Chapter 1 – Categorizing Psychological Tests



|Psychological Tests Defined |History of Psychological Testing |

|An instrument/process that requires an |Serious research efforts on the use and usefulness of tests began during the 20th century |

|individual to perform some behavior(s) |The first test of mental ability, the Binet–Simon Scale, was published in 1905, followed by the Stanford–Binet in 1916 and the |

|used to measure a personal attribute, |Wechsler–Bellevue Intelligence Scale during the 1930s |

|trait, or characteristic thought to be |The first personality test, the Personal Data Sheet, was published during the 1930s, followed by the Woodworth Psychoneurotic |

|important in describing/ understanding |Inventory, the Rorschach Inkblot Test, and the Thematic Apperception Test |

|behavior or predicting outcomes |The first vocational tests were published during the 1940s, beginning with the General Aptitude Test Battery |

|Three Defining Characteristics of Tests |Today, psychological tests are a part of the American culture, and there are tens of thousands of psychological tests available |

|Must include a representative sample of |Assumptions of Psychological Tests |

|behavior |When using psychological tests, we must make important assumptions, including (a) a test measures what it says it measures, (b) |

|Samples must be collected under |an individual’s behavior, and therefore test scores, will remain stable over time, (c) individuals understand test items |

|standardized conditions |similarly, (d) individuals can report accurately about themselves, (e) individuals will report their thoughts and feelings |

|Must be rules for scoring |honestly, and (f) test score is equal to ability plus some error |

|Differences Among Tests |We can increase our confidence in many of these assumptions by following certain steps during test development |

|Behavior the test taker performs |Test Classification Methods |

|Attribute, trait, or characteristic |Tests can be classified as maximal performance, behavior observation, or self-report; standardized or nonstandardized; objective|

|measured or outcome predicted |or projective; by dimension measured; or by subject |

|Content, format, and how administered |Psychological Assessment, Tests, Measurement, and Surveys |

|How scored and interpreted |Psychological assessment involves multiple methods for gathering data |

|Psychometric quality |Measurement is the assignment of numbers according to rules |

| |A test is a measurement when the behavior sample can be expressed as a numerical score |

| |Surveys focus on group outcomes, and tests focus on individual differences Survey results are typically reported at the question|

| |level, and test results are typically reported as an overall score |

|Levels of Measurement |Procedures for Interpreting Test Scores |

|The claims we can make about the results of psychological tests depend on the |Because raw test scores tell us very little, we use descriptive statistics to describe |

|properties of these numbers or what we call a test’s level of measurement |or summarize a distribution of test scores |

|Test scores can be classified into one of four levels of measurement: nominal, |Frequency distributions are graphical pictures that help us to understand the shape of a|

|ordinal, equal interval, or ratio scales |distribution |

|With nominal scales, we assign numbers to represent categories |The normal probability distribution is a theoretical distribution that helps us to |

|With ordinal scales, we assign numbers to order or rank things |understand distributions of scores |

|With equal interval scales, we assign numbers to order things and we are able to |Measures of central tendency are numerical tools that help us to understand the middle |

|determine the distance between two numbers |of a distribution of scores They include the mean, mode, and median |

|With ratio scales, we assign numbers to order things, we are able to determine the|Measures of variability are numerical tools that help us to understand the spread of a |

|distance between two numbers, and there is a true zero point |distribution of scores They include the range, variance, and standard deviation |

| |Measures of relationship are numerical tools that help us to understand how two sets of |

| |scores are related The correlation coefficient is a common measure of relationship |

|Standard Scores and the Role of Norms |

|Standard scores are universally understood units of measurement in testing and allow us to evaluate how well an individual did on a test in comparison with others |

|We transform raw scores into standard scores to make comparisons |

|The most popular transformations are percentages, z scores, standard deviation units, T scores, and percentiles |

|Because most test scores provide us with relative measures, we often rely on norms—standards for interpreting scores—to describe a person’s performance |

|There are a variety of types of norms, including percentile ranks, age norms, and grade norms |

|Percentile ranks tell us the percentage of the norm group that scored less than or equal to an individual |

|Age and grade norms tell us whether an individual scored below, similar to, or above his or her age or grade level |

|Test users should be careful to select the appropriate norm group, ensure that the norms they use are up-to-date, and ensure that the size of the norm group is large |

|enough to be representative of the population |

-----------------------

Chapter 4

How Does

Computerized Testing

Work?

Chapter 3

Is There are Right or

Chapter 2

Testing important?

Chapter 1

What are

Psychological

Tests?

Overview of

Psychological

Testing

Chapter 4

How Does Computerized Testing Work?

Chapter 3

Is There a Right or Wrong Way to Use Psychological Tests?

Chapter 2

Chapter 1

What are Psychological Tests?

Overview of

Psychological

Testing

Why is Psychological Testing Important?

The Big Picture: A Blueprint of Course Material

Section I: Overview of Psychological Testing

CHAPTER 1—WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS? In Chapter 1, we discuss what a psychological test is and introduce you to some tests you might never have considered to be psychological tests. After exploring the history of psychological testing, we discuss the three defining characteristics of psychological tests and the assumptions we must make when using psychological tests. After discussing how tests are classified, we distinguish four commonly confused concepts: psychological assessment, psychological tests, psychological measurement, and surveys. We conclude by sharing printed and online resources that are available for locating information about psychological testing and specific tests.

CHAPTER 2—WHY IS PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING IMPORTANT? In Chapter 2, we discuss why psychological testing is important. We discuss who uses psychological tests and for what reasons. We also discuss some of the concerns society has about the use of psychological tests.

CHAPTER 3—IS THERE A RIGHT OR WRONG WAY TO USE PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS? In Chapter 3, we introduce you to ethical standards in psychological testing. We discuss what ethics are, the history of ethical standards, and specific ethical standards for psychological testing, including issues of privacy, anonymity, and informed consent. After introducing you to various publications of ethical guidelines, we focus on the responsibilities of test publishers and test users. Finally, we discuss special considerations and requirements necessary for individuals who have impairments that interfere with taking a test. We address various types of impairments or disabilities and provide information on ethical treatment of these special populations of test takers.

