Running Head: COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION



Running Head: COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Cognitive Theories of Motivation

Kelly Chamberlain

University of New England

Cognitive Theories of Motivation

We’ve all had tasks and assignments in our lifetime that we didn’t want to perform. It could have been an oral report to prepare in high school, a paper to write for a graduate school course, or even a simple homework assignment back in the third grade. The cognitive theories of motivation help enlighten us regarding why some humans are more motivated to tackle these types of tasks then others. Why is it that many people dread the above-mentioned types of tasks? Are there ways to make these tasks more enticing? How can we use the research on cognitive theories of motivation to benefit students of all ages?

What Are Cognitive Theories of Motivation?

The foundation of the cognitive motivational theory is the need to understand. The theories concentrate on beliefs and expectations for oneself. They also focus on the need for order, predictability, and understanding. This explains why a child may work tediously at a puzzle and then never touch it again once he has learned how to solve it. And since many people are fascinated with challenges, this also explains our country’s addiction with sudoku puzzles. There is clearly a want and a need in our brains to make sense of the world around us.

The five major cognitive theories of motivation that will be discussed are: expectancy x value theory, self-efficacy theory, goal theory, attribution theory, and self-determination theory. All of these theories focus on learners’ beliefs, expectations, and needs for order, predictability, and understanding.

Expectancy x Value Theory

The expectancy x value theory is made up of two key ideas. The first, expectancy, refers to the level of success the student expects to accomplish, i.e., does the student expect himself to do well or to fail? The second part of the theory, value, simply refers to the level of importance the student places on the task.

To determine the student’s level of motivation, the expectancy is multiplied by the value. The x plays an important role because any number times zero is zero, therefore, if the expectancy or value is zero, the student’s motivation will also be at or near zero.

This theory explains why a student that has a history of failures may eventually stop trying—he no longer ‘expects’ to succeed. However, if both the expectation and value are high, the student’s motivation will also be high. The expectancy x value theory also states that a generally successful student may put in very little effort if the task at hand does not interest him.

The expectancy is determined by two factors: perceptions of task difficulty, and self-schemas. Perception of task difficulty is self-explanatory. If the student believes the task will be easy, he will expect to be successful. However, if the student believes the task will be difficult, he will not expect himself to be successful. According to Pintrich and Schunk (2002), “Self-schemas are organized networks of information about ourselves. They include our self-concepts and sets of beliefs about the kind of person we believe ourselves to be” (p. 308). This includes what a person believes his strengths and weaknesses to be. For example, a student’s self-schema may include the belief that he is a good writer, but not a strong mathematician. These beliefs would lead the student to have a higher expectation for success on a writing assignment, and a lower expectation for success on a math test.

Students with higher expectations for themselves are more likely to persevere at a tedious task, whereas students with lower expectations for themselves are more likely to give up when the task first becomes challenging.

The task value is mainly determined by four different factors: intrinsic interest, importance, utility value, and cost. All four factors address the question, “why should I do it?” Intrinsic interest refers to how genuinely interested the student is in the task. Students enjoys task that they can use prior knowledge; they also enjoy choices. The more interest the student has in the task, the more likely he is to succeed.

The importance of the task to the student also plays a big role in task value. If the task is important to the student, he is more likely to do well. Often times, succeeding at a task can confirm the student’s belief in his own ability.

The utility value is the belief that the task will be useful for future endeavors. Although a student may not be interested in the task or believe he is good at it, he will still be motivated to complete it for his own good in the future. Although this is considered extrinsic motivation, there is a good chance that once the student becomes more successful with the subject, he will become intrinsically motivated.

Cost is the negatives of participating in a task. A student may consider what he would be missing in order to participate in the task, for example, fun with friends. There can also be emotional costs, such as nervousness and anxieties.

Self-Efficacy Theory

Bandura defines self-efficacy as “a belief about one’s own capability to organize and complete a course of action required to accomplish a specific task” (p.310). In other words, it’s the belief if you can actually do the task. Students may have high self-efficacy in one subject area and low self-efficacy in another. Also, if a student has a positive self-concept in a subject, he could have low self-efficacy for a particular task in that subject. For example, a student that believes he is a good writer may have low self-efficacy for writing poems.

