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Duke University(Team Name)Task 5Advisors:Dr. David SchaadDr. Josiah KnightTeam Members:Wind Energy CaptureMatthew BallAlison ErnstWilliam LiewLyndsey MorganDeshira WallaceWater FiltrationSamantha BeardsleyPim DangkulwanichAaron LeeNatalia Rossiter-ThorntonPower TransmissionAlexander BrehmJohn Peter DolphinTrisha LoweNicholas MillarPeter PerezClement RamosWindPumpWaterMatthew BallTable of ContentsExecutive Summary……………………………………………………………………………..3 Task Identification……………………………………………………………………………....4 Conceptual Design Considerations………………………………………….……………….....5Summary of Available Technologies………………………………………...………………...5 Wind Energy Capture………………………………………………………………………5Power Transmission………………………………………………………………………..5Water Filtration…………………………………………………………………………….6Discussion of Conceptual Design……………………………………………………………...7 Wind Energy Capture……………………………………………………………………....7Power Transmission………………………………………………………………………..8Water Filtration…………………………………………………………………………….8Full Scale Detailed Design…………………………………………………………………….....9 Wind Energy Capture……………………………………………………………………….....9 Power Transmission…………………………………………………………………………..12 Water Filtration……………………………………………………………………………….16Bench Scale Testing Procedures……………………………………………………………….18 Wind Energy Capture………………………………………………………………………...18 Water Filtration……………………………………………………………………………….18Bench Scale Results and Discussion…………………………………………………………...19 Wind Energy Capture……………………………………………………………………..….19Other Considerations…………………………………………………………………………...21 Cost-Benefit Analysis………………………………………………………………………...21 Legal Considerations…………………………………………………………………………22 Health & Worker Safety……………………………………………………………………...22 Waste Generation Considerations…………………………...……………………………......23Groundwater Retrieval………………………………………………………………………..23Environmental Implications…………………………………………………………………..23Public Involvement Plan……………………………………………………………………...24References………………………………………………………………………………………25Appendix I: AuditsEXECUTIVE SUMMARY The primary objective of this task was to design a full-scale wind powered water treatment system, specifically applicable for treating brackish water in the developing world. Before beginning any project design, the team separated the broad objective into smaller, more specific challenges: wind energy capture, power transmission and energy storage, and water treatment. The wind energy capture team designed a vertical axis Savonius rotor for this application. In addition to being easy and inexpensive to construct, these rotors are well suited to low wind speeds and can accept wind from nearly any direction. The necessary compromise is their low efficiency in comparison to horizontal axis turbines. The primary design consideration is sizing the swept area to provide enough torque to run the water treatment process, dependent on both the filtration pressure requirements and the power transmission capabilities. In addition, to prevent stalling, multiple turbines are stacked vertically and perpendicular to each other, increasing swept area and ease of startup. Aluminum sheet metal will be used to construct the rotor, which is light, strong, and easy to work with. The shaft material is steel, as it will be subject to nearly constant cyclic loading and must transmit a large torque. The power transmission team’s objective was to use the torque from the turbine to develop pressure to push water through a filter. They designed a pulley system in which a rope attached to the turbine shaft lifts a lever arm a certain height above its pivot at the opposite end, using a cam to engage and disengage the system. This lever arm is situated with several pegs that allow weight to be added, providing a method of storing potential energy. Near the pivot, two small area plunger pumps are connected to the lever arm: a low pressure pump to run water through the pre-treatment process, and a high pressure pump, for the main filtration. As the lever arm rises, the plungers rise as well and pull water into the pump chambers. Then, as the lever arm falls, the pumps complete their downstroke and push pressurized water through the system. These pumps were chosen for their simplistic design and ability to generate high pressure. Given the quality of brackish water, the water team determined first to implement a pre-treatment system to filter out the organic material in the water; a granular activated carbon filter is best suited to this task. The main filtration system chosen was reverse osmosis, which does not require electricity or large amounts of heat energy, as many filtration methods do. Reverse osmosis filters do, however, require fairly high pressures that must overcome the natural osmotic pressure of the system. The team chose a spiral-wound thin-film composite membrane. A storage tank at the output holds the filtered water, and an evaporation pond collects the brine waste. In order to regulate the flow of the water through the system, the team implemented an optional control system. Because this monitoring and feedback device would not actually carry out the filtration, an option for a solar-powered electrical control system was included in the design. This PID controller will monitor the flow rate and incorporate a feedback loop to provide nominal adjustments, improving performance and safeguarding against inconsistent flow. The team chose a sample location of rural Namibia, a highly arid region in southwest Africa, which meets the WERC ideal location criteria. This system has been designed for a village of approximately 100 people, requiring a total of 1000 liters per day of water for drinking and cooking uses. The system was designed conservatively with the assumptions that wind blows for 12.5% of the day, far lower than the 65%-90% average for most wind farms (WNCREI), at a wind speed of 8.5 meters per second, the highest distribution wind speed in Namibia. This allows for over 1500 liters per day to be pumped through the system. Based on the percent recovery of the membrane, conservatively 80%, this provides about 1200 liters per day of clean water. Even if the wind blows more slowly, less frequently, or both, there is still a sufficient error margin to provide enough clean water to the residents.TASK IDENTIFICATION Utilizing wind energy for water