CHAPTER 4—HOW DOES COMPUTERIZED TESTING WORK? In Chapter 4, we look in-depth at issues and concepts that are transforming psychological testing. First, we discuss computer-based testing—how computers are used in the psychological testing process. Second, we discuss computerized adaptive testing (CAT), which can decrease the number of test questions and still provide reliable and valid scores. Third, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of psychological testing using the World Wide Web. Finally, we discuss the implications that web-based testing has for the testing and survey industry in the future.

CHAPTER 1: What are psychological tests?

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Define what a psychological test is and understand that psychological tests extend beyond personality and intelligence tests.

▪ Trace the history of psychological testing from Alfred Binet and intelligence testing to the tests of today.

▪ Describe the ways psychological tests can be similar to and different from one another.

▪ Describe the three characteristics that are common to all psychological tests and understand that psychological tests can demonstrate these characteristics to various degrees.

▪ Describe the assumptions we must make when using psychological tests.

▪ Describe the different ways we can classify psychological tests.

▪ Describe the differences among four commonly used terms that students often get confused: psychological assessment, psychological tests, measurement, and surveys.

▪ Identify and locate printed and online resources that are available for locating information about psychological tests.

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Describe different types of decisions that are made using the results of psychological tests.

▪ Explain which professionals use psychological tests, in what settings, and for what reasons.

▪ Describe some concerns individuals have regarding the use of psychological tests as well as the social and legal implications of psychological testing, especially as it relates to intelligence, achievement, aptitude, and integrity testing.

|The Importance of Psychological Testing |Who Uses Psychological Tests and for What Reasons |

|Individuals use tests to make important |In educational settings, administrators, teachers, school psychologists, |

|decisions |and career counselors use tests to make educational decisions, including |

|Individual decisions are those made by the |admissions, grading, and career decisions |

|person who takes a test, and institutional |In clinical settings, clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, social |

|decisions are those that others make as a |workers, and other health care professionals use tests to make diagnostic |

|result of an individual’s performance on a test|decisions, determine interventions, and assess the outcome of treatment |

|Comparative decisions involve comparing |programs |

|people’s scores with one another to see who has|In organizational settings, human resources professionals and |

|the best score, and absolute decisions involve |industrial/organizational psychologists use tests to make decisions such |

|seeing who has the minimum score to qualify |as who to hire for a particular position, what training individuals need, |

| |and what performance rating an individual will receive |

|The Social and Legal Implications of Psychological Testing |

|Some individuals are concerned that psychological tests are biased and do not result in the correct institutional |

|decisions |

|Much of this controversy is focused on the use of intelligence, aptitude, and integrity tests |

|This controversy has influenced social movements, laws, and guidelines on how psychological tests should and should not be|

|used |

CHAPTER 2: why is psychological testing important?

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Define ethics and discuss ethical issues of concern to testing professionals and consumers.

▪ Identify organizations concerned with ethical testing procedures and their ethical standards or codes of ethics.

▪ Describe how organizations can and cannot enforce compliance with their ethical standards.

▪ Differentiate between ethical standards and ethical guidelines.

▪ Define and understand the rights to privacy, anonymity, and informed consent.

▪ Explain the ethical responsibilities of test publishers and test users.

▪ Explain what test user qualifications are and why they are important.

▪ Explain what the Ethical Standards of Psychologists say about testing special populations.

▪ Describe what learning disabilities are and strategies for coping with them.

|Ethical Standards for Psychological Testing |Appropriate Use of Psychological Tests |

|Ethics reflect what is considered “right” or |Test publishers should follow professional standards and |

|“wrong” of a society or culture |guidelines by marketing tests truthfully, selling tests only to |

|Most professional societies have a set of ethical |qualified users, providing evidence of validity, developing a |

|standards that have been discussed and adopted by |comprehensive test manual for each test, and maintaining test |

|their members |security |

|The American Psychological Association, American |Test users have the responsibility to ensure that everyone who |

|Counseling Association, and others have ethical |uses the test has the necessary training and experience to carry |

|standards that protect the rights of individuals |out his or her obligations in regard to the test |

|who are the recipients of psychological testing |A test user is anyone who participates in purchasing, |

|Most important, test takers have the right to |administering, interpreting, or using the results of a |

|privacy, anonymity, and informed consent |psychological test |

| |A test taker is a person who responds to test questions or whose |

| |behavior is being measured |

|Testing Special Populations |

|Individuals with physical or mental challenges might need special accommodations during testing to ensure that their |

|test scores are accurate |

|Test users should ensure that the test outcome accurately indicates the intended skill or attribute and that the test|

|score has not been altered because of a disability |

|Often test users must modify the testing format and the test interpretation process to accurately reflect the skill |

|or attribute the psychological test measures |

|To compensate for physical/mental impairments and learning disabilities, students can develop learning and |

|test-taking strategies |

CHAPTER 4: how does computerized testing work?

|Computerized Testing |Computerized Adaptive Testing |

|Computers make it easier to (a) construct valid classroom |The use of adaptive testing dates to Binet at the beginning of the 20th |

|tests by storing test banks and test development software, |century |

|allowing test users to administer more sophisticated |The advent of computerized adaptive testing (CAT) allowed psychologists to |

|assessments such as adaptive testing and video-based |administer important tests, such as the GRE and the Armed Services Vocational|

|scenarios |Aptitude Battery, using adaptive testing methods |

|Computers make it easier for test users to purchase |CAT has many applications such as the development of computerized adaptive |

|computerized scoring programs for immediate scoring and |rating scales (CARS) |

|interpretation or ask test takers to respond directly on the |With CAT, test takers start with the same questions and as the test |

|publisher’s website |progresses, the software presents each test taker with harder or easier |

|Advantages of computerized testing include greater |questions, depending on how he or she answered previous questions |

|efficiency, convenient scheduling, individual administration |CAT provides a fuller profile of a test taker in less time because the test |

|of standardized tests, and a decrease in administration and |taker does not need to spend time on questions that are too easy or too hard |

|scoring errors | |

|Web-Based Assessment |Implications for the Future |

|The rapid expansion of computer and Internet technologies has|Test developers and users will continue to find better ways to present tests |

|produced an increase in online assessment tools |that are realistic and tailored to the individual |

|Enterprise services are offered by companies that offer |E-learning and web-based assessment are likely to be an integral part of |

|online standardized tests for large numbers of test takers at|education in the future |

|multiple sites |Adaptive web-based testing will provide more accurate and detailed |

|Companies that provide server space, web design, and |information about student learning to schools across the nation |

|maintenance provide hosted services |The World Wide Web will provide better and easier access to many mental |

|Web-based testing takes place under two conditions: proctored|health care services such as employee assistance programs (EAPs) |

|and unproctored |As the number of certification programs increases, organizations and |

|Web-based assessment greatly facilitates administration of |government agencies are likely to find that web-based CAT is more accurate |

|standardized tests as well as informal classroom assessment; |and efficient than administering paper-and-pencil exams |

|however, web-based assessment presents unique challenges | |

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Describe how computers have enhanced the development, administration, and scoring of psychological tests.

