the learner was in distress.At some point, every teacher participant would turn to the experimenter looking for guidance in continuing with the experimentThe level of shock the participant delivered was used as the measure of obedience. --Results:65% of the participants delivered the maximum shocks. Some participants became extremely agitated, upset and angry at the experimenter. Yet they continued to follow orders.Participants were debriefed at the end of the experiments due to concern about their levels of post experimental anxietyWhile Milgram’s research raised serious ethical questions about the use of human subjects in psychology experiments, his results have also been consistently replicated in further experiments. --Situational factors that facilitate obedience:The physical presence of an authority figure Person giving orders is supported by a prestigious institutionVictim was depersonalized or at a distanceNo other person modeled defiance by disobeyingPrejudice (Prejudgment)--Unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members--Stereotype: a generalized belief about a group of people.--most people are unaware of how stereotype images can lead to both negative attitudes and treatment of others (self-fulfilling prophecy) --Discrimination: unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members--Ethnocentrism: basic belief that a person’s culture is superior to all other cultures--Roots of Prejudice: SocialIn-group: “US” – people with whom one shares a common identityIn-group Bias: tendency to favor one’s own groupOut-group: “THEM” – those perceived as different or apart from one’s in-group Out-group Homogeneity: tendency to believe that all members of another group are similar--Roots of Prejudice: EmotionalScapegoat Theory: when our self-worth is in doubt or in jeopardy, we become frustrated and tend to find others to blame. Prejudice can arise from passions of the heart and as a way to express anger, particularly when things go wrong.--Roots of Prejudice: CognitiveCategorization: by categorizing people into groups, we often stereotype them, biasing our perceptions of their diversityVivid Cases: we often judge the frequency of events by the instances that readily come to mind, which then influence our judgments of a group.Just-World Phenomenon: “people get what they deserve”Hindsight bias also has an impact on cognitive prejudice. Ex: when learning of a date rape victim, people may respond “She should have known better. Blaming the victim also helps to reassure people that such horrible events could not happen to them.Aggression: Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy another person--Biological Influences:Genes influence aggression (temperament – the inherited part of personality) The brain has neural systems that facilitate or inhibit aggression Biochemical influences also can contribute to aggression. Hormones, such as testosterone can increase aggressionAlcohol, which decrease inhibition, can also facilitate aggression--Psychology of Aggression Frustration: the blocking of an attempt to achieve a goal Aversive events such as environmental conditions or social rejection can create frustration, Frustration-aggression principle: frustration creates anger which can generate aggression. Reinforcement for aggressive behavior can establish learned patterns of aggression that are difficult to changeObserving models acting aggressively in person or in the media (watching violence or sexual aggression on TV or in movies).Acquiring Social Scripts, culturally sanctioned ways of acting in a given situation, through media can also trigger aggression.Violent video games can also heighten aggressive behavior by providing social scripts and opportunities to observe modeled aggression and role-play aggression: can increase arousal & feelings of hostility, prime aggressive thoughts and increase aggressionIn adolescents, lead to increased participation in arguments and fights and decreases in academic gradesVirtual reality games may heighten these effectsInstrumental Aggression: its purpose is to satisfy some goal or behavior. (stealing shoes from a gym locker) Hostile Aggression: results when a person feels pain, anger, or frustrationConflict: Perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. --Social Traps: a situation in which the conflicting parties, by purposively pursing their self-interests, become caught in mutually destructive behaviors. In such cases, we harm our collective well-being by pursuing our own interests. --Mirror-Image Perceptions: When in conflict, enemies often “demonize” each other by forming images that are quite similar. These perceptions often become self-fulfilling prophecies, triggering reactions that confirm these images.Attraction--Proximity: geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendships.--Mere-exposure effect: repeated exposure to an individual increases familiarity and liking of that person. --Physical Attractiveness: people’s physical attractiveness can predict the frequency of dating, popularity, and others’ initial impressions of their personalities. Physical attractiveness is relative and varies by cultureMere-exposure effect also plays into who a person may find attractive --Similarity: attraction increases with greater similarity in attitudes and interests between two people.Passionate Love: an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love panionate Love: the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined. Key Ingredients to gratifying and enduring relationships:--Self-Disclosure: sharing intimate aspects of oneself to others--Equity: a condition in which people receive in proportion what the give to a relationship.Altruism: Unselfish regard for the welfare of others --The debate still exists whether altruism is an inborn trait or a result of experiential learning.--Involves self-sacrifice to help others without the expectation of personal rewardBystander Effect: tendency for any given observer to be less likely to help if other people are present. --Helping others in emergencies occurs when:victim appears to need and deserve help or in some way similar to uswe have just observed someone else being helpful or NOT in a hurry or are feeling guilty We are in a small town or rural areaWe are focused on others, not preoccupied and/or in a good moodSocial Exchange Theory: our social behavior is an exchange process; the aim to maximize benefits and minimize costs--If you anticipate rewards from helping that exceed the costs, then you helpReciprocity Norm: we should return help, not harm, those who have helped us. Social-Responsibility Norm: an expectation that people will help those who are dependent on them --Past research indicates that people who attend religious services are far more likely to volunteer more and donate more of their money to helping others.Peacemaking: Conflict resolution can, in some instances, occur through cooperation, communication, and conciliation.--Superordinate goals: share goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation --Effective communication, often with the aid of a third party can lead to decreasing conflicts.--Reciprocated conciliatory gestures (smile, touch, word of apology) can reduce tension & move toward resolution. --GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction): a strategy designed to decrease international tensions In lab experiments, has been effective for increasing trust and communication.--Elaboration Likelihood Model: attitudinal change through the two following routes:Central Route of Persuasion: the speaker uses facts, figures, and other information to enable listeners to carefully process the information and think about their opinions (opinion change is more stable). Peripheral Route of Persuasion: Superficial information is used to distract the audience to win favorable approval of their product or to increase sales. Celebrities are paired with the product and through classical conditioning, people transfer the liking of the spokesperson to the product (less stable attitude change). ................
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