treatment where water quality is poor, and access to treatment and electricity is limited, would greatly alleviate the scarcity of potable water, especially in arid regions. Fresh water resources are quickly diminishing, leaving areas demonstrating high population growth and growing agricultural needs without enough drinking water. Although fresh water is scarce, large supplies of brackish water, with the right treatment, could provide a solution. This task is to “harness the wind’s energy to power a water treatment process to treat brackish ground water” (NMSU). The design must use the wind’s mechanical energy without converting it to electricity, as this conversion results in both efficiency loss and increased costs, and is impractical in a remote area not connected to an electrical grid. In addition, the design must be applicable in a third world setting and meet all OSHA requirements. Several assumptions were made in this design. The first was that it will be applied to a rural village of about 100 people, providing 10 liters per day for each person. This is about 30% more than the World Health Organization requires for drinking and cooking uses. Multiple systems can be installed for larger villages that require more water. Namibia, Africa, was chosen as a sample location and the highest distribution wind speed in that area, 8.5 m/s, was used as the design speed. The system is also capable of functioning at much lower wind speeds. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Summary of Available Technologies Wind Energy Capture There are three main methods of capturing wind energy: horizontal axis turbines (HAWTs), vertical axis (VAWTs), and non-conventional. HAWTs are the most popular in large-scale wind applications due to their high efficiency; a common example is the enormous modern three blade rotor seen in large windmill farms. There are also two-blade and one-blade variations, which are less stable. In addition, the small multi-bladed farm windmill, used for pumping water, and the historic four-bladed Dutch windmill, used for grain production, were considered. VAWTs are typically less efficient than HAWTs, but they have the benefit of being able to accept wind from any direction. The Darrieus wind turbine, which looks like a large egg beater and has a complex aerodynamic structure, and the Savonius wind turbine, which is essentially two half cylinders offset from each other, are the two main types of VAWTs. Aside from turbines, there are many nonconventional ways to harness wind power including balloons, kites, and combinations of the two, which benefit from the ability to access winds at high altitudes. These technologies are not practical because of the lack of experimentation data. Two other options include the Windbelt, a power generating device that uses oscillations to produce power, and the Loopwing, a HAWT with tipless twisted blades, which has very low cut-in speeds. The main problem with these technologies springs from their complexity. Power Transmission Desalinating water is an energy-intensive process, and the variable, intermittent nature of wind essentially requires an energy storage system. The main non-electrical methods of energy storage include flywheels, water-pressure storage tanks, and gravitational potential energy; because a water tower to generate the types of pressure needed would be unreasonably tall, on the order of 200 feet, this can be done by raising and lowering a weight system. Flywheels store their energy in the kinetic energy of moving weight. The weight spins around while attached to an energy source and eventually detaches, connecting to the output device. Flywheels require sophisticated controls and precise construction, and can be very expensive. Water-pressure storage tanks are the primary method in which RO tanks store their energy. They rely on a pre-pressurized balloon filled with air resting inside a tank, which increases in pressure as the tank fills with water, thus pressurizing the water. These tanks cannot take advantage of low wind speeds, as the pump will have to push the water into the tank at a much higher pressure than the RO membrane rating. They are also relatively expensive. Using gravitational potential energy, a weight is raised over a distance and its fall releases the stored potential energy. The system is inexpensive, since the weight can be provided by any regularly available, high-density material. Additionally, the force provided to the pump is unvarying, since the force of gravity is constant over such a negligible distance. In the end, this design was chosen. It is inexpensive to build and maintain, simplistic and thus more reliable, and easily scalable. Additionally, animal or human power can be used to lift the weight in cases of low winds; this allows a consistent supply of clean water despite intermittent wind. For the pumping mechanism, some options include peristaltic, gear, and plunger pumps. Peristaltic pumps are used primarily with toxic or fouling fluids. They have a simple design and are cheap to maintain, but establishing high pressures is difficult, as this is done by pressing the liquid through its containing tube. Also, the forces on the tubes can destroy or deform them.Figure 1: Plunger Pump 5229225890270 Gear pumps can be either internal or external. They are very effective in creating high pressures and use rotary action, which makes them a natural choice for rotary power provided by a turbine. The manufacturing technology needed for gear pumps is, however, expensive and complex. Metal gears are likely to foul and would need to be replaced often. Plunger pumps use a single piston to force pressurized water through an outlet valve, then pull water into the chamber as the plunger rises. The technology is simple with a limited number of moving parts (Figure 1). Provided the plunger is non-corrosive, it is less likely to foul than a gear pump, but can provide more pressure and consistent flow than a peristaltic pump. Its major drawback is a linear motion requirement, so the turbine’s rotary motion must be converted.Water Filtration The treatment technologies for the desalination of brackish water fall into two main categories: thermal distillation and membrane separation. Distillation causes evaporation of the brackish water due to the absorption of thermal energy, leaving the salts behind and then condensing the water vapor. Most thermal processes are not compatible with wind-driven systems, as wind does not provide much energy in the form of heat (Eltawil 2008).