Unisa Study Notes
Human Development Across The Life Span - Chapter 4 SummaryWhat does human development entail and why is it important?Describe the characteristics of human developmentDiscuss different domains of human developmentDiscuss the determinant of human behaviourExplain significance of critical periods in human developmentDescribe career transitions and tasksDescribe trends in people’s career development.Development is a sequence of age – related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death.Human beings go through different types of changes:Physical developmentMotor skills, bone structure, weight, etc.Cognitive developmentThought patterns and skills, problem solving, etc.Social developmentMotional changes, personality, etc.Why is the study of human development necessary?Development results in a repertoire of competenciesDevelopment studies enable people to determine schedule and norms showing what to expect of peopleDevelopment provides continuity and identity in people’s way of behaviourStudy of development provides a description of change and continuity in behaviourDevelopment psychology emphasises the importance of development? on child and adulthoodNew knowledge of human development forces scientists and practitioners to rethink ideas about human development in general.The general nature of human development -:TransitionsProgression through stages of developmentAgeingChronological increase in years & biological physical changesGrowthIncrease in physical and biological structure & improvement in mental and psychosocial competenciesMaturityIntegration of physical, cognitive, social, psychological (independence)Readiness?Level of sufficient maturity to benefit from learning or experiences.Characteristics of human development -:Hierarchical evolution of phasesReady for certain types of experiences – critical periodsPre-set by maturation of biological systemsDifferentiation from general to particularCortex discrimination & maturationIncreased complexityIntegrates – e.g. need for complexity, challengePredictabilityCriteria for normality whereby individuals can be assessed.Domains of?human development -:Physical or biological domainEntails biological, motor and physical attributesCognitive developmentProgressive development of thought processes, mental abilities and capabilities.Cognitive development: Jean Piaget’s principle of self-regulationHow does an organism adapts to its environment? ?Behaviour is controlled through mental organisations called schemesIndividuals use schema to represent the world and designate actionTwo processes are used by the individual in his/her attempt to adaptAssimilationNew information and experiences are interpreted and integrated with the existing mental processAccommodationCognitive?processes are changed to handle new experiences.Piaget’s stages of cognitive development -:Sensory (birth - 2 years) Gains knowledge through looking at, touching, holding and manipulating objectsDevelops co-ordinations, and sensory motor perception becomes more complexCan distinguish between self and environmentHas little ability to distinguish symbols.Pre-operations (ages 2-7 years)Learns through actions Increasing able to remember and anticipateInternalises the concrete world through language and visual imageConcrete operations (ages 7-11 years)Child makes more progress in concrete thinkingAchieve insight into the views of othersCan handle problems more logically. For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with numbers, not just with objects.Formal operations (from 11 years onwards)Makes use of abstract thoughtUses logical thinking and uses systematic and diverse approaches to problem-solvingCognitive development: Schaie’s theory -:Acquisition stage: childhood & adolescence Person acquires progressively more complex ways of thinkingAchieving stage: young adulthoodInvolves problem-solving and decision making, through which the individual uses intellectual competencies to prepare careerResponsibility stage: adulthoodIndividual needs to be an independent thinkerExecutive stage: middle adulthoodEnables individuals through an increase knowledge to serve in responsible positionsReintegrative stage: late adulthoodIndividual must use accumulated repertoire of intellectual skills to assess life and give meaning to what is in the pastDomains of human development -:Psychosocial developmentProgressive development of psychological and social behaviour –? socialisation in humansCareer related task developmentContribute to career choice at certain stages.Determinants of human development -:Heredity or genetic determination (etiology, causes)Many human similarities and unique behaviour are influences by unborn or genetic behaviourEnvironment and learningEnvironmentally acquired behaviour are ingrained as a result of social and cultural learningInteraction between person & environmentMicrosystem – the person in their living environmentMesosystem – interactions between elements of the microsystemExosystem – outside the individual’s immediate contactsMacrosystems – focuses on specific cultural and societal values.Critical periods