▪ Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of computerized testing.

▪ Explain the differences between adaptive testing and traditional testing.

▪ Discuss the advantages and problems with administering tests using the World Wide Web.

▪ Discuss the implications of web-based technology for testing in the future.

CHAPTER 3: is there a right or wrong way to use tests?

Chapter 9

What is

Construct Validity?

Chapter 8

Can Tests Really

Predict Future

Behavior?

Chapter 7

What is Validity,

Specifically,

Content Validity?

Chapter 6

What is Test

Reliability?

Chapter 5

How Doe Test

Users Interpret

Test Scores?

Psychometric

Principles

Chapter 9

What Is

Construct Validity?

Chapter 8

Can Tests Really

Predict Future

Behavior?

Chapter 7

What Is Validity,

Specifically

Content Validity?

Chapter 6

What Is Test

Reliability?

Chapter 5

How Do Test

Users Interpret

Test Scores?

Psychometric

Principles

Section II: Psychometric Principles

CHAPTER 5—HOW DO TEST USERS INTERPRET TEST SCORES? In Chapter 5, we focus on increasing your understanding of the procedures used to interpret test scores. Because the procedures used to interpret test scores depend on the type of data that a test produces, we begin with a discussion of the four levels of measurement of psychological test data. We then discuss frequency distributions, measures of central tendency, measures of variability, and measures of relationship. After discussing how to convert raw scores into more meaningful units (for example, z scores, T scores), we discuss the role of norms in interpreting test scores.

CHAPTER 6—WHAT IS TEST RELIAB ILITY? In Chapter 6, we describe three methods of estimating a test’s reliability: test–retest or stability over time, internal consistency or homogeneity of the test questions, and scorer reliability or agreement. We discuss how to calculate an index of reliability called the reliability coefficient, an index of error called the standard error of measurement, and an index of agreement called Cohen’s kappa. Finally, we discuss factors that increase and decrease reliability of test scores.

CHAPTER 7—WHAT IS VALIDITY, SPECIFICALLY CONTENT VALIDITY? In Chapter 7, we introduce you to the different forms of validity. Although we focus most of our attention on traditional forms of validity—content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity—we also introduce you to how validity is now being discussed in the new Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (the Standards) (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education, 1999). We begin with a brief discussion of validity as defined by the new Standards. After providing an overview of the three traditional forms of validity—content, criterion-related, and construct validity—we focus most of our attention on defining content validity and discussing the methods for evaluating the content validity of a test. (Criterion-related validity and construct validity are discussed in detail in Chapters 8 and 9.) We end Chapter 7 with a brief discussion of a fourth (albeit less important) type of validity, namely face validity.

CHAPTER 8—CAN TESTS REALLY PREDICT FUTURE BEHAVIOR? In Chapter 8, we describe the processes that psychologists use to ensure that tests perform properly when they are used for making predictions and decisions. We begin by discussing the concept of criterion-related validity. We also discuss the importance of selecting a valid criterion measure, the method for evaluating validity coefficients, and the statistical processes that provide evidence that a test can be used for making predictions.

CHAPTER 9—WHAT IS CONSTRUCT VALIDITY? In Chapter 9, we define and illustrate the terms psychological construct, theory, and nomological network. Because establishing evidence of construct validity involves accumulating and relating all of the psychometric information known about a test, we show how familiar concepts, such as reliability, content validity, and criterion-related validity, are linked to construct validity. In addition, convergent validity and discriminant validity are two new strategies for establishing construct validity. Finally, we discuss experimental methods used to establish construct validity for a test, including two procedures: confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory factor analysis.

CHAPTER 5: How do test users interpret test scores?

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Describe and identify the different levels of measurement.

▪ Summarize test scores using frequency distributions.

▪ Describe the characteristics of the normal curve as well as skewed, peaked, and bimodal distributions.

▪ Describe the purpose and calculate measures of central tendency, measures of variability, and measures of relationship.

▪ Convert raw test scores into more meaningful units.

▪ Describe norm-based interpretation and the different types of norms.

|Three Types of Reliability |Calculating and Interpreting the Reliability Coefficient |

|The test–retest method compares the scores of the same test |A reliability coefficient is calculated by correlating the scores of test |

|takers taking the same test at two different times This method |takers on two administrations of the same test |

|is appropriate when the test takers have not changed on the |A reliability coefficient is interpreted by examining its sign (positive |

|ability, trait, or attitude the test measures The alternate |or negative) and its proximity to 100 Reliability coefficients should be |

|forms method compares the scores of the same test takers on two|positive and very close to 100 |

|equivalent forms of the test taken at the same time |The standard error of measurement (SEM) provides a measure of how much an |

|The internal consistency method compares the scores of test |individual’s score is likely to differ from the individual’s true score |

|takers on two halves of the test taken at the same time |Using the SEM, we can calculate a confidence interval that is likely to |

|(split-halves method). Scores of test takers on all possible |contain the true score |

|halves can be calculated using the coefficient alpha or KR-20 |Cohen’s kappa is a measure of agreement for use with nominal or ordinal |

|formula when the test questions are homogeneous |data such as ratings and decisions The nearer kappa is to 100, the |

|Scorer reliability is a method of estimating reliability or |stronger the agreement |

|accuracy of those making judgments when scoring a test. Two | |

|types of scorer reliability are important: the comparison of | |

|judgments between or among scorers (interscorer) and the | |

|comparison of judgments each scorer makes for all tests | |

|(intrascorer). We use correlation to calculate the interscorer | |

|reliability for interval data such as numerical test scores. We| |

|use Cohen’s kappa to calculate interscorer reliability for | |

|categorical data such as ratings and decisions. We calculate | |

|intrascorer reliability using the formulas for calculating | |

|internal consistency | |

|Factors That Influence Reliability | |

|Errors that increase or decrease individual scores and change the reliability estimate result from four sources: the test itself, test |

|administration, test scoring, and test takers |

|Errors that result from poor test design include “trick”, ambiguous, and poorly worded questions as well as reading levels that are too |

|high for test takers |

|Test administration can generate error when administrators do not follow instructions for test administration or when the testing |

|environment is uncomfortable or distracting |

|Tests must be scored accurately and according to the instructions in the test manual |

|Test takers can contribute to test error by being fatigued or ill, by cheating, or by providing dishonest answers |

|Reliability is related to test length; the longer the test, the more reliable it is likely to be—provided that the questions on the test |

|are homogeneous |

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Define reliability and describe three methods for estimating the reliability of a psychological test and its scores.