-1714501107440 Electrodialysis is a membrane-based process that separates out salt and ionic impurities from the intake water by applying an electrical current. The separation is accomplished by using semi-permeable, ion-selective membranes (CADT, 2008). Electrodialysis is typically used in brackish water desalination but because of the electricity requirement is not suitable in this case. Figure 2: Reverse Osmosis schematic Reverse osmosis (RO) is a membrane-based technology that is standard in water treatment. RO applies pressure to a concentrated solution so pure solvent can pass through a semi-permeable membrane, leaving the solute on the other side. A major challenge is that the pressure applied must overcome the natural osmotic pressure of the system, which is dependent on the solution’s ionic concentration, in order to operate (Figure 2). Furthermore, RO membranes require routine maintenance and necessary pretreatments, such as organic and/or chlorine removal. For this design, RO is the most viable technology.Discussion of Conceptual Design Wind Energy Capture-523875570230 Multiple methods were considered for wind capture, but non-conventional types were ruled out, due to the lack of proven results and intricate constructions. The design must be inexpensive and easy to construct; this makes modern towering HAWTs problematic. In addition, frequent operation is essential, so the design must be self-starting and require low wind speeds, characteristic of VAWTs but not HAWTs. This often means a slight sacrifice in efficiency, (Figure 3) versus tip speed ratio:λ= rωV (1)Figure 3: Efficiencies of Various Rotors (Johnson)Where λ is tip speed ratio, r is rotor’s radius, ω is rotor’s angular velocity, and V is wind speed. A high torque output to feed into the power transmission is also important. After analysis (Table 1), a Savonius rotor which selected It is efficient in turbulent winds close to the ground, is simple to construct, has a high torque output, and can accept wind from any direction. Table 1: Pugh Decision Matrix for Wind Energy Capture TechnologiesPower Transmission The pump design, evaluated in Table 2, is reflective of the wind turbine choice, the energy storage design, and the desalination choice. Based on the high pressure required by the RO filter and the low rotational speed of the Savonius turbine, a custom-made pump was needed. Table 2: Pugh Decision Matrix for Pump Technologies The pretreatment system also requires a pump, but a low-pressure (LP), rather than a high-pressure (HP), pump is adequate. To reduce complexity, a similar design with adjusted dimensions was used, sized to find the best compromise between force and plunger area:P= FA (2) To eliminate the need for a water reservoir between the pretreatment and RO systems, the pumps are designed to pump the same volume of water per stroke. Thus, the HP pump has a larger stroke height and smaller piston area then the LP pump, which is closer to the fulcrum.Water Filtration There are three different structures primarily used in RO membranes: spiral wound, tubular, and flat sheet. Spiral wound membranes are composed of a central perforated tube, surrounded 4286250-171450Figure 4: Spiral wound membraneby two layers of membrane with a permeate collection material between them, wrapped spirally around the tube (Figure 4). The primary advantages of the construction are its compact design and low cost (Wagner 2001). Tubular membranes are composed of small tubes and have a high ability to tolerate suspended solids (Koch 2008). Lastly, flat sheet membranes are constructed by layering flat sheets of the membrane material between spacers and supports. They can typically tolerate very high pressures, but are much more expensive (EPA 1996). Spiral-wound was chosen (Table 3).Table 3: Pugh Decision Matrix for Membrane Structure Currently there are three main types of membrane material: cellulose acetate, aromatic polyamide, and thin-film composite. Table 4 below describes the choice of TFC. They exhibit a high tolerance and are more readily adaptable to a variety of environments. Although TFCs are generally more expensive, wide use has driven down previously exorbitant costs.Table 4: Pugh Decision Matrix for Membrane MaterialFULL SCALE DETAILED DESIGN Wind Energy Capture The design of the turbine required two main challenges: determining the ideal shape, and sizing this turbine for the project needs. Many reports were studied in order to optimize geometry. Two types of Savonius rotors were considered, the S-rotor and the double hook rotor. Because no report compared the two, the group built both. Figure 6: Double Hook Rotor (Modi, Roth, Fernando)Figure 5: S-rotor (Alexander, Holownia) For the S-rotor, the main geometric variables are the gap size (the horizontal overlap between the two half-cylinders) and the aspect ratio AR, which is the ratio of the height of the rotor to its radius. The ideal gap size ranges between 10%-15% of the radius of the rotor (Blackwell et al), and efficiency also increases slightly with aspect ratio up to an aspect ratio of about 5 (Alexander, Holownia). Several reports showed that the vertical gap (seen as ‘a’ in Figure 6) has a value of zero at the best performance (Alexander et al; Modi et al). An AR of 2.5 was chosen, the most common AR tested (Alexander et al). Increases in efficiency beyond an aspect ratio of 2.5 were negligible, and not worth the risk of failure due to a slimmer, less stable turbine. Because of these results, the vertical gap was set at zero. The group built several rotors to corroborate the results of the papers with regard to horizontal gap size. For the double hook rotor, the main variables are the p:q ratio and the angle θ (Figure 6). Tests by the University of British Columbia showed rotor efficiency peaks at a b:d ratio of 0.22, as well as a p:q ratio of 0.4. These ratios were set for our tests, and two values of θ were tested. As will be discussed with the results, the double hook rotor with θ = 135o proved to have the best overall performance. In addition, research showed these types of rotors have higher static torques than similar rotors with three, as opposed to two, half-cylinders or ‘hooks.’ To combat this high static torque, two identical rotors were stacked vertically and perpendicularly. This increases the likelihood of the wind easily catching a blade. Once the most effective shape was determined, the turbine needed to be sized for the system’s needs. In this design challenge, the team essentially worked backwards; first, a specific pressure needed by the water filtration system was determined based on the filter properties. Then, the power transmission system was sized based on the pressure needed, calculating a specific torque required. This originated from preliminary estimates calculated based on a turbine of reasonable size. Finally, the turbine was formally sized based on this torque and bench scale results, using an iterative method. The detailed calculation for these numbers can be seen following. The turbine was sized using the following variables:T = torque (N·m), Pt = power turbine delivers (W), ω = angular velocity (radians/sec), V = wind speed (m/s), ρair = density of air (kg/m3), A = swept area of turbine, Cp = performance coefficient of rotor, λ = tip speed ratio, r = radius of rotor (m), h = rotor height (m)T=Ptω (3)From this equation, it is necessary to determine ω in order to calculate the required Pt, which will in turn determine the necessary area of the rotor. Rearranging Equation (1):λ= ωrV (1) so ω= Vλr (1.a)The power delivered by any wind turbine is:Pt= 12ρairCPAV3 (4)Combine the two equations, replacing the rectangular swept area A with the double-hook area formula of the rotor, keeping in mind that the sum of q and p (Figure 6) is the equivalent radius of the rotor. Multiply by two to account for the stacking of two perpendicular rotors:T= 12ρairCPAV3Vλq+p=12λρairCP2·3.54·q+p·hV2(q+p)= 1λ(3.54ρairCPV2)(1.4q)2h (5)Given the following known and experimentally determined values, which will be discussed in the Results section, q2h can be calculated in terms of T. The ideal aspect ratio, or h:2q, is 2.5, so the following relation leads to the desired size:ρair = 1.23 kgm3, Cp = 0.075, V = 8.5 m/s, λ = 0.5hq=5→h=5q (6) and T=92.5q25q →q=[T592.5]1/3To obtain preliminary output values (Table 5), rough dimensions based on a practical size of the wind turbine were chosen, assuming two perpendicular stacked rotors with height 3 meters and radius of 1.2 meters, as well as efficiency of 15% and TSR of just over 1, based on Figure 3. Table 5: Preliminary Output EstimatesThen, after testing the bench scales, determining actual efficiencies, and sizing the system up to account for conservative loss estimates, the following parameters were determined:Table 6: Turbine Specifications In addition to size and shape of the system, modes of failure must be analyzed in order to prevent them to a reasonable degree. The most likely modes of turbine failure are fatigue due to cyclic loading on the shaft and shear failure of the aluminum rotors. The shaft bears the torsional stress in the system, so a 0.6 m diameter steel shaft with high shear and tensile strength was chosen to alleviate this type of failure. The shear strength of aluminum is 7 MPa, so it would take a gust of wind characteristic of a Level 5 hurricane to cause shear failure of the rotors. Power Transmission-952506400800Figure 7: Energy Storage SystemFigure 8: Pulley motion Wind spins the vertical axis turbine, generating torque. Attached to the top of the turbine is a rod, wrapped in rope. The rope extends through a pulley system (Figure 8). A cam attaches the lever to the rope, and the rope pulls up the lever arm, developing gravitational potential energy. The raising arm creates suction in the pumps, pulling water into the pump chambers. Upon reaching maximum height, the cam releases, dropping the arm back down and converting the potential energy of the falling weight into pressure head, forcing brackish water though the 390525076200Wind TurbinePulley SystemWeightPumpRotational Force to Linear ForceKinetic Energy to Potential EnergyPotential Energy to Water Pressurepumps. The torque created by the weight causes a larger force in the two pumps, since Figure 9: Energy Storage Flow Chartthey are closer to the fulcrum. The energy storage system effectively decouples the wind energy and pumping energy, allowing each system to operate more efficiently. The turbine is rated for producing power, torque, and angular velocity based on wind speed. Raising the weight requires a constant force, so changing wind speeds will change the rate at which the weight is raised. Another important consideration is turbine shaft diameter. Fwt=τwtrwt (7)Fwt is the force of the tension in the rope attached to the wind turbine, determined by the torque produced and the radius of the turbine shaft. An efficiency factor must be included to account for frictional losses in the system.Fwt=Fwindshaftηpulley (8) ->> Fwindshaft=Fwt×ηpulleyFigure 10: Torque on Weight ArmThis gives a balance of forces around the weight arm joint as shown in Figure 10. The torques around the joint need to be analyzed in two separate motions.Twa_joint=Fwindshaft×Lpulley -Fweight×Lweight (9) For the upward stroke, the torque around the weight-arm joint on the upward stroke is created by the upward force of the pulley rope connected to the wind turbine minus the torque created by the downward pull of the weight. The forces of the pumps are ignored because negligible force is required to pull water up through the height of the piston chamber.Twa_joint=(Fpump1×Lpump1 +Fpump2×Lpump2)ηpumps-Fweight×Lweight (10) On the downward stroke, the torque created by the falling weight forces down the plungers in the pump chambers, increasing the pressure of the water. This pressure creates an upward force that creates a torque around the weight arm joint that acts in the opposite direction of the torque created by the falling weight. In addition, the system is designed in order for Lweight to be variable; weight can be placed on any number of different pegs along the arm. The farther away it is placed from the fulcrum, the greater force it exerts on the pumps; however, it also increases the cut-in speed of the wind turbine because a greater force is required to create enough