in development -:Critical periods – A certain point in time when particular factors will or have positive or negative influenceSensitive to particular type of stimulationLimited duration and lasting effectEffect noticeable in adulthoodMay be neutralised by subsequent positive experiencesOptimum periodsMaturation and learning responsible for successful developmentCritical periods: The first five or six yearsVygotsky’s concept of social learningChildren develop their ways of thinking and understanding primarily through interaction with othersBowlby and Ainsworth’s attachment behavioursAttachment is a special emotional relationship that involves an exchange of comfort, care, and pleasure.The propensity to make strong emotional bonds to particular individuals is a basic component of human natureSecure and insecure attachment behavioursInsecure attachmentAmbivalent, avoidant and disorganised attachmentsSecure attachmentMost probably lead to well-adjusted adults.Freud’s psychosexual stages -:Oral (1st year) – mouth areasAnal (Age 1 to 1.5) – excretion areasPhallic (age 3 to 5) – genitalsLatent (5 to 12) – non-sexual, relationshipsGenital (from 12 to 18) – genitals, partner sexualityErikson’s life-span developmental theory -:Unique development task confronts individuals with crisis that must be resolvedPositive resolution builds foundation for healthy development.Erikson’s life-span developmental theory Refer to textbookCareer transition and tasks - Progressive development and learning of work competencies and attitudes as part of general developmentCareer maturity - Progressive maturity and growth in physical, cognitive and psychosocial domainsCareer self-efficacy - An individual’s belief in their own capabilities Developmental tasks - Tasks which arise at certain period in an individual’s life, successful achievement of which lead to satisfaction with later tasksAdult career transition stages -:Early Life – Occupational choice and preparationYoung Adult – Entry into and establishment in the workplaceMiddle Adulthood –? Consolidation, maintenance and change?Late Adulthood – Disengagement.Learning – Chapter 5 SummaryWhat is learning and why is it important?Define the learning processDescribe principles of classical and instrumental learningDiscuss social and cognitive learning theoryDiscuss the dynamics of an adult learnerDiscuss the training process in the work contextDefine experiential learning and explain various experiential learning techniquesDiscuss the learning organisation and its distinguishing characteristicsAssess whether transfer or learning has taken place.What is learning?LearningPotential change in behaviourPerformanceTranslation of this potential into behaviourLatent learningA form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response – it occurs without obvious reinforcementOccurs when knowledge has been acquired at a certain date, but is not demonstrated until a later date when knowledge is required.The learning process: Classical conditioningTerms associated with classical conditioningUnconditioned stimulus?Unconditioned reflex/responseConditioned stimulusConditioned reflex/responseExtinctionSpontaneous recoveryGeneralisationDiscriminationHigher order conditioning.The learning process: Operant conditioningOperant or instrumental conditioningAssociative learning where there is contingency between a behaviour and the presentation of a “reinforcer", outcome or unconditioned stimulusTerms associated with operant conditioning -:ReinforcementPrimary and secondary? ?Positive and negativePunishment ?Positive and negativeDiscrimination learning.The learning process: Reinforcement schedules -:Thorndike’s law of effectBehaviours are selected by their consequences -:Behaviours with good consequences are repeatedBehaviours with bad consequences are not repeated.Schedules of reinforcementAccepted rules used to present/remove reinforcers/punishment following a stipulated operant behaviourContinuous reinforcement schedulePartial reinforcement schedule (or intermittent reinforcement schedule)Partial or intermittent schedulesFixed (Ratio and Interval)Variable (Ratio and Interval).The learning process: The effectiveness of punishment -:Punishment is a stimulus that diminishes the probability or strength preceding itThe more intense the punishment the more effective it isLight punishment may suppress undesired behaviour but it may later returnAdministration of punishment should be consistentPunishment should be placed closer to the undesired behaviour for it to be successfulThe deeper the pattern of behaviour the less effective the punishment would bePeople can adapt to punishmentPunishment for undesired behaviour may be effective if followed by positive reinforcement.Cognitive learning -:Tolman’s modelObjects perceived as means towards goalsCognitive mapInternal perceptual representation of external features?Social learningReciprocal determinismPerson, environment & person’s behaviourObservational learning (vicarious learning)Attention processesRetentional processesBehavioural reproduction processesMotivational processes.Learning principles: Adult learner -:Self-directed learningHave developed self-conceptA need to initiate own learningMay revert back to “school” dependencyCognitive mapDifferent learning strategies requiredExperience can be used as learning sourceMay have negative results to learning-rigidBecomes a source of identityMotivation to learnMust experience a “need to learn”CAL model – Personal and Situational characteristics.Learning in the work context: Training process -:Needs analysis -:Organisational analysisTask analysis ?Person analysisSpecifying learning outcomes -:Intellectual skillsVerbal information? ?Cognitive strategiesMotor skillsAttitudes.Learning principles -:Trainee readiness -:Practice and recitationDistribution of practiceKnowledge of resultsWhole versus part learningTransfer of learning -:GeneralisationPositive transferMaterial learnt improves performanceNegative transferMaterial learnt impedes performance.Training techniques -:Non-experiential techniques (cognitive)The lectureAudio-visual aidsProgrammed instruction (PI) and computer-assisted instruction (CAI)Experiential techniques (behaviouralThe evaluation phase -:Criteria for evaluation -:Reaction of participantsLearningBehaviour changesResultsForms of evaluation -:SummativeIncorporated mediating factorsFormativeMeasures outcome of programme???????? Evaluation of design -:Internal validityExternal validityThe learning organisation -:???????? Systems approachOutput influences by interaction between individuals and the organisational processResultant feedback influences new input and output??Learning organisation -:Fosters individual abilities to be ready and adapt to changes in the organisation’s expectationsContinually create learning opportunities fostered byPersonal masteryMental modelsShared visionTeam learningSystems thinking.?Perception - Chapter 6 SummaryWhat is perception and why is it important?Name and discuss aspects of psychophysicsDescribe the subject of visual perceptionDiscuss factors influencing perceptionDefine and explain the concept of extrasensory perception?Discuss the dynamics of interpersonal perception.What is perception?A process by which individuals organise and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environmentWhy is perception important?Because people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itselfThe world that is perceived is the world that is behaviourally important.Psychophysics -:Based on physiological processesThreshold or limenDividing point between energy levels that have variable effectAbsolute thresholdsMinimum amount of detectable stimulationJust noticeable difference (JND)Between stimuli for detection (Work Design)Weber’s lawSignal detection theorySubliminal perceptionSensory adaptation.Visual perception -:The focus of attentionSelective attentionStroop effect (see next slide)Shape perceptionOrganisationFigure and groundLaw of Pragnanz?Gestalt lawsProximity, similarity, continuity, closure, simplicity, symmetry, common fatePattern recognition?Bottom-up and Top-down processes.Depth and distance perception -:Monocular cuesSize cues, linear perspective, texture gradient, atmospheric perspective, overlap, height cues, etc.Binocular cuesConvergence and retinal disparityPerception of movementApparent and induced movementPerceptual constancySize, shape, lightness and colour constancyIllusionsOptical illusions (physical & cognitive processes) (see next slide)Extrasensory perception (ESP)Interpersonal perception -:Impression formationSchemaThe primacy effectThe negativity biasEffect of physical appearanceStereotypesThe halo effectContrast effectProjectionThe in-group and out-group dynamicSelectivity in person perception.Attribution errors and biasesThe fundamental attribution errorThe actor-observer effectBlaming the victimThe self-serving and group-serving biasThe development of prejudiceDirect inter-group conflictFunctional and dysfunctional conflictAuthoritarian personalitySocio-cultural learning approachCognitive processesReducing prejudice and discriminationEducation, inter-group contact, legislation...Cognition – Chapter 7 SummaryWhat is cognition and why is it important?Name and discuss forms of productive thinkingDescribe the importance of language in cognitionDiscuss the format and promotion of memoryDiscuss the significance of intelligence in learning.Forms of productive thinkingA concept is an abstract idea or mental category by which similarities are grouped.Concept formation -:PrototypeTypical features of a phenomenonSchemaMental structure used to organise informationProblem-solving entails finding effective solutions to problems.Problem-solvingTrial-and-errorRandom, time consuming searchesAlgorithmAlways produces solutionsHeuristicsSelection searched using only solutions most likely to yield results.Problem solving strategies using heuristics -:AnalogyUse previous solution to solve new problemChanging representation -:Altering representation can clarify the essential as of a problemBarriers to problem solving -:Mental setWhen one has learnt to do things in a certain wayFunctional fixednessFocussing on the main meaning of an object, not seeing that it