▪ Describe how an observed test score is made up of the “true score” and “random error”. Describe the difference between random error and systematic error.

▪ Calculate and interpret a reliability coefficient, including adjusting a reliability coefficient obtained using the split-half method.

▪ Differentiate between the “KR-20” and coefficient alpha formulas and understand how they are used to estimate internal consistency.

▪ Calculate the standard error of measurement and use it to construct a confidence interval around an observed score.

▪ Identify four sources of test error and six factors related to these sources of error that are particularly important to consider.

▪ Explain the premises of generalizability theory and describe its contribution to estimating reliability.

CHAPTER 6: What is test reliability?

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Explain what validity is.

▪ Discuss the five sources of evidence of validity described in the new Standards.

▪ Describe the general nature of content, criterion-related, and construct validity.

▪ Explain, at a general level, the appropriate use of various validation strategies.

▪ Describe methods for demonstrating content validity.

▪ Explain the nature and importance of face validity.

|The Different Forms of Validity |Content Validity |

|When we ask whether a test is valid, we are asking, “Does the test|Content validity is the extent to which the questions on a test |

|measure what it claims to measure, or does the test predict what |are representative of the construct, trait, or attribute being |

|it claims to predict?” |measured |

|The 1999 Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing |Content validity is similar to criterion-related and construct |

|recognize five sources of evidence of validity |validity in that it helps us to answer the question about how |

|Traditionally, testing experts have recognized three primary types|adequately a test measures what it says it measures |

|of evidence of validity: content validity, criterion-related |Content validity differs from criterion-related and construct |

|validity, and construct validity |validity in that it involves examining the questions on a test |

|Content validity is a validation strategy that involves |rather than correlating the test scores to a criterion or another |

|scrutinizing the content of a test to determine whether the |test |

|questions/items in the test are representative of the construct |One method for establishing content validity involves performing a|

|being measured by the test |series of systematic steps as a test is being developed |

|Criterion-related validity is a validation strategy that involves |Another method for establishing content validity involves |

|determining whether test scores are systematically related to |evaluating the content of a test after it has been developed |

|other indicators of success or criteria There are two types of |Although helpful, face validity—whether the test appears to |

|criterion-related validity: predictive and concurrent |measure what it claims to measure—alone is not an acceptable means|

|Construct validity is a validation strategy that involves |for determining the validity of a test |

|accumulating evidence that the scores on a test relate to | |

|observable behaviors in the ways predicted by the theory | |

|underlying the test There are two types of construct validity: | |

|convergent and discriminant | |

| | |

| |

CHAPTER 7: WHAT IS VALIDITY, SPECIFICALLY CONTENT VALIDITY?

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Define criterion-related validity and describe two methods for obtaining evidence of criterion-related validity.

▪ Read and interpret validity studies.

▪ Discuss how restriction of range occurs and its consequences.

▪ Describe the differences between content validity and criterion-related validity.

▪ Describe the difference between reliability and validity.

▪ Define and give examples of objective and subjective criteria, and explain why criteria must be reliable and valid.

▪ Calculate a validity coefficient and the coefficient of determination, and conduct a test of significance for the validity coefficient.

▪ Explain the concept of regression, calculate and interpret a linear regression formula, and interpret a multiple regression formula.

|Demonstrating Criterion-Related Validity |Evaluating Validity Coefficients |

|There are two basic methods for showing a relation between a test |Tests of significance establish how likely a |

|and independent events or behaviors (the criterion). |correlation between the test and the criterion was |

|Predictive validity—established by correlating test scores taken |obtained by chance |

|at one time with scores on a criterion measure obtained at a later|The coefficient of determination describes how much |

|date, usually months later This method establishes that the test |variance the test and the criterion share |

|provides information about events in the future |Ongoing investigations of validity include |

|Concurrent validity—established by correlating test scores and |cross-validation and meta-analyses |

|criterion scores obtained at approximately the same time, usually |Psychologists also inquire whether validity estimates |

|within a week This method establishes that the test can provide |are stable from one situation to another—a question of |

|information about independent events or behaviors in the present |validity generalization |

|Using Validity Information and Ethical Issues |

|When a relationship can be established between a test and a criterion, the test scores can be used to predict how well |

|individuals are likely to perform on the criterion |

|Linear regression is used to make predictions from scores from one test |

|The slope (the expected change in one unit of y for every change in x) and the intercept (the point where the regression |

|line crosses the y axis) are important for plotting a regression line |

|Multiple regression is used to make predictions from two or more different tests |

|Decisions based on test scores have far-reaching consequences, and test users should have evidence of criterion-related |

|validity to be sure that the test scores and their predictions will be accurate |

|When test takers are members of minorities, especially those who do not speak standard English as their primary language, |

|test users must be aware of test bias and how it affects test validity |

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Discuss the concept of a construct and give examples of theoretical constructs.

▪ Explain and give examples of the three steps of construct explication.

▪ Explain the process of establishing construct validity, including the various factors that can provide evidence of construct validity.

▪ Explain how Campbell and Fiske’s Multitrait–Multimethod Matrix provides evidence of construct validity.