torque to lift the weight arm. Thus, regions with higher winds could adjust the weight size and placement to take advantage of these wind speeds; additionally, users of the system could adjust the weights seasonally or even daily to make the most of gusty days.Fpump=Pressurepump×Areapump(11) The required pressure of the pump is dependent on the RO membrane used and the input water quality. While the pressure requirements of RO membranes have been significantly reduced in recent years, they are still substantial. Lpump is adjustable similar to Lweight . Moving the pumps further from the weight-arm joint decreases the force available to them but increases the volume per stroke. Another consideration is that there are two pump systems: a LP pump for pre-treatment and a HP pump for RO filtration; these two pumps must have the same volume per stroke. If the HP pump had a higher volume, it would run dry because the LP pump would not be providing enough water to it; if reversed, the HP chamber would fill and become damaged, possibly backing up the LP filter. Thus,Vpump1= Vpump2 (12)andPressurepump1? Pressurepump2 (13)The second equation means that the area of pump 1’s chamber must be increased relative to pump 2. By increasing area, pressure is reduced. This would also lead to an increase in the volume per pump stroke, which is remedied by moving the pump closer to the weight-arm joint, reducing the stroke length, in turn reducing the volume of water pumped. The biggest advantage to the energy system is that it can be custom designed to operate in any environment. By changing the mass and placement of the weight, and size and placement of the pumps, areas with high winds can extract the wind power more efficiently and areas with low winds can still produce significant amounts of water. The shaft size of the turbine is also an important consideration. The force in the pulley rope can be determined as follows: F=Tr=1200.3=400 N (14)-381000832485 The weight arm uses lever principles to allow a smaller force generated by the wind turbine to lift a large amount of weight. The attachment to the pulley system is located further from the point of rotation than the weight (Figure 11). The following equations can be used to determine the values in Table 7:Upstroke Time: U.T.=pulley_height?2?πω?π?shaft_diameter=2.5?2?π7.33?π?0.6=1.14 seconds (15) Figure 11: Weight Arm Dimensions Max Arm Angle: M.A.A.=sin-1pulley_heightarm_length=2.55=30 degrees (16)Height of Weight: Hweight=Lweight×sin?(M.A.A.) (17)Pulley SystemWeightArmForce (N)400490151.7Distance (m)532.5Torque (N-m)20001849.4Upstroke Time (s)1.14Max Arm Angle (deg)30Height (m)2.501.5Varies Table 7: Weight Arm Properties As shown in Table 7, the torque of the pulley system exceeds the torque of the weight arm, and so the turbine will be able to lift the arm. At 8.5 m/s, the arm will take 1.14 seconds to rise through its 30 degree angle, raising the arm through 2.5 vertical meters and the weight through 1.5 vertical meters. This allows the weight arm to store just over 900 joules of potential energy. This is summarized in Table 8 and is calculated in the following equations:Energy Per Stroke: Epump=?h?ρwater?Volstrokeηpump (18)Given that for water at 25oC: Enthalpy (hatm)=104.92kJkg; h30psi =105.01kJkg; h225psi=106.26kJkgThe energy delivered can be determined as follows, with the first set of numbers in the equation representing the energy in the weight and the second representing the energy in the weight-arm.E=m×g×?h=50×9.8×1.5+15×9.8×1.2 = 911.4 J (19) Figure 12: High-Pressure Pump Figure 13: Low-Pressure PumpFor the design of our energy storage device, we wanted to keep the weights under 100kg to simplify construction of the weight arm and allow for quicker strokes, and thus consistent water flow. The pump specifications are shown in Table 8; figures 12-13 show the pumps’ dimensions. The torque and energy delivered by the weight arm exceed the requirements for the pumps (Table 8). They can deliver over a fifth of a liter per stroke and require a fewer than 5500 strokes a day to meet the 1000 liter goal of the unit. If the target wind speed of at least 8.5 m/s occurs for 12.5% of the day, the unit will be able to pump about 1200 liters of water. Being conservative, we made low estimates on the pump efficiencies, below literature and store-bought pump values.?Pumps?High PressureLow PressurePressure (psi)225~30Diameter (cm)2.505.00Force req'd (N)1522.51624.62Efficiency (%)5065Distance from joint (m)10.25Torque (N-m)1522.51156.15Energy Per Stroke (J)632.2932.58Water Per Stroke (ml)235.64Water Filtration Table 8: Pump Characteristics As determined previously, the best composition for the RO membrane for our purposes is a spiral-wound, thin film composite membrane. It was important that the membrane be able to treat water with high TDS levels, but do so with the lowest applied pressure possible. The TDS of the feed water, necessary pressure and resultant flow rate are all intimately linked; higher TDS requires higher pressures (due to the higher osmotic pressure of the water), while higher pressures result in higher flow rates and higher energy consumption. Balancing all of these considerations, a Low Energy Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis Membrane (manufacturer information withheld) was chosen. When tested with a 2000 ppm NaCl solution, the applied pressure was 150 psi and the flow rate was 2700 gallons/day. The goal is supply enough pressure to maintain a flow rate near 2700 gallons/day. Assuming 80% recovery and operation of the membrane for about 3 hours/day, this results in a permeate flow of 270 gallons/day, just over 1000 L/day. The pressure necessary to maintain this flow rate with these particular conditions must be determined experimentally. Based upon the manufacturers’ specifications, we have estimated that a pressure over 200 psi is necessary. The Membranes Brackish Water Low Energy RO Membrane is a spiral wound, thin film composite element. It is 4 in. in diameter and 40 in. long with a minimum salt rejection of 98%, bringing the TDS of the permeate far below the WHO recommended 1000 ppm. It is also competitively priced at $291.60. A housing unit is also necessary to contain the membrane as it treats the water. A stainless steel, high pressure housing