can be used effectively in other ways.How heuristics influence decision making -:Anchoring and adjustmentMaking estimates and making adjustmentAvailabilityWhen an estimate is made of how easy something thought ofRepresentationWhen one event resembles another event.Heuristics can lead to errors in reasoning -:Over-reliance on the anchorRelying heavily on an anchor with limited adjustmentOverestimating the improbableTo exaggerate the possibility of an event that will not occurConfirmation biasSeeking support from those who already share one’s viewFramingApproaching a problem by putting it in a particular contextEscalating of commitmentHolding on to a bad decision even when counter evident increasesVolition (the use of will power) can be used to control escalation of commitmentCreativity -:the ability to produce work that is novel (original and unexpected) and appropriate (useful and adaptive to task constraints)Convergent thinking -:Applies to existing knowledge and rule of logic to narrow the range of potential solutions to focus on a single answerDivergent thinking -:Move outwards from conventional knowledge into unexplored paths and unconventional solutions.Stages of the creative process -:PreparationBecome aware of problem, start gathering data to solve problemIncubationSet problem aside following lack of successIllumination or inspirationSolution with sudden burst (unexpectedly)Verification or elaborationConduct research to verify findings.Fostering creativityCreativity in individuals may be facilitated by -:Establishing the purpose and intention to be creativeBuilding creativity enhancing skillsDeveloping metacognitive skillsRewarding curiosity and explorationEncouraging risk-takingProviding opportunities for choice and discovery.Factors that influence meaningful conversation -:QuantityAmount of information requiredQualityThe truth of the statementMannerClarity and avoidance of ambiguous, obscure statementsRelationRelevance attached to a particular word.Stages of memoryMemory involves retaining information that is no longer present – functioning like a time-machine by going back to events in early childhood.Sensory memory - Temporary retains information from sensesShort term memory -:EncodingChuckingLong term memory -:DeclarationEpisodicSemanticImplicit.Promoting memory -:Elaborative rehearsalsMaking connection between object be remembered and something one already easily remembersMnemonicsOrganising information into specific visual field to aid recallingImproving memory -:OrganisingBreaking information into smaller amount for memorisingMoodAssociating memory promoted with moodHumour and exaggerationAttempting to make information stand out.ForgettingInterference effects -:Proactive and retroactive interferenceMotivated forgetting -:Use of repression to consciously forgetDistortion -:Changed perception over timeFalse memories -:Error in remembering schema groupingsMood -:Incongruent moods can affect memory.The intelligence quotient (IQ)Mental Retardation: Less Than 70Extreme = < 25Serious = 25 – 39Moderate = 40 – 54Slight = 55 – 69Genius: 130 ─ 140 PlusVery high intelligence and creativityBetter academic studiesBetter developed physicallyPositions of leadership and social adaptabilityPersonalityIQ tests"Normal" Range: ± 90 ─ ± 110 ─ 130Functional definitions of intelligence -:The structural approachGeneral intelligence (g)Specialised intelligence (s)Spearman and ThurstoneThe dynamic approach -:Learning potentialEmotional intelligenceContext intelligenceMultiple intelligence.Motivation – Chapter 8 SummaryDuring this Chapter these are the outcomes we will be focusing on:What is motivation and why is it important?Name and discuss the essence of external activatorsName and discuss the significance of internal activatorsDefine emotionsDistinguish between emotions and performanceDefine and discuss emotional intelligence.External activators: ReinforcementWhat is Motivation? Motivation is a process that involves the purposiveness of behaviour.Incentives refers to strength of reinforcementPull theories discuss incentivesPositive motivationEmphasises rewarding correct behaviourNegative motivationEmphasises punishment of inappropriate behaviourSocial loafingLowered performance of individuals working in groups compared to that of individuals working on their ownSetting goals is more effective in addressing social loafing than administering punishment.External activators: Job content and job designJob contents -:Involves structure or design of workSignificance illustrated in Herzberg’s motivation theoryJob Design -:Job rotation - shifting employees periodically from one job to anotherJob enlargement - Providing a variety of tasks within the jobJob enrichment - Adding more complex tasks, expanding job content verticallyJob-characteristics model - Skills variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy feedbackHerzberg’s motivation theory -:Hygiene Factors -:Quality of SupervisionRate of payCompany policiesWorking conditionsRelations with othersJob securityMotivation Factors -:Career AdvancementPersonal GrowthRecognitionResponsibilityAchievementIntrinsic