▪ Discuss the roles of confirmatory and exploratory factor analysis in establishing construct validity.

|Defining a Construct |Gathering Evidence of Construct Validity |

|Construct validity is the extent to which a |We gather theoretical evidence by establishing a nomological network and |

|test measures a theoretical construct |proposing experimental hypotheses using the test to measure the construct |

|Behaviors—activities that are observable and |We gather psychometric evidence of construct validity by conducting empirical |

|measurable—are concrete constructs |studies of the following: |

|Underlying attitudes or attributes are abstract|Reliability—Test developers and researchers should provide evidence of internal|

|concepts that exist only in our imaginations |consistency or homogeneity Evidence of test–retest reliability is also |

|Definitions of abstract constructs can vary |appropriate |

|from person to person |Convergent validity—A strong correlation between the test and other tests |

|Construct explication is the basis for |measuring the same or similar constructs is necessary |

|establishing a test’s construct validity A |Discriminant validity—Lack of correlation between the test and unrelated |

|construct must be part of a theory that defines|constructs is also valuable |

|the construct in observable and measurable |Designing a study that yields a multitrait–multimethod matrix of data is an |

|terms |elegant way to demonstrate the strategies of reliability, convergent validity, |

|A listing of a construct’s relations and |and discriminant validity |

|nonrelations to other constructs or tests can |Experimental interventions in which the test is used as an independent or |

|provide a number of hypotheses about the |dependent variable make a substantial contribution to the argument for |

|behaviors that people who have small or large |construct validity |

|quantities of the construct should display |Content validity or criterion-related validity, when available and appropriate,|

| |strengthens the argument for construct validity |

|Factor Analysis |

|Researchers use factor analysis to identify underlying variables or factors that contribute to a construct or an overall test |

|score |

|In confirmatory factor analysis, researchers hypothesize the underlying variables and then test to see whether they are there |

|Confirmatory factor analyses that confirm predicted underlying variables provide evidence of construct validity |

|Exploratory factor analyses take a broad look at the test data to determine the maximum number of underlying structures |

|The validation of the Brief Multidimensional Student Life Satisfaction Scale (BMSLSS) provides an example of how researchers |

|carry out validation studies |

CHAPTER 9: what is construct validity?

CHAPTER 8: CAN TESTS REALLY PREDICT FUTURE BEHAVIOR?

Chapter 12

How Do You Know

When a Test Works?

Chapter 11

How Do You

Develop a Test?

Chapter 10

How Do We

Construct,

Administer, and

Use Survey

Data?

Developing and

Piloting Surveys

And

Psychological

Tests

Chapter 12

How Do You Know

When a Test Works?

Chapter 11

How Do You

Develop a Test?

Chapter 10

How Do We

Construct,

Administer, and

Use Survey

Data?

Developing and

Piloting Surveys

and

Psychological

Tests

CHAPTER 10—HOW DO WE CONSTRUCT, ADMINISTER, AND USE SURVEY DATA? In Chapter 10, we begin by defining what a survey is and discussing how surveys are popular research tools. Knowing that how we collect information affects its quality, we present an overview of the different ways we collect and acquire data. We focus on one approach, the scientific method, which is the very essence of collecting accurate survey data. After briefly reviewing the scientific method, we focus on a five-phase scientific approach to constructing, administering, and analyzing surveys. Finally, we discuss survey reliability and validity.

CHAPTER 11—HOW DO YOU DEVELOP A TEST? In Chapter 11, we discuss the steps for developing psychological tests. This chapter looks at the process of constructing a test plan, various formats for writing questions (for example, multiple choice, true/false) that include their strengths and weaknesses, and how test takers’ perceptions and preconceived notions can influence test scores. Finally, we present guidelines on how to write test questions and discuss the importance of the instructions that accompany a test.

CHAPTER 12—HOW DO YOU KNOW WHEN A TEST WORKS? In Chapter 12, we continue describing the test development process by discussing piloting the test and analyzing the items in terms of their difficulty, their ability to discriminate among respondents, and their likelihood of introducing error into the test results. We also describe the process of revising the test and gathering evidence of reliability and validity. Finally, we briefly discuss the contents of the test manual.

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Describe the six methods for acquiring knowledge.

▪ Explain how the scientific method differs from other methods for acquiring information and describe the five steps associated with the scientific method.

▪ Apply the five-phase scientific approach to constructing, administering, and analyzing surveys.

▪ Describe survey reliability and validity and associated concepts.

|Surveys, Knowledge Acquisition, and the Scientific Method |The Survey Research Method |

|Surveys are research tools that collect information that enable us|Surveys are one of various research methods you can use to collect|

|to describe and compare people’s attitudes, knowledge, and |information |

|behaviors |Constructing a reliable and valid survey takes time, and it is as |

|To determine whether information is accurate, we must look at how |much a science as it is an art |

|the information was obtained |Using a scientific approach to survey research will increase the |

|According to Helmstadter (1970), there are six methods for |reliability and validity of a survey |

|obtaining information: tenacity, intuition, authority, |A scientific approach to surveys involves five general phases: (a)|

|rationalism, empiricism, and the scientific method |identifying survey objectives and forming a hypothesis, (b) |

|Information obtained using the scientific method is more accurate |constructing the survey, (c) administering the survey, (d) |

|and reliable than information obtained in other ways |entering and analyzing the data, and (e) presenting the findings |

|The scientific method is a process or method for generating a body|During the first phase, researchers identify the survey |

|of knowledge |objectives, define the objectives operationally, and construct a |

|This process includes identifying a problem or an issue and |plan for completing the survey |

|forming a hypothesis, designing a study to explore the |During the second phase, researchers select the type of survey, |

|problem/issue and hypothesis, conducting the study, analyzing and |write the survey questions, prepare the survey for distribution, |

|interpreting the results, and communicating the research results |and pretest the survey |

|The scientific method can be followed using both experimental and |During the third phase, researchers select the appropriate |

|descriptive research techniques |respondents, determine the sample size, and distribute the survey |

|Descriptive research techniques often involve the use of |During the fourth phase, researchers code the survey questions, |

|surveys—research tools that collect information to facilitate the |enter and verify the data, and conduct the analyses |

|description and comparison of people’s attitudes, knowledge, and |During the fifth phase, researchers prepare and present an oral or|

|behaviors |written report |

|Survey Reliability and Validity |

▪ Good surveys are reliable and valid

▪ A reliable survey is free of measurement error and provides you with similar information each time you use it

▪ As with psychological tests, we can determine the reliability of a survey using a number of methods, including test–retest reliability, alternate forms reliability, and split-half reliability

▪ A valid survey is one that measures what it claims to measure

▪ As with psychological tests, we can determine the validity of a survey using a number of methods, including content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity

CHAPTER 10: How do we construct, administer and use survey data?

