Minnesota State University Moorhead



Chapter Eleven: Psychology and Women’s Health IssuesGender and HealthWorldwide, being born female is dangerous to your healthIn the US, males have a higher death rate than femalesAverage life expectancy in US:Females: 80 yearsMales: 75 yearsLeading causes of death Gender differences and similaritiesHeart DiseaseEffects of estrogen on cholesterolSilent diseaseWomen manifest heart disease 10 yrs laterHeart attacks are more often fatal for womenDifferent symptoms and signsWomen misdiagnosed as having an anxiety attackInterventionsWomen are less likely to receiveGender bias in medical researchDiscrimination and HealthHigh blood pleasure Discrimination, stereotype threat may be chronic, repeated stressors for womenWomen and the Health Care SystemFeminists have been critical of the treatment of women in the health care systemThe physician-patient relationship reflects the subordinate status of women in societyThe medical profession has actively discriminated against women as practitionersMedical care offered to women is often inadequate, irresponsible, or uncaringE.g., 70% of hysterectomies are unnecessaryMedical research conducted on women is often irresponsible or simply missingHealth Needs of Poor and Minority WomenPoor and ethnic minority women have higher rates of infant mortality than White womenChronic diseases are more prevalent among ethnic minority women than among White womenLife expectancy of ethnic minority women is 5-7 years less than that of White womenEthnic minority women are overrepresented among the poorMenstruationMenstrual Problems: CrampsDysmenorrhea: painful menstruation, crampsWomen vary in the experience of crampsCramps are caused by Prostaglandins: hormone-like biochemicals that stimulate the muscles of the uterus to contractTreatment: antiprostaglandin drugsPsychological Aspects of the Menstrual CycleDo girls and women experience changes in personality or mood depending on the phase of the menstrual cycle?Retrospective reports of symptoms and moodsUnreliableProspective self-reportsSmall fluctuations in mood and symptomsCorrelational studies cannot prove that hormone levels influence moodPsychological Aspects of the Menstrual Cycle Paige’s (1971) study with oral contraceptivesHigh levels of estrogen and progestin lead to steady moodPremenstrual syndrome (PMS): a combination of severe physical and psychological symptoms (such as depression) occurring in some women for a few days before menstruationVaguely definedPMS is far from universal among womenRuble (1977): women report more problems when they think they are in the premenstrual phaseCultural influences on menstrual-cycle mood shiftsPerspectives of different ethnic groups suggest new interpretationsPractical ImplicationsMagnitude of mood shift depend on individual womanRegarding hiring decisions, performance is more important that moodGenerally no fluctuations in performance across cycle3-D spatial ability negatively correlated with estradiolLikely that monthly hormonal cycles exist in menOther Menstrual-Cycle FluctuationsSensitivity of the sensesPain sensitivitySubstantial variability in menstrual cycle mood fluctuationsContraception1 out of 14 women between the ages of 15 and 19 become pregnant every year59% of these pregnancies result in live births27% of these pregnancies are terminated by abortionthe remainder end in miscarriageWorldwide, family planning is an important issue for women’s physical and mental healthWhen women are able to practice contraception and space pregnancies farther apart, infant mortality declines and women’s physical health and mental health benefitAbortion1.2 million abortions are performed in U.S. each year1 in 3 women have an abortion by age 45Medical abortion16% of abortions in USTake a medication (e.g., mifepristone) in a pill, which causes the lining of the uterus to be sloughed offCan be done up to 9 weeksSurgical abortionMost commonly, vacuum aspirationDone in 1st trimesterDone on outpatient basis with local anestheticVery safeSevere problems following abortion are rareWorst stress occurs before abortionRisk for psychiatric disorder increases in year following childbirth, but not in year following abortionAdolescents who choose abortion are more likely to graduate from high school than those who carry pregnancy to termPolitical bias a problem in researchPoor quality studies report poorer long-term mental health outcomes of abortionBut high quality students report better outcomesLong-term consequences of restricting abortion220 children born to women denied abortion in CzechoslovakiaDo poorly in school, more likely to drop outPoorer relationships with mothersPoorer adjustment in adulthoodWomen and HIVAIDS: acquired immunodeficiency syndromeHIV: human immunodeficiency virusSpread through:Sexual intercourseContaminated bloodContaminated hypodermic needlesPassage from an infected pregnant woman to her baby during pregnancy or childbirthIngestion of breastmilk from infected motherNumber of infected women in the US is rising25% of new AIDS cases are women80% of those women were infected through heterosexual intercourseHIV/AIDS are important issues for womenBecause women are disproportionately in caregiving roles such as nursing, they bear a huge burden in the care of HIV-infected patientsHIV-infected women are more likely than infected men to be unemployed or to be employed in situations in which they feel vulnerable to being fired if status is knownHIV-infected women are more likely than infected men to have sole responsibility for their childrenRace and ethnicity are also important African Americans make up 65% of AIDS cases among womenThe pattern of transmission of HIV tends to be different in minority populations from its pattern among WhitesInequalities in power between women and men are at the heart of women’s heterosexual infection with HIVImplications of social dominance theory In ConclusionKey issues discussed:Do women experience menstrual cycle fluctuations in mood and are these shifts caused by fluctuating hormone levels?At menopause, psychological symptoms such as depression and irritability show no increases compared with other life stagesContraception is a major issue for womenAbility to space pregnancies is crucialAbortion is generally not a traumatic experienceAIDS affects women in growing numbers, either because they are infected or because they are the wives, mothers, sisters, or caretakers of infected men ................
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