motivation: Self-actualisationShostrom defines it as a process of becoming more sort after than the end and thus never completeRogers distinguished between Self actualisation vs tendency toward actualisationActualisation - An optimum state of functioning achieved through optimum growthSelf-actualisation - Striving towards autonomy by actualising a part of selfFrankl – human’s primary striving as the will-to-meaningWill to meaning is personal and unique for every individual and is facilitated by -:Creative valuesExperiential valuesAttitudinal valuesMaslow’s hierarchy of needs -:5. Self-actualisation4. Esteem3. Love2. Safety1. PhysiologicalRemember we start with 1 then move up to 5Intrinsic motivation: Functional autonomy (Allport)Propriate functional autonomy -:Evolves from the individual’s value systemPerseverative functional autonomyIndicates behaviour which is circular and repetitiveIntrinsic motivation: Expectancy (Vroom, Lawler & Porter)Valence - Attractiveness an individual places on the outcomePositive valence - Individual prefers to attain outcomeNegative valence - Person prefers not to attain outcomeZero valence - Individual indifferent to outcomeInstrumentality - Valence of performanceEffort - Effort individual puts into performanceAbility - Ability to do the jobRole perception - individuals understanding of the roleLawler and Porter’s model of expectancy theoryRefer to text book and study diagramIntrinsic motivation: Achievement and self-efficacyAchievement (McClelland) - Need to achieve derives from growing expectation in childhoodAchievement needs manifest in different forms in different cultural orientationsSelf-efficacy (Bandura) - Sense of having more or less control over events affecting one’s lifeSelf-efficacy beliefs are acquired by:Reflecting on own past behaviourVicarious experiencesVerbal persuasionEmotional cues.Intrinsic motivation: Attribution (Bandura)Attribution involves trying to understand, by localising the causes, why event’s and one’s behaviour have certain outcomes.Locus of causality -:Internal or and external locus of controlStabilityConsistency of causes over timeInternal locus of control -:Ability (stable factor)Effort (unstable factor)External locus of control -:Task difficulty (stable factor)Luck (unstable factor).Illustrating equity theory schematicallyEquity – Perception of fairness Refer to textbook for illustrationGoal setting -:Goal-setting involves the individual’s personal orientations towards interpreting and acting in achievement situations. Goals are central to direction and perseveration of individual motivationHow Goal Setting influences performance -:Self-chosen personal goals lead to higher performanceSelf-regulating mechanisms influence GSHigh self-efficacy perception leads to high personal goalsRelative difficulty of goal influences performanceGoal Setting is effective in motivation if feedback is providedModerating factor between GS and performance is goal-commitment.The emotional processRefer to textbook for diagramEmotions and performanceActivation involves psycho-physiological tension -:Low tension facilitates low performanceModerate tension facilitates optimum performanceHigh tension facilitates low performance.Together with look at diagram in textbook.Emotional intelligence -:Knowing one’s own emotionsManaging one’s own emotions Motivating oneself towards mastery goal settingRecognising emotions in others by being empathic?Attitudes and Values – Chapter 9 SummaryWhat are attitudes and values and why are they important?Describe the nature and function of attitudes and valuesDescribe how attitudes and values are formed, maintained and changedExplain how attitudes and values exist as part of personalityDescribe cultural values in an organisation contextDiscuss values and meaning of work.Nature of attitudes -:Components of attitudes -: CognitiveEmotionalbehaviouralTypes of attitudes -:Peripheral attitudesTemporarySubject to changeSituationalCentral attitudesLonger lastingRelatively stableResist changePart of a personality (related to self-concept)Attitudes -:Functions of attitudes -:Determine the meaning of facts and situationsSubstantiated by organisation of factsSelect facts, defend and express the selfProvide individual with position in social environmentTransmit social beliefsJustify and explain individual’s orientation in the social worldAttitude change -:Individual’s attitudes can changeHow??Perception of their own behaviourWhen??When faced unjustified behaviour.Cognitive dissonance -:Imbalance between two or more of the individual’s cognitions:Origin:?Thoughts & beliefsEffect:??? Causes tensionResult: ?Utilise consonance enhancing informationSelf - Perception Theory Attitude change through perception own behaviourFestinger’s four methods for handling dissonance -:Seeking new information to support one’s beliefs? & avoiding that which increases dissonanceMisinterpreting information which may increase dissonanceFinding social support for contradictory factorsPlaying down significance of factors that contribute to dissonance.?Individual as recipient -:The credibility of the communicatorSleeper effect – delay reaction to a less credible communicatorCharacteristics of communication -:Organisation of communication is related to changing attitudesEmotional content of communication related to changing attitudesOne/two sided and fear/guilt arousing messages/discourseThe situationGroup agreement/group polarisation.Work-Related AttitudesJob satisfactionPositive attitude toward the work situationFactors conducive to job satisfaction -:Mentally challenging workEquitable rewardsConducive working conditions and environmentWorking with co-workers and bosses who are friendly/supportivePhases of studying job satisfaction -:Individual’s experience and workplace conditionsEmployee’s evaluation of their experience and how the experience is remembered over timeOrganisational commitment -:Identification with the employing organisation?????????????????? Organisation's commitment to individualValues as Part of PersonalityTheoretical - Person values knowledgeEconomic - Person driven by utility motiveSocial - Person motivated by giving and receiving lovePower - Person driven by need to be in powerReligious - Person needs to have spiritual foundationAesthetic - Person gives form to inner being through aesthetic experienceValues and meaning of workValues and the meaning of work refers to the value or outcome relative to outcomes of other life rolesAssimilation -:Minority and Dominant CultureMulticulturalismHeritage Cultures -:Active – Policy support cultural heritageLaissez-faire – Culture diversity neither protected not suppressedCollective – Heritage culture treated as equalIndividual – Individual treated as carrier of a particular culturePro-social Behaviours, Aggression and Conflict - Chapter 10 SummaryWhat are affiliation and attraction and why are they important?Describe the social nature of human behaviourDiscuss different explanations for interpersonal attraction and affiliation Describe personal and situational determinants of attraction and affiliation Discuss the relationship between affiliation and well-beingDifferentiate and describe the various types of aggression and conflictDiscuss various causes of aggression and conflictDiscuss the various strategies for managing aggression and conflictSocial Nature of Human Behaviour -:The scientific study of the social context of human behaviour based on particular assumptions and concepts from social theoriesInterpersonal attraction and affiliation refer to people’s attitudes and feeling about liking and attraction for other individuals Interpersonal relationships are based on people’s fundamental social needs and interest to belong, to bond and to affiliate with othersInterpersonal attraction and affiliation are related and complementary.Descriptions of Attraction and Affiliation -:Attraction Feeling of likingThe mutual positive, physical, social and psychological attributes and behaviour of peopleAffiliation Denotes social need, motive or desire to be with others, to establish and maintain social contract and relationships.Explanations for and influencing factors in attachment behavioursSimilarity and dissimilarity Similarity through social exchange and comparisonTypes of similarities and dissimilaritySimilarity in personality and personal factorsBiological and psychosocial dependencePeople rely on each other for their physical and psychological needsSocial learning and stimulation Association of behaviours with physical and social rewards Human beings need a particular level of stimulationSituational factorsProximity, exposure and familiarity and external events.Aggression -: Aggression - any behaviour that is likely to hurt someone physically or verbally; or cause damageCriteria for defining aggression -:Actual/intended physical or verbal acts of harm Actual or intended harm or destruction to property and belongings of othersTypes of aggression -:Hostile aggression - Use of harmful behaviour with the goal of injuring another person Instrumental aggression - Use of harmful behaviour for achieving another goalSanctioned aggression - Aggression that is within the bounds of social normsAnti-social aggression - Causing harm to other or property with malicious intent.Workplace aggression - efforts by individuals to harm other people/ belongingsWorkplace aggression consists of -:Expression of hostility ObstructionismOvert aggressionWorkplace violence -:Covert (e.g. vandalism)Overt (e.g. intimidation)Dangerous (e.g. assault)BullyingFour Phases of Escalating Conflict -:HarassmentAggressive acts and unwanted behaviours linked to diversity characteristics, such as gender, ethnicity or race.Causes of workplace aggression -:Personal determinantsAn inherent part of human natureLearned behaviourPersonality and personal factorsSocial, environmental and situational determinantsPerception of unfair treatmentPoor management of diversityNorms and norms violationsWorkplace changes and discontinuity Physical working conditionsAggression as a response to frustration The frustration-aggression hypothesisAggression is an automatic or direct response to frustration.Conflict -:What is conflict? Closely related to frustration, anger, hostility, aggression