unit is appropriate due to the high pressures (>200 psi) expected; this housing is expected to cost around $230.00. However, this membrane has no tolerance for free chlorine and will foul if exposed to feed water with a high concentration of organics and microorganisms, requiring a pretreatment process. One of the most cost-effective and easily managed pretreatment strategies is a granular activated carbon (GAC) filter, chosen for this application. GAC filters are easy to install and only require periodic cleaning that can be automated via a backwash process. GAC is highly efficient in removing organics, chlorine, and certain ions, which all contribute to the dissolution of membrane integrity. One of the major design considerations for a GAC treatment system is the empty bed contact time (EBCT), which is defined as the total bed volume divided by the flow rate. Assuming that the given water has low to moderate amounts of organic material, an EBCT of approximately 10-15 minutes is adequate. Using the flow rate assumptions stated above, the 270 gallons/ 3 hours translates to a necessary volume of 0.05678m3 (using a 10-minute EBCT). For ease of design and construction, a cylindrical GAC filter made from concrete, or a locally available material, with a diameter of 0.5 meters and a length of 1 meter will be more than sufficient in treating the water for RO process. The water will simply have to be allowed to trickle down the filter and then routed to the membrane. Also, because minimal head loss is expected through this short amount of piping and the system is designed generate excess pressure, this was not a major concern.BENCH SCALE TESTING PROCEDURES Wind Energy Capture In order to determine the power generated and the turbine efficiency, two main tests were conducted simultaneously on the rotors. The first was to test the angular velocity of each turbine over a range of speeds. This was done by placing a leaf blower at a variety of distances and settings centered in front of the turbine and recording the RPM using a no-contact tachometer. An anomemeter was used to determine the exact wind speed at these various distance-power setting combinations. The second set of tests determined the power and torque each generated. This was done by attaching a mass-pulley system to the shaft and measuring the time the turbine took to pull the mass up over a certain distance. The potential energy of this rise was divided by the time to determine the power generated. Then, torque was determined using Equation (3). Photographs of testing can be seen below. Photograph 1: Tachometer Tests Photograph 2: Testing Set Up Water Filtration To determine the performance of the RO filter in practice, a simple test will be employed. The cylindrical filter will be attached to piping on either side, and a pump will be used to generate pressure and pump modeled brackish water through the filter. The quality of the water will be tested both before and after filtration, using TDS as a quality standard, using a TDS meter. The water use efficiency of the filter, the ratio of potable water coming out of the filter to total brackish water going into the filter, will be determined. These tests will be performed over a range of pressures, from 50 psi to 250 psi. The following equation was employed:Fw=K(?p-?π) (20)where Fw = water flux in gal/day-ft2K = mass transfer coefficient for a unit area of the membrane, (gal/day-ft2-psi)p = pressure difference between the feed and product water (applied pressure) = osmotic pressure difference between the feed and product water.The osmotic pressure difference is calculated using average TDS values. The flow rate will depend on the applied pressure under the following relationship:Fw(galday)=2.563 galday psi ?p-41 psiBENCH SCALE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Wind Energy Capture In Charts 1-2 are the results from the Savonius wind turbines. The first chart displays power coefficient versus tip speed ratio for each turbine, and the second shows torque coefficient similarly. The table shows the maximum efficiency and power to area ratio of each rotor. Rotors A, B, and C are the S-rotors, with gaps of 0%, 15%, and 30%, respectively. Rotors D and E are the double hook rotors, with θ = 135o and 90o, respectively.Chart 1: CP versus Tip Speed PercentageChart 2: CT versus Tip Speed Percentage Table 10: Rotor Performance From these results, it is seen that double hook rotor with θ = 135o has the highest efficiency and thus was chosen as the final design, as the variation between designs in expense and difficulty of construction was negligible. Though the efficiency of the bench scale was just over 6%, research shows that efficiency increases with rotor size. Because the full scale is over ten times the size of the bench scale, an efficiency of over 9% would be expected (Alexander et al). However, to be conservative, an efficiency of 7.5% was chosen for design. Conservative values were also chosen in terms of the best tip speed ratio; the bench scale had its peak performance at about λ = 0.3, but the turbine is more likely to spin slightly faster, so a tip speed ratio of λ = 0.5 was used. This guarantees that the system over-designs for torque; that is, it is very likely that more torque is being produced than calculated. As previously discussed, failure of the shaft due to large torque transmission is not a serious concern, and this over-design ensures that the turbine will in fact achieve the torque necessary to power the system. Using these experimentally determined numbers, the dimensions in Table 6 were determined. In addition, Chart 2 shows that for the majority of tip speed percentages, with the exception of fairly low values, Rotor D also produces the highest torque. In general, it makes intuitive sense that this rotor would demonstrate the best performance; the straight edge that extends into the inside of the opposite blade on the double hook rotor allows wind to flow in between that space and push on both blades simultaneously. Having a higher efficiency associated with a larger angle θ also is logical, as the wind has more curved area to ‘catch’ and induce spinning. Finally, cut-in speed was tested; the bench scale had a cut-in speed of less than 0.5 m/s, and using the ratio of rotational inertia