Section III: Developing and Piloting Surveys and Psychological Tests

Pilot Test and Item Analysis

▪ The pilot test provides a thorough examination of how the new test works and the results that it yields

▪ After the test has been administered to a sample of participants, the test developers review and analyze the pilot test data

▪ Quantitative item analysis examines how well each test item performs

▪ The difficulty of each item is calculated by finding the percentage of test takers who responded to the item correctly. Most developers seek a range of difficulty levels that average approximately 5

▪ Test developers also create a discrimination index. This statistic compares the performance on each item of those who made very high test scores with the performance on each item of those who made very low test scores

▪ Average interitem correlation and item–total correlation provide information for increasing the test’s internal consistency. Each item should be highly correlated with every other item measuring the same construct

▪ In item response theory, the performance of each item is related to the test taker’s ability on the construct being measured. The resulting item characteristic curve (ICC) is a graph of the probability of answering an item correctly given a certain level of ability It combines item difficulty and discrimination

▪ Item bias refers to an item being easier for one group than for another group. ICCs provide information on item bias by comparing group scores

▪ Test developers use questionnaires and expert panels for a qualitative analysis of test items

Revising the Test

▪ Test items are dropped based on their consistency, difficulty, discrimination, and bias until a final form of the test is reached

▪ If enough items were piloted, no items will be rewritten Items that are rewritten must be piloted to be sure they now meet criteria for retention in the test

▪ Other test components, such as the instructions, should be revised based on the results of a qualitative analysis in the form of questionnaires or interviews with test takers, subject matter experts, and testing experts

Validation, Norms, Cut Scores, and the Test Manual

▪ Standards for designing the validation study are similar to those for designing the pilot study, including using a representative sample of the target audience that is large enough to conduct the desired statistical tests

▪ Test developers should follow the American Psychological Association (APA) code of ethics Using more than one test site will provide evidence that the results generalize from site to site

▪ The scores resulting from the validation study should not be used for decision making or evaluation of individuals

▪ When the test user will make predictions from test results, a cross-validation study is important. Test developers expect the resulting validity coefficient to be lower, and the difference between the coefficients in the validation study and those in the cross-validation study is called shrinkage

▪ Differential validity results when tests have different validity coefficients for different groups Single group validity means that a test is valid for only a specific group

▪ Norms and cut scores can be developed from the validation data to provide test users with information for interpreting test scores

▪ Cut scores can be determined empirically using the correlation between the test and an outside criterion or by a panel of expert judges

▪ Finally, the developers compile the test manual, which has been in the process of development along with the test. The test manual includes the answer key, instructions for the administrator and test user, information on test development, validation and cross-validation, norms, and cut scores

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Explain the importance of conducting a pilot test.

▪ Describe how a pilot test should be set up and specify the types of information that should be collected.

▪ Describe the collection, analyses, and interpretation of data for an item analysis, including item difficulty, item discrimination, interitem correlations, item–criterion correlations, item bias, and item characteristic curves.

▪ Describe the collection and interpretation of data for a qualitative item analysis.

▪ Identify and explain the criteria for retaining and dropping items to revise a test.

▪ Describe the processes of validation and cross-validation.

▪ Explain the concepts of differential validity, single-group validity, and unfair test discrimination.

▪ Explain the purpose of a cut score and describe two methods for identifying a cut score.

▪ Tell what information should be included in a test manual and why.

CHAPTER 12: how do you know when a test works?

CHAPTER 11: How do you develop a test?

|Steps in Test Construction |Composing Test Items |

|The first step in test development involves defining the |The test developer chooses the item format based on information in the test |

|test universe, the target audience, and the purpose of the|plan such as the target audience, the method of administration, and the |

|test |requirements for scoring |

|The next step in test development is to write out a test |Objective formats include multiple choice, true/false, and forced choice items |

|plan, which includes the construct(s) definition, the test|Subject formats include essay and interview questions |

|format, the administration method, and the scoring method |Projective tests are another type of subjective format that uses a highly |

|After a review of the literature, the test developer |ambiguous stimulus to elicit an unstructured response from test takers. |

|writes a concise definition of the test construct(s) and |Projective stimuli include pictures and written or spoken words Test takers may|

|operationalizes each construct in terms of observable and |respond verbally or by drawing pictures |

|measurable behaviors |Some people have response sets—patterns of responding that result in false or |

|The test developer chooses an objective or subjective |misleading information—such as social desirability, acquiescence, random |

|format and the type of test question (for example, |responding, and faking |

|multiple choice, true/false, open-ended, essay) |Although there is no set of rules that guarantees items will perform as |

|Then the test developer specifies how the test will be |expected, the test development literature contains a number of suggestions for |

|administered and scored. Three models for scoring are the |writing successful items |

|cumulative model, the categorical model, and the ipsative |Objective items provide ample sampling of the testing universe, but they are |

|model. The scoring model determines the type of data |more time-consuming to develop Scoring of objective items is easier and likely |

|(nominal, ordinal, or interval) the test will yield |to be more accurate and reliable |

|After completing the test plan, the test developer is |Subjective items are easier to construct and revise Some experts suggest that |

|ready to begin writing the actual test questions and |essay and interview questions are better suited to testing higher order skills |

|administration instructions |such as creativity and organization. Scoring of subjective items is more |

|After writing the test, the developer conducts a pilot |difficult, requiring independent scoring by two experts to increase reliability|

|test followed by other studies that provide the necessary |and accuracy |

|data for validation and norming | |

|Writing the Instructions for the New Test |

|The instructions for the test administrator should cover group or individual administration, specific requirements for the location, |

|required equipment, time limitations or approximate time for completion of the test, script for the administrator to read to test takers, |

|and required training for the test administrator |

|The instructions on the test need to be simple, concise, and written at a low reading level Complicated instructions for responding are |

|likely to lead to confused test takers and an increased probability of response errors |

|The scoring instructions and test key ensure that each person who scores the test will follow the same process. The scoring instructions |

|should explain how the test scores relate to the construct the test measures |

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Describe how to define the test domain, the target audience, and the purpose of the test.

▪ Develop a test plan, including defining the construct or constructs the test measures, choosing the test format, and specifying how to score the test.

▪ Differentiate between objective and subjective test questions and describe the strengths and weaknesses of each.

▪ Describe the important issues in writing instructions for the test administrator and the test taker.