and violenceIt is a matter of perception People’s definitions need not matchPossible sources of conflict -:Lack of common objective Different methods of pursuing the objectiveInformation differencesBlocked communication Semantic (language) differencesDivergent value structureDifferences in attitudes.Types of conflict -:Role conflict Felt conflict Destructive conflict (functional conflict)Constructive conflict (functional conflict)Strategic conflict (pseudo conflict or manipulated conflict)Frictional conflict.Strategies for managing workplace, aggression, violence and conflict -:Restructure the organisation Establish policies and procedure to encourage open communication Bring in outsidersAppoint a devil’s advocateEncourage participationChoose managers according to the situationDealing with interpersonal aggression and conflict –:Conflict should be defined as a challenge and a mutual problem to be solved.Group Behaviour and Other Social Processes in Organisations – Chapter 11 SummaryWhat are the dynamics involved in group behaviour and why are they important?Describe groups as part of the organisation systemName and describe different types of groupsElaborate on the development and structure of groupsDescribe the various process of group processDiscuss various group decision-making techniquesDiscuss the concept of group facilitationDiscuss the organisation as social systemsDescribe organisational socialisation and social changeThe Field of Study -:Group psychology - Influence of groups in the individualGroup processes - Interaction and processes in groupsGroup dynamics -Focus on psychodynamics of groups and unconscious elements influencing the micro, meso and macro systemsStudies organisation as a complex group consisting of many interrelated and interdependent sub-groupsRegards groups as “building blocks” of an organisationPlaces much emphasis on positive aspects in organisational group functioning and how to develop positive and organisationsDefinition of Groups -:Two or more persons unite/interact by common interestMembers may be together or separateSchein – a group is any number of people who are in interaction with one anotherRobbins – a group is two or more individuals interacting and interdependent in an effort to achieve a goalFurnham – a group as persons who communicate regularly, share goals and interact with each other over timeGeneral defining characteristics of groups -:Social interaction which aids communicationAgreed common goals and targets to achieve objectivesGroup structure to enable interaction over timeGroup member have sense of being part of a groupTypes of groups -:Formal groups - Defined by organisational structuresInformal groups - Alliances which are neither formally structured or organisationally definedCommand groups - Defined by organisational structures Comprises of subordinates and managers to whom they directly reportTask groups - Defined by organisational structuresPeople working together to complete a task or job.Interest groups - People interacting to attain a specific objectiveFriendship groups - Individual members with one or more common characteristicsSelf-managed groups or team - Highly skilled and trained employees who function independently with minimum supervisionCoaching groups - Meets regularly with a consultant in order to learn about and to develop skills.The Five-Stage Model of Group DevelopmentForming Characterised by uncertainty about the groups purpose, structure and leadershipGroup members are aware of a vacuum and dependencyStormingIntra-conflict issues of power and/or authority are raisedNormingCommon set of expectations developGroup members into expectation and rules?PerformingWhole group energy can be focus on project goalMembers interact to solve problems and make decisionsAdjourningWhen the task is complete temporary groups detachAttention is focused on wrapping up activitiesStrong sense of group identity developThe Punctuated-Equilibrium ModelGroups do not develop in a universal sequence of stagesThe 1st phase -:First meeting set directionThere is a period of inertiaEach group experience transition at the same time of its lifeBetween its first meeting and its official deadlineMidpoint highlights members’ awareness of limited timeTransition ends 1st? phase and sets revised direction for 2nd phase1st phase characterised by a concentration of burst of changesThe 2nd phase -:Represents a new equilibrium or inertiaGroup executes plan created during transition periodFinal meeting characterised by burst of activities to finish group’s work.Group structure -:Formal leadershipAppointed-present in almost all formal work groupsRoles -:Set of expected behavioural patterns attributed to someone occupying a given positionRole identity, perception, expectation and conflictNorms -:Performance related normsAppearance related normsInformal social arrangementsAllocation of resourcesNorms develop through -:Explicit statement made by a group memberCritical events in the group’s historyPrimacy -:Carry-over-behaviours from past situations. ................
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