of the bench scale to the full-scale, a cut-in speed of about 2.5 m/s was estimated. Due to time constraints, the entire system was not able to be tested before the completion of this paper; however, data will continue to be collected and analyzed for the WERC competition.OTHER CONSIDERATIONS Cost Benefit AnalysisTable 10: Cost Summary Most of the benefits of the system, including health benefits, improved quality of life, time savings, and community pride, are intangible and will be discussed rather than tabulated. The World Health Organization (WHO) predicted that in developing regions the return on a US$1 investment accounts for a US$5 to $12 return on investment due to better health outcomes and reduced healthcare costs (WHO, 2004). The actual benefits are dependent on the scale of the intervention.? In general, the costs of the interventions include capital and annual variable costs, such as operation and maintenance.? The benefits are measured less concretely with criteria such as time savings associated with better access, the gain in productivity due to fewer disability days, health sector and patients costs saved and the value of prevented deaths (WHO, 2004). In the developing world, most available technologies are only capable of producing clean water at the household level and are not capable of salt removal; this system overcomes these challenges. Legal Considerations Whether in the developed or developing world, many cities and towns have ordinances that ensure that structures are safe, proper and compatible with existing or planned development (Iowa Energy Center). However, ordinances and building codes are rare in rural areas, where restrictions on the use of wind turbines are not in place. An equivalent to a structured legal system is the local social structure. Prior to installing the water purification system we must take into account the value the residents place on the preservation of a proposed site and employing compromise. The owner of the system faces liability if their property poses a threat to the general public. Events such as the loss of a blade or a tower collapse can cause unwanted property damage or injury, particularly to children. To reduce the chance of damage or injury, the system will have at minimum a set-back distance of at least one tower height. In addition, an optional safety fence may be constructed to ensure that unauthorized personnel cannot access the turbine. Health & Worker Safety Industrial wind turbines have often been associated with noise pollution which is under investigation for its effect on humans, but there has not been conclusive evidence supporting that hypothesis. Another health concern is potential injury due to mechanical malfunctioning. Physical injuries to pedestrians can be avoided by creating fences around the wind turbine. Additionally, all the residents must receive safety training prior to using the device. Finally, diarrheal diseases are a major cause of morbidity throughout the world, particularly in developing regions. WHO estimates that improved water supply can reduce diarrheal morbidity by 32% (WHO, 2004). Other diseases related to water consumption such as schistosomiasis, trachoma and intestinal infections affect millions of people worldwide. With the access of clean, safe drinking water morbidity can be reduced greatly. Worker safety concerns stem largely from physical injuries caused by the wind turbine itself. Proper training for installers and subsequent maintenance workers will be required to reduce excess injuries at the work site. Waste Generation Considerations A concentrated brine stream is produced that contains about 99% of the salts in about 20% of the volume of the feed water, this yields a solution with a TDS of approximately 18,109 ppm. A solution with this salt content must be disposed of, but the disposal options are very limited due to the intended applications of the system. Since the system will be employed in rural, third world areas, mechanically complex options, such as deep well injection or aquifer recharge are unreasonable. Also, applications that risk salination of groundwater are not ideal. Because it is likely that land is abundant and inexpensive in locations where the system would be employed, an evaporation pond is the best option for brine disposal. Evaporation ponds further concentrate brine until the solubility limits of the salts are reached, causing precipitation of the salts. The crystals can either be utilized or disposed of with other sources of solid waste. The ponds are sized depending on the evaporation and precipitation rates of the area (Svensson, 2005). Groundwater Retrieval In the proposed design only one wind turbine is implemented to power the water treatment system. However, pumping ground water to the level of the system is also a practical necessity. In order to provide for this, a second turbine can be installed, transferring ground water to a reservoir that the treatment system can draw from. For simplicity’s sake, the second turbine should be identical or very similar to the first with the possible exception of scaling factors. Environmental Implications In rural arid or semi-arid regions the capitalization of wind as a renewable resource would be optimal. The installation of a wind turbine and water purification system will have minimal negative effects on land use since the system is not large. The concentration of particulate matter and noxious fumes should remain the same in comparing wind input and wind output. The water produced will be of higher environmental quality due to a decreased TDS load. However, the secondary product, brine, can have various environmental implications if it is not disposed of properly. The proposed design conforms to Millennium Development Goal number seven, which states that future development must take environmental stability into account. Moreover, the United Nations’ goal is to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation. The incorporation of sustainable water retrieval and treatment systems allows for greater potential of reaching that goal. Public Involvement Plan The success of the proposed project is contingent on the support from the community. Prior to the installment of the system, the local leaders will be informed of the purpose and