Chapter 15

How Are Tests

Used in

Clinical and

Settings

?

Chapter 14

How Do

Organizations

Use Tests

?

Chapter 13

How Are Tests

Used in Educational

Settings?

Using Tests

In Different

Settings

Chapter 15

How Are Test Used in Clinical and Counseling Settings?

Chapter 14

How Do Organizations Use Psychological Tests?

Organizations

Chapter 13

How Are Tests

Used in Educational

Settings?

Using Tests

In Different

Settings

How Are Tests Used In Clinical and Counseling Settings?

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Describe the types of decisions educators make based on the results of psychological tests.

▪ Explain why educators are test users and why they need to follow test user guidelines discussed in Chapter 3.

▪ Describe how psychological tests are used by teachers in the classroom, before instruction, during instruction, and after instruction.

▪ Describe how psychological tests can benefit student motivation, retention and transfer of learning, self-assessment, and instructional effectiveness.

▪ Describe how educational institutions use tests to make selection and placement decisions, counseling and guidance decisions, program and curriculum decisions, and administrative policy decisions.

▪ Explain the differences between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests.

▪ Describe authentic assessment and the perceived advantages and disadvantages of authentic assessment.

|Decision Making in the Educational Setting|Psychological Test Use in Educational Settings |

|and Educators as Test Users |Teachers use psychological tests as placement assessments, formative |

|Psychological tests play an important role|assessments, and summative assessments |

|in educational settings, and their role |As placement assessments, teachers use tests to determine whether students |

|will likely continue to increase |have the skills or knowledge necessary to understand new material and to |

|Teachers, testing specialists, and |determine how much information students already know about new material |

|educational administrators use |As formative assessments, teachers use tests to determine what information |

|psychological tests to make a variety of |students are and are not learning |

|important decisions |As summative assessments, teachers use tests to determine whether students |

|Teachers use psychological tests to make |have achieved what they intended them to achieve and to assign grades |

|instructional, grading, and diagnostic |Tests can also help to motivate students, help students to retain and apply |

|decisions |information, and help students to understand themselves |

|Testing specialists and educational |Tests can also help teachers to understand the effectiveness of their |

|administrators use psychological tests to |teaching methods |

|make selection, placement, counseling and |Administrators and testing specialists often use standardized tests of |

|guidance, program and curriculum, and |achievement, aptitude, and intelligence to help make selection and placement |

|administrative policy decisions |decisions |

|As test users, teachers, testing |Although they have been around for many years, portfolios are becoming a more|

|specialists, and educational |popular alternative for making admissions decisions and evaluating |

|administrators should be properly trained |performance and potential |

|on the appropriate use of psychological |Career counselors and other testing professionals use psychological tests, |

|tests |along with other information, to help students understand their interests, |

|Educators without proper testing knowledge|strengths, abilities, and preferences and to translate this information into |

|can make some improper decisions and cause|career guidance decisions |

|themselves embarrassment or worse |Educational administrators use psychological tests to make program, |

| |curriculum, and administrative policy decisions |

|Norm-Referenced, Criterion-Referenced, and Authentic Assessment of Achievement |

▪ Most psychological tests used in educational settings can be classified as norm-referenced or criterion-referenced tests

▪ Educators use norm-referenced tests to compare a student’s performance with the performance of other students

▪ Educators use criterion-referenced tests to compare a student’s performance with an objectively stated standard of achievement such as being able to multiply numbers

▪ Some individuals believe that norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests are too structured and instead promote the use of authentic assessment

▪ Authentic assessment focuses on a student’s ability to apply what he or she has learned in real-world settings

CHAPTER 13—HOW ARE TESTS USED IN EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS? In Chapter 13, we focus on how psychological tests are used in educational settings. We begin with an overview of the types of decisions that are made in education based on the results of psychological tests. We discuss educators as test users and provide a few examples of situations where educators did not use tests properly. Following a detailed discussion of exactly how tests are used in the classroom, we highlight how tests are used in educational settings to make selection and placement decisions, counseling and guidance decisions, and curriculum/administrative policy decisions. We end with a discussion of norm- and criterion-referenced tests and authentic assessment in educational settings.

CHAPTER 14—HOW ARE TESTS USED IN CLINICAL AND COUNSELING SETTINGS? In Chapter 14, we focus on how psychological tests are used in clinical and counseling settings. We begin with an overview of three models clinicians and counselors use in psychological testing. We discuss the types of tests used for diagnosis and intervention, including clinical interviews and various projective techniques. After discussing neuropsychology and neuropsychological tests, we conclude with a discussion of specialized tests for clinical disorders.

CHAPTER 15—HOW DO ORGANIZATIONS USE PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS? In Chapter 15, we focus on how psychological tests are used in organizations. We begin with a brief history of the role psychological assessment has played in organizations. We examine various types of tests that are used for hiring employees such as interviews and tests of performance, personality, and integrity. We consider legal constraints on employment testing legislated by Congress and interpreted by the executive branch and the federal court system. Finally, we describe how organizations use psychological assessment to evaluate employee performance.

CHAPTER 13: How are tests used in educational settings?

Section IV: USING TESTS IN DIFFERENT SETTINGS

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Identify and explain three models of psychological assessment that clinicians and counselors use.

▪ Explain the concept of clinical diagnosis and describe how the clinical interview and structured personality tests are used to make diagnoses.

▪ Describe three types of projective techniques and how practitioners use them for diagnosis and treatment.

▪ Describe the field of neuropsychology and explain how neuropsychologists use electrophysiological techniques, neurobehavioral assessments, and temperament or personality measures to diagnose and treat clients of various ages.

▪ Describe how practitioners use paper-and-pencil tests to diagnose and treat depression, anxiety, anger, and attention deficit disorder.