There are four factors that can determine a person’s beliefs about their ability to succeed on a specific task: past performance, modeling, verbal persuasion, and psychological state.

A person’s past performances plays the biggest role in determining his level of self-efficacy. If the student has done well at a particular type of task in the past, he is likely to have a high self-efficacy when it comes time to complete that type of task again. Modeling also plays an important role in determining one’s own self-efficacy. If a student has the opportunity to view others completing a task, he will have a higher self-efficacy for that type of task.

Although not as influential as past performance and modeling, verbal persuasion may give students a higher self-efficacy. For example, if a teacher gives a reassuring comment such as “I know you’ll do great,” the child’s belief that he can succeed at the task may be increased.

Lastly, a student’s psychological state can also influence his self-efficacy. If the student is fatigued, hungry, or overly anxious, his self-efficacy may be reduced.

Students with high self-efficacy are more likely to be open to challenges and try harder. They are more likely to stick with a daunting task rather than giving up when the task becomes difficult. A student’s self-efficacy usually changes throughout his years in education. Younger children often have a high self-efficacy and think they can do more than they actually can. As they get older they begin to discover what subjects or types of tasks they are good at or have difficulties with.

Goals and Goal Orientation

A goal is the outcome an individual hopes to achieve. A student’s goal can influence his motivation and learning. Two types of goals often seen in the classroom are learning goals and performance goals.

Learning goals focus on understanding the material, making improvement, or learning how to do something. Performance goals can be more specific and competitive. For example, if a student’s goal is to get an ‘A’ on a paper, then it is a performance goal. On the contrary, if the student wants to truly learn about the topic, then it’s considered a learning goal.

Performance-approach goals and performance-avoidance goals are the two types of performance goals. Students that want to look good in front of others and receive positive feedback have performance-approach goals. On the other hand, students that don’t want to be noticed or viewed as incompetent have performance-avoidance goals.

Adopting learning goals can be very effective for students. Students with learning goals are more likely to keep trying when tasks get difficult and have high-efficacy. It is possible for students to have learning and performance goals. As students get older, their learning goals typically decrease while their performance goals tend to increase.

Whether a student has learning goals or performance goals could depend on his own theory of the nature of intelligence. If the student has an entity view of intelligence (the belief that ability is stable and out of his own control), he is likely to have performance goals. On the contrary, a student with an incremental view of intelligence is more likely to have learning goals.

In addition to performance and learning goals, there are also social and work-avoidance goals. Social goals can help or hurt a student’s motivation to learn depending on the desired outcome. If the student just wants to get the assignment out of the way, his motivation would be decreased. However, if the student wants to impress others, motivation would be increased. Students with work-avoidance goals prefer simple tasks. They will do what they can to avoid doing the work on their own.

To set an effective goal there are three characteristics to consider. The goal needs to be specific, not broad. Also, the goal needs to be immediate; they should not be set too far in the future. Lastly, goals should be moderately challenging.

Attribution Theory

The attribution theory “…attempts to systematically describe learners’ explanations for their successes and failures and how these influence motivation and behavior.” (Eggen and Kauchak, p.316) There are three different types of attributions: locus, stability, and control.

The locus refers to the location, which is either inside or outside of the learner. Effort and ability are considered inside the learner, while luck and task difficulty are outside the learner. Whether or not an attribution can change is the stability. Ability is stable because it doesn’t change; however, luck and effort are unstable because they do change. Control refers to the extent that students believe they are in control of the outcome. Do they take on the responsibility, or do they blame it on other factors?

There are four major ways that attributions can affect learners: emotional responses, expectations for future success, future effort, and achievement. A student will be more motivated if he blames a recent failure on lack of effort. On the contrary, motivation will decrease if the student blames failure on lack of ability.

If a student continually blames failure on lack of ability, it may result in learned helplessness. Students with learned helplessness have low self-esteem and put in little effort. They rely on others to get their work done.

Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination is a process of deciding how to act on one’s environment. The theory states that being able to make decisions and having choices are intrinsically motivating. According to the self-determination theory, people have three psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Teachers can alter students’ beliefs about their competence in four different ways: attributional statements, praise and criticism, emotional displays, and offers of help. If teachers give students positive attributional statements they can raise their self-esteem and beliefs of competence. Using praise and criticism can also affect a student’s belief of his own competence—negatively and positively.

Students also have a need for autonomy, which is a feeling of independence and control of the environment. To increase students’ perceptions of autonomy, teachers should give students choices, allow them to set their own goals, let them create the classroom rules, and have a lot of student participation during lessons.

Relatedness, which is the feeling of belonging, respect, and love, can also influence motivation. A student that feels liked by a teacher is more likely to participate and try hard. They are also more likely to set goals and enjoy the work they are doing.

Summary of Cognitive Theories of Motivation

There are many factors that make up a student’s level of motivation, including his beliefs, expectations, and need for order. There are several reasons why students may experience successes and failures and it is the role of the teacher to try many different approaches to increase students’ motivation. These five motivational theories explain why students have the perceptions they do and how teachers can positively influence them.

It is important to get to know each student as an individual because every student’s motivational needs will be different. With a dedicated and caring teacher these cognitive theories of motivation can be used to benefit students of all ages.

Part II: Cognitive Theories of Motivation in My Classroom

In my first grade classroom I use goals as a way to increase motivation. I use effective-goal setting, which means the goals that are set are specific, immediate, and moderately challenging. I allow my students to determine their own goals with my assistance if needed, rather than dictating their goals to them.

I also help my students monitor their goals. This way the goals aren’t forgotten about and the students can be reminded of what they are working toward. It was mentioned in the text that younger students are more likely to have learning goals rather than performance goals. I want my students to continue with learning goals so I do my best to intrigue and excite them in the material we are learning by getting excited myself and making the learning hands-on and fun.

I also address the theory of self-efficacy in my classroom. I help my students create a high self-efficacy by using the four main factors that determine a person’s level of self-efficacy to my advantage. I do a lot of modeling and also have students that are confident model for the other students. I always show my students what they will be doing rather than just telling them because it gives them a much clearer picture and can make them feel more confident going into the task. Also, I use verbal persuasion to give my students an extra boost of confidence and increase their self-efficacy.

I use the self-determination theory in my classroom as well. I provide my students with choices and allow them to make their own decisions throughout each day. I influence my students’ beliefs about their confidence by using lots of praise and only appropriate constructive criticism, I don’t always offer help to the same students over and over, I show appropriate emotional displays, and use attributional statements.

Part III: Letter to Parents

Dear Parents,

As a first grade teacher I believe finding ways to motivate my students is very important. I will use many different techniques and strategies with the students throughout the year depending on their motivational needs. I would like to share a few of my strategies with you so you are aware of what is happening in our classroom. Also, feel free to try some of these ideas with your child at home!

One thing we will do this year is set goals. Each student will set his/her own goal depending on his/her interests and needs. For example, one student may set a goal to learn to read the 25 sight words by Thanksgiving break while another may set a goal to learn his doubles by December (2 + 2, 3 +3, etc.). I will work with each child to ensure the goal is appropriate and manageable. Please ask your child often how his/her progress is coming towards meeting the goal. I will send notes home so you know what your child’s goal is so you can help him/her meet it. As soon as the goal is met, we will set a new one.

I will make it a point to inform the students why we are learning what we are learning! I want the students to understand that everything we learn will have a purpose and is important to know. For example, I will explain to the students the importance of knowing how to measure and why measurement is important when the unit begins. We will discuss how measurement is a part of our lives and what would happen if we didn’t know how to measure.

Lastly, I will do my very best this year to make sure all students feel respected, welcomed, and loved. I don’t believe children would be motivated to learn if they don’t believe their peers and teacher like and respect them. I will create a supportive classroom environment where every child is valued!

Thanks for your support, please feel free to contact me with questions regarding my motivational techniques.

Sincerely,

K.Chamberlain

References

Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2007). Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms. (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education Inc.

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