benefits of the project. Once the approval from leaders is attained, the public will learn more about the project through various seminars. Each seminar will target a specific demographic within the community in hopes of making more relevant to each group. The members of the water treatment program will also survey the public about their expectations for the project and also use the time to address their questions and concerns related to the effectiveness of the system. Once the public understands the overall goal of the project, interested men and women will be selected to give input on how to build the system as effectively and efficiently as possible. After deliberations, the final concept will be presented to the public for their overall critique and approval. After the final design decision, financing for the project must be arranged. In order to increase the feeling of ownership among the residents, the funds may potentially come from them. The idea behind ensuring that the funds come from the region itself is that the public will be more invested in the success of the project than if funds came from elsewhere. The construction of the system will be a partnership between the water treatment members and the local residents. During the construction period, classes will be held explaining the function and repairs of various components. This increases sustainability and decrease costs of hiring an engineer from another area. At the system’s completion, a demonstration will be held and the water treatment team will get feedback about water quality and satisfaction with the project. A follow-up survey of the system will be taken after a month of use, three months and a year of use to ensure that each part is working properly and it is benefiting the community. REFERENCESAckermann, T., Soder, Lennart (2002). "An overview of wind energy-status 2002." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 6: 67-128.Alexander, A. J., & Holownia, B. P. Wind tunnel tests on a savonius roter. Journal of Industrial Aerodynamics, 1978, Retrieved January 24, 2009, from . Aly, Narmine H. and Adel K. El-Fiqi. (2003) “Mechanical vapor compression desalination systems—a case study,” Desalination, 158: 143-150.Beardmore, R. (2008, June 14). Gear Efficiency. Retrieved February 15, 2009, from RoyMech: , B.F.; Sheldahl, R.E.; Feltz, L.V. (1977). Wind Tunnel Performance for Two and Three-Bucket Savonius Rotors. Sandia Laboratories. Albuquerque, NM and Livermore, CA. The United States Energy Research and Development Administration, Contract AT (29-1)-mittee on Advancing Desalination Technology, National Research Council, 2008. Desalination: A National Perspective. Elimelech, M., Zhu, X., Childress, A.E., Hong, S. (1997). “Role of membrane surface morphology in colloidal fouling of cellulose acetate and composite aromatic polyamide reverse osmosis membranes.” Journal of Membrane Science, 127, 101-109.Eltawil, M., Zhengming, Zhao, Yuan, Liqiang (2008). Renewable Energy Powered Desalination Systems: Technologies and Economics-State of the Art. Twelfth International Water Technology Conference, Alexandria, Egypt.EPA. (1996) “Capsule Report: Reverse Osmosis Process,” Washington, D.C.: Office of Research and Development."Hydrostatic Pumps". Hydraulic Equipment and Tools Marketplace. Hydraulic Equipment Manufacturers. Retrieved 25 Jan 2009, from .“Integrated Wind Energy/Desalination System” (2006). GE Global Research. NREL SR-500-39485.Johnson, G. L. (2001). Wind Energy Systems. Manhattan, KS, Prentice-Hall. 2.Koch Membrane Systems, “Tubular Membranes Provide a Constant Flow of Solid Solutions.” 15 February 2008. Available < , G. (1994). Hydraulic Machines: Turbine and Pumps. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Leighton, C. W. H., Martin, D.D., Lindemann, W.C. (1983). “Inability of Microorganisms To Degrade Cellulose Acetate Reverse-Osmosis Membranes”. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 45, 418-427.Liu, C.C.K., et al. “Experiments of a prototype wind-driven reverse osmosis desalination system with feedback control.” Elsevier. Desalination 150 (2002) 277-287.Lonsdale, H. K., Merten, U., Riley, R.L. (1965). Transport Properties of Cellulose Acetate Osmosis Membranes. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 9, 1341-1362.Loopwing Co. (2008). "Loopwing Characteristics." Retrieved January 22, 2009, from , J. A., Coella Ovieda, M.D., Quiroga Alonso, J.M. (2006). Comparative studies of reverse osmosis membranes for wastewater reclamation. Desalination, 191, 137-147.Mallevialle, J., P. Odendaal, and M.R. Weisner, eds. 1996. Membrane Processes in Water Treatment. New York: MacGraw-Hill Publishers.Modi, V. J., Roth, N. J., & Fernando, M.S. Optimum configuration studies and prototype design of a wind-energy-operated irrigation system. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 16, Retrieved January 24, 2009 “Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment” (2001). Water Systems. Retrieved January 19, 2009, from , R. (2005). “Introduction to Membrane Technology”. Hybrid Membrane Systems for Water Purification. Colorado Springs, CO, Elsevier.Svensson, Marcus. (2005). “Desalination and the Environment: Options and considerations for brine disposal in inland and coastal locations” Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden.Thompson, M., Miranda, M. (2000). “Theory, testing and modelling of a Clark pump.” CREST, Loughborough University of Technology, UK.von Gottberg, A., Pang, A., & Talavera, J. Optimizing water recovery and energy consumption for seawater RO systems. GE Water and Process Technologies, Retrieved Feb 14, 2009, from . Fluid Equipment Development Company, LLC (FEDCO). (2006). Frequently asked questions about energy recovery for RO systems [Brochure]. Monroe, MI: Wagner, J. (2001). Membrane Filtration Handbook: Practical Tips and Hints (2nd ed.). Minnesota: Osmonics, Inc.“Western North Carolina Renewable Energy Initiative.” Appalachian State University. (2007). Retrieved January 19, 2009, from “Wind energy manual: Legal issues in wind energy.” Iowa Energy Center. Retrieved February 14, 2009, from web site: Health Organization. (2004). Water, sanitation and hygiene links to health (Nov 2004). Geneva: WHO. ................
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