African civilizations

African

civilizations

An archaeological perspective

SECOND EDITION

Graham Connah

Australian National University

Canberra

Drawings by Douglas Hobbs

published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge

The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

cambridge university press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK

40 West 20th Street, New York, ny 10011-4211, USA

10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, vic 3166, Australia

Ruiz de Alarc¨®n 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain

Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa



First edition ? Cambridge University Press 1987

Second edition ? Graham Connah 2001

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,

no reproduction of any part may take place without

the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 1987

Reprinted 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2000

Second edition 2001

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typeface Sabon MT 10.5/13.5 pt. System QuarkXPress? [se]

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

isbn 0 521 59309 3 hardback

isbn 0 521 59690 4 paperback

(isbn 0 521 31992 7 1st edition paperback)

Contents

List of figures page ix

Preface to the first edition xi

Preface to the second edition xiv

1

The context 1

2 Birth on the Nile: the Nubian achievement 18

3 The benefits of isolation: the Ethiopian Highlands 66

4

An optimal zone: the West African savanna 108

5

Brilliance beneath the trees: the West African forest and

its fringes 144

6

The edge or the centre: cities of the East African coast

and islands 181

7

A question of context: Great Zimbabwe and related sites 223

8

In the heart of Africa: the Upemba Depression and the

Interlacustrine Region 263

9 What are the common denominators? 291

Bibliography 297

Index 331

vii

Figures

1.1

1.2

1.3

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

2.10

2.11

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

3.10

3.11

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

Historical distribution of African cities page 13

Location of areas discussed 14

Chronology of urban and state developments 16

Archaeological sites of the middle Nile 20

Chronology of Egypt and Nubia 28

Human sacrifices at Kerma 30

Plan of Kerma 32

Plan of Mero? 38

Pyramid at Mero? 40

Queen Amanitere at Naqa 42

Meroitic palace at Wad ben Naqa 43

Tomb at Ballana 46

Plan of Arminna West 48

Pastoral scenes on Karanog bowls 51

Archaeological sites of the Ethiopian Highlands 68

Temple at Yeha 76

Stelae 3 and 6 at Aksum 79

Fallen Stela 1 at Aksum 80

Tomb of the Brick Arches at Aksum 82

Reconstructions of Enda Mika¡¯el at Aksum 84

Aksumite constructional method 85

¡®Dongur Mansion¡¯ at Aksum 86

Plan of Matara 88

Ivory carving from Aksum 96

Coin of Armah 98

West African environmental zones 110

Archaeological sites in West Africa 114

Plan of Dakhlet el Atrous I 118

Plan of Jenn¨¦-jeno, showing growth 119

Section through deposits at Jenn¨¦-jeno 120

Plans of Kano, showing growth 126

Section through El-Oualedji tumulus 128

Gold disc from Rao 129

Jenn¨¦-jeno about 1000 years ago 132

ix

List of figures

4.10

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

5.7

5.8

5.9

5.10

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6

6.7

6.8

6.9

6.10

6.11

6.12

7.1

7.2

7.3

7.4

7.5

7.6

7.7

7.8

7.9

7.10

8.1

8.2

8.3

8.4

8.5

8.6

8.7

8.8

x

Trade routes and commodities in West Africa 140

Rainforest in the late nineteenth century 147

Plan of Begho 152

Plan of Bono Manso 154

Plan of Old Oyo 157

Casting of an Oni of Ife 158

Plan of Ife city walls 159

Shaft containing mass sacrifice, Benin City 161

Earthwork enclosures, Benin City area 163

Burial at Igbo-Ukwu 165

Plaque from Benin City 172

Archaeological sites on the East African coast 183

Archaeological sites in the Lamu Archipelago 186

Plan of Gedi 193

Plan of the centre of Gedi 194

Palace entrance at Gedi 195

Plan of Shanga 198

Plan of Takwa 199

Reconstruction of Husuni Kubwa 200

Section through deposits at Shanga 202

Stages in the evolution of Shanga 205

Antananarivo in the 1850s 208

Small Domed Mosque, Kilwa 212

Distribution of Zimbabwe and Khami style sites 225

Archaeological sites in the Zimbabwe region 230

Stonework in the Hill Ruin at Great Zimbabwe 234

Great Zimbabwe: the Maund Ruin 237

Plan of Great Zimbabwe 238

Developmental history of Great Zimbabwe 240

Zvongombe South, reconstructed layout 242

Plan of Khami 245

Commoner¡¯s hut at Great Zimbabwe 254

Spatial analysis of zimbabwe sites 255

Loango in the seventeenth century 265

Archaeological sites in Central Africa 266

Archaeological sites in the Upemba Depression 272

Burial at Kamilamba 274

Archaeological sites in the Interlacustrine Region 276

Plan of Bigo 278

Plan of Ntusi 281

Traces of circular houses at Ntusi 282

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