Models of Clinical Assessment

▪ The information-gathering model represents the use of standardized tests to make diagnoses

▪ The therapeutic model represents the use of tests as an intervention that provides new information for the client to use for self-discovery and growth

▪ The differential treatment model represents the use of tests for conducting research or evaluating program outcomes

▪ The roles of counselors and clinical psychologists differ, but they also overlap

▪ Counselors primarily provide services for those with normal developmental problems, and clinical psychologists and psychiatrists generally treat those with abnormal behavior, mental disorders, or emotional disabilities

Making Diagnoses Using the Interview and Structured Personality Tests

▪ A diagnosis is the definition of a client’s problem or disorder, and screening is the process of conducting a psychological assessment to arrive at a diagnosis

▪ The clinical interview in which the practitioner observes and gathers information about the client is a primary diagnostic tool

▪ There are three types of interviews: (a) the structured clinical interview, which has a predetermined set of questions and yields a score; (b) the nondirective clinical interview, in which the practitioner’s questions follow up on the client’s report of symptoms or problems; and (c) the semistructured interview, in which some questions are predetermined but the practitioner also asks follow-up questions based on the client’s responses

▪ The practitioner who uses the nondirective approach risks three sources of bias: hypothesis confirmation bias, the self-fulfilling prophecy, and ethnocentrism

▪ The nondirective interview may be more useful for an intervention (the therapeutic model) than for a diagnosis

▪ Practitioners also use standardized personality tests, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2), the NEO Personality Inventory, the California Personality Inventory (CPI), and the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), to make diagnoses

Projective Techniques

▪ Projective techniques ask test takers to give meaning to ambiguous stimuli

▪ Projective storytelling requires test takers to tell a story about some visual stimuli such as pictures

▪ In projective drawing, test takers draw and interpret their own pictures

▪ In sentence completion tests, the assessor administers partial sentences, either verbally or on paper, and asks test takers to respond by completing each sentence

▪ A major weakness of most projective tests is a lack of evidence of traditional psychometric soundness such as reliability and validity Therefore, the value of projective tests may be in their usefulness as interventions rather than as diagnostic or research instruments

Neuropsychological Tests

▪ Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the relation between brain functions and behavior

▪ Neuropsychologists use electrophysiological techniques such as the electroencephalogram (EEG), a continuous written record of brainwave activity, and event-related potential (ERP), a record of the brain’s electrical response to the occurrence of a specific event

▪ Developmental applications involve assessments that determine whether the client is developing normally

▪ Two developmental tests for infants are biochemical assessment, which is an analysis of blood gases to determine the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide at the tissue level, and electrophysiological assessment, which involves monitoring vital signs such as heart rate and spontaneous electrical activity of the brain

▪ Neuropsychologists conduct neurobehavioral assessments such as eliciting various reflexes to assess the functioning and maturity of an infant’s central nervous system

▪ Neuropsychologists use tests that measure temperament or personality as well as intelligence, academic achievement, language, perception, and attention tests to assess social–emotional functioning in children

▪ When treating the elderly, neuropsychologists take into account the normal changes in brain function that result from aging, including the fact that aging can exaggerate the psychological impact of medical conditions

▪ Three major areas of psychopathological disorders—anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia—have been researched extensively by neuropsychologists

|Specialized Tests for Clinical Disorders |

|Psychologists also use traditional paper-and-pencil tests to identify mental disorders such as anger, anxiety, and depression |

|The Beck Depression Inventory and the Beck Anxiety Inventory are examples of tests that assess single constructs or disorders |

|Another dimension of measurement is the assessment of whether an attribute is temporary (state) or an ongoing part of the personality (trait) |

|When clients such as children cannot complete self-report measures, trained professionals use observational scales to rate observed behaviors |

CHAPTER 14: how are tests used in clinical and counseling settings?

After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

▪ Discuss the history of employment testing in the United States during the 20th century.

▪ Report the strengths and weaknesses of the traditional interview and the structured interview for assessing job candidates.

▪ Describe the characteristics of a performance test and discuss two types of performance tests used by organizations.

▪ Describe the five-factor model of personality and name two tests that are based on the five-factor model.

▪ Discuss two types of integrity tests and describe the criticism these tests have received.

▪ Discuss performance appraisal instruments, give examples of three types of rating scales, and describe four types of rating errors.

|History of Employment Testing |Preemployment Testing |

|In 1915, Scott published “The Scientific Selection of|Psychological assessment provides the basis for hiring employees in most |

|Salesmen,” in which he proposed that employers use |organizations |

|group tests for personnel selection |The most popular method of assessment is the employment interview |

|Proposals from psychologists led to the development |Types of interviews vary from the traditional interview, in which the |

|of the US Army’s Alpha and Beta tests during World |interviewer pursues different areas of inquiry with each job candidate, to |

|War I |highly structured interviews that are standardized with the same questions |

|Following World War I, psychologists continued to |asked of each job candidate |

|investigate employment testing and began to study |Many shortcomings of the traditional interview, including its low reliability |

|measuring job performance and placing workers in jobs|and validity, can be overcome by structuring the interview and the interviewing|

|based on their skills and qualifications |procedure |

|Two consulting firms that specialized in using tests |Performance tests require the test taker to perform one or more job tasks |

|in organizations emerged One was founded by Scott, |Personality inventories measure ongoing cognitive constructs, such as |

|and the other was the Psychological Corporation |conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness, that may influence |

|organized by Cattell |individuals to perform certain behaviors |

|Use of tests by organizations expanded greatly during|One widely accepted personality theory is the five-factor model, which proposes|

|the latter half of the 20th century |five central personality dimensions: surgency, emotional stability, |

|Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 stimulated |agreeableness, conscientiousness, and intellect or openness to experience |

|interest in fair employment practices, and |Integrity tests that predict an employee’s predisposal to be dishonest fall |

|psychologists played a key role in developing the |into two general categories: physiological measures and paper-and-pencil tests |

|federal government’s Uniform Guidelines on Employee |When a job analysis indicates that cognitive skills are important for high |

|Selection Procedures in 1978 |performance, cognitive tests are useful for inclusion in a preemployment |

|Today, business organizations use various types of |assessment |

|psychological tests to meet their business needs |The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures suggest procedures for |

| |organizations to follow that enhance the fairness and legal defensibility of |

| |their employment practices |

|Performance Appraisal |

|Most organizations carry out formal evaluations of employees’ job performance called performance appraisals |

|The major types of performance appraisal systems are ranking employees and rating employees on various types of scales |

|The most popular method of rating employee performance uses the graphic rating scale |

|Two other methods are the behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) and the behavioral checklist |

|Raters need to be trained so that they do not make rating errors such as leniency, severity, central tendency, and the halo effect |

|Supervisors and managers usually rate their subordinates |

|In 360( feedback, individuals are rated by their managers, peers, subordinates, customers, and selves |

| |

| |

CHAPTER 15: